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Summary: In this article I learned about different disasters that happened in space. One of them was when an astronauts helmet got filled with liquid and the space walk he was on had to shut down. Another one was when an Apollo mission got struck by lightning and landed in the water. The last example I will give is when one of the spacecrafts had a problem with the solar panels and it meant that the spacecraft wasn't responding to the controls. When the spacecraft was entering into earth's atmosphere the parachute didn't unfold the right way and the spacecraft crashed. Main Idea: If something in space doesn't go eight, or if there are any problems or minor dysfunctions, then you have to check it out and fix it or you might have many problems coming back to earth. This connects to my book because in the book there is a lot about spacecraft failure and how some of the missions NASA sent out didn't work and many people had casualties or died.

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In this article, it tells us about the facts and missions and the history of the international space station. The Main idea of this article is that they are trying to talk about the space station that we did not know. It also tells us about the history like how the ISS was ready on May 9th. In the article "Facts, Missions, and History of the international space station" the author examines the facts about the space station, the missions that the international space station was on and the history of the space station.

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International Space Station (ISS), space station assembled in low Earth orbit largely by the United States and Russia, with assistance and components from a multinational consortium.

The project, which began as an American effort, was long delayed by funding and technical problems. Originally called Freedom in the 1980s by U.S. Pres. Ronald Reagan, who authorized the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) to build it within 10 years, it was redesigned in the 1990s to reduce costs and expand international involvement, at which time it was renamed. In 1993 the United States and Russia agreed to merge their separate space station plans into a single facility integrating their respective modules and incorporating contributions from the European Space Agency (ESA) and Japan.

Assembly of the International Space Station (ISS) began with the launches of the Russian control module Zarya on November 20, 1998, and the U.S.-built Unity connecting node the following month, which were linked in orbit by U.S. space shuttle astronauts. In mid-2000 the Russian-built module Zvezda, a habitat and control centre, was added, and on November 2 of that year the ISS received its first resident crew, comprising Russian cosmonauts Sergey Krikalyov and Yuri Gidzenko and American astronaut William Shepherd, who flew up in a Soyuz spacecraft. The ISS has been continuously occupied since then. A NASA microgravity laboratory called Destiny and other elements were subsequently joined to the station, with the overall plan calling for the assembly, over a period of several years, of a complex of laboratories and habitats crossed by a long truss supporting four units that held large solar-power arrays and thermal radiators. Aside from the United States and Russia, station construction involved Canada, Japan, Brazil, and 11 ESA members. Russian modules were carried into space by Russian expendable launch vehicles, after which they automatically rendezvoused with and docked to the ISS. Other elements were ferried up by space shuttle and assembled in orbit during space walks. Both shuttles and Russian Soyuz spacecraft transported people to and from the station, and a Soyuz remained docked to the ISS at all times as a "lifeboat."

Much of the early research work by ISS astronauts was to focus on long-term life-sciences and material-sciences investigations in the weightless environment. After the breakup of the space shuttle orbiter Columbia in February 2003, the shuttle fleet was grounded, which effectively halted expansion of the station. Meanwhile, the crew was reduced from three to two, and their role was restricted mainly to caretaker status, limiting the amount of science that could be done. Crews flew up to and returned from the ISS in Soyuz spacecraft, and the station was serviced by automated Progress ferries.

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After the shuttle resumed regular flights in 2006, the ISS crew size was increased to three. Construction resumed in September of that year, with the addition of a pair of solar wings and a thermal radiator. The European-built American node, Harmony, was placed on the end of Destiny in October 2007. Harmony has a docking port for the space shuttle and connecting ports for a European laboratory, Columbus, and a Japanese laboratory, Kibo. In February 2008 Columbus was mounted on Harmony's starboard side. Columbus was Europe's first long-duration crewed space laboratory and contained experiments in such fields as biology and fluid dynamics. In the following month an improved variant of the Ariane V rocket launched Europe's heaviest spacecraft, the Jules Verne Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV), which carried 7,700 kg (17,000 pounds) of supplies to the ISS. Also in March 2008 shuttle astronauts brought the Canadian robot, Dextre, which was so sophisticated that it would be able to perform tasks that previously would have required astronauts to make space walks, and the first part of Kibo. In June 2008 the main part of Kibo was installed.

The ISS became fully operational in May 2009 when it began hosting a six-person crew; this required two Soyuz lifeboats to be docked with the ISS at all times. The six-person crew has typically consisted of three Russians, two Americans, and one astronaut from either Japan, Canada, or the ESA. An external platform was attached to the far end of Kibo in July 2009, and a Russian docking port and airlock, Poisk, was attached to the Zvezda module in November 2009. A third node, Tranquility, was installed in 2010, and mounted on this was a cupola, whose robotic workstation and many windows enabled astronauts to supervise external operations.

After completion of the ISS, the shuttle was retired from service in 2011. Thereafter the ISS was serviced by Russia's Progress, Europe's ATV, Japan's H-II Transfer Vehicle, and two commercial cargo vehicles, SpaceX's Dragon and Orbital Sciences Corporation's Cygnus. Two new American crew capsules, SpaceX's Crew Dragon and the Boeing Company 's CST-100 Starliner, are scheduled to have their first crewed test flights in 2019. Until then, astronauts use Soyuz spacecraft to reach the ISS.

More than 200 astronauts from 18 different countries have visited the ISS. Astronauts typically stay on the ISS for about six months. About every three months, a Soyuz returns to Earth with three astronauts and a Soyuz launches with three astronauts to replace them. The return of a Soyuz to Earth marks the end of an ISS Expedition, and the command of the ISS is transferred to another astronaut.

However, a few astronauts have spent much longer times on the ISS. On a special mission called "A Year in Space," Russian cosmonaut Mikhail Korniyenko and American astronaut Scott Kelly spent 340 days in orbit from March 2015 to March 2016. Kelly's flight was the longest by an American. (Since Kelly's brother, Mark, was his identical twin, as well as a former astronaut himself, scientists were able to use Mark as a baseline for how the long spaceflight had changed Scott.) In 2017 Russia temporarily cut the number of its ISS crew from three to two, and American astronaut Peggy Whitson extended her mission so the station would have a full crew of six. Her spaceflight of 289 days was the longest by a woman. (Whitson had been to the ISS on two previous flights and in total spent nearly 666 days in space, a record for an American and a woman.)

The space agencies that are partners in the ISS have not definitively decided when the program will end, but in 2014 the Barack Obama administration indicated that the program would receive U.S. support until "at least 2024." Russia has expressed interest in reusing its ISS modules in a new space station.

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International Space Station | Facts, Missions, & History

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International Space Station (ISS), space station assembled in low Earth orbit from 1998 to 2009 largely by the United States and Russia, with assistance and components from a multinational consortium. Learn more about the International Space Station in this article.

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In this article the author presents Leland's 2 rescue dogs and explains why they were so important to him
Leland had 2 rescue dogs. their names were Jake and Scout. they got famous because, at a shoot in NASA (pumpkin suit shoot) Leland Melvin was told that he could bring his family to do the shoot with him. They did not specify 2 legged or 4 legged. Although dogs are not allowed at NASA bases but family is family. first Leland got Jake and then Scout.
his dogs really helped him through his journey and helped him get over his many obstacles in his life. they were also important because they were his service dogs aswell.

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This post contains affiliate links. Read more here.

When NASA astronaut Leland Melvin was assigned to a space shuttle mission in 2008, he was told he could bring his family for the official photo shoot wearing the famous orange "pumpkin suit." They didn't say two-legged or four-legged, and although dogs are not allowed on base at NASA, family is family.

So, Melvin brought his rescue dogs Jake and Scout along with a neighbor to hold them and keep them quiet in the back of his van. "I got to the guard shack, flashed my badge, and I gunned the van and drove to the photo lab," Melvin said. He then went up the back stairs where the photographer was waiting, went into the photo lab with 100 MilkBones to keep the dogs busy while he changed into the suit and came out. "They (the dogs) ran toward me, and I told the photographer to hold his finger on the shutter and that's how the photo was born."

After the photo shoot, Melvin had to change and the MilkBones were gone. "The dogs started barking and a security guard came in and asked if there were dogs in there," Melvin said. "We said, 'No, that's the doggy screensaver.' " After he changed he was able to quiet the dogs and get out of there.

First Came Jake

Not just a former astronaut, Melvin is a former NFL player, current engineer, educator, speaker and dog rescue advocate. He grew up with family dogs including a collie named King. "I've always loved animals, but I didn't rescue any before Jake and Scout, which was later in my life."

First came Jake, "who was being held by a family in a small closet during the day," Melvin said. It was approximately 2002 when Melvin found out about him from a former Russian teacher who said, "You need a dog. This dog is for you." Melvin was moving to D.C., and didn't think he needed a dog, but he checked out Jake and said, "I need this dog," and then adopted him. Jake became his road partner and traveler; they did everything together.

Scout Shows Up

Fast forward four years later while Melvin was in his kitchen cooking for Thanksgiving. A neighbor came by and said that Jake was sitting outside Melvin's house. "No, he's not," Melvin said. "He's in my kitchen." Melvin went outside to find a dog that looked like Jake sitting in his front yard. He had no tags, and Melvin searched for an owner but none was found. "I believe the dog scouted me out. I think someone dumped him." He named him Scout, had him treated for heartworms, and the rest was history.

After Scout joined the family, Melvin got a van and turned it into a camper. "We had incredible journeys together," he said. "And when I was in space, I called the kennel where I kept them and kind of talked to them while I was in space."

Jake and Scout died about nine months apart around 2014. Scout had lymphoma and was about 9 years old. Then Jake died at the age of 15. "We had a great life together," Melvin said.

Then Came Zorro

About four years after his dogs passed away, Melvin found himself moving into a new place where he had lots of land. His prior home didn't allow dogs, so it was a perfect time and place to bring home a new dog.

He contacted the Rhodesian Ridgeback Rescue of America and asked about puppies and was told they didn't have any. Melvin wanted to start out with a rescue puppy, and a week later he received a call. "This is your lucky day," the woman said. The rescue, which typically doesn't get puppies, took in a female who turned out to be pregnant with 14 puppies. Melvin was put at the top of the list to adopt one.

About eight months ago, Melvin flew to Boston and then went to Cape Cod to watch all the puppies playing together. He chose Zorro, flew with him to Virginia, and then drove home with him in his crate. "It was just such a powerful connection," he said.

The Little Dog That Could

From the start, Zorro fit perfectly into Melvin's world. The past 8 months have been filled with morning runs, hiking and just hanging out.

Zorro is kind of like a little engineer, which makes him a perfect companion for Melvin. While finishing up the main house, Melvin was living in the guest house, but Zorro would eat the rocks in the fireplace.

Melvin had to build a barrier to keep Zorro out, while the puppy sat and watched as Melvin built it. "He wasn't trying to get through, just looking to see what I was going to do," Melvin said. "And after I finished he looked at me like, 'Come on you know I can get through that,' and he looked at me and then ran full bolt and knocked it down and got a rock." Melvin got a good laugh. Zorro has been to training since the incident, but he still does his thing. "It's funny to see his personality. He's not obsequious; he has his own little world that he's in and lets me coexist in it."

Have Socks, Will Eat

Like many dogs, Zorro loves socks. His thing is to grab one and take it under the bed. At first, Melvin thought Zorro was just chewing but soon realized he was eating them!

While Melvin was getting ready for a previous trip, he was looking for a sock mate. He entered the kitchen and saw "this thing on the floor and I didn't know what it was," he said. It turned out, Zorro ate the sock and threw it up. Luckily, Zorro didn't get sicker than that. When he did it again, Melvin had to take him to the vet who showed him the contents of Zorro's stomach, which included nuts, acorns, some rocks and the sock.

Melvin now keeps everything out of Zorro's reach. "Now that he's older I don't think he's digesting them anymore but you just never know," he said. Instead, Zorro found another delicacy: deer poop. "Deer poop is like doggy candy to them," Melvin said, adding that with many deer in the area he walks around his yard constantly cleaning it up.

On the Road Again

Although Melvin travels a lot for various speaking engagements, he says that road trips with Zorro are in the cards, so he is converting another van into a camper for future trips.

Melvin learns something new from Zorro every day. "I learn patience," he said. "I learn how to clean up deer poop. I learn empathy. I learn love. That's the main thing: They love you unconditionally. We all need to be able to take care of more than just ourselves and this definitely teaches you how to do that if you do it the right way."

A Force for Rescue

If you follow Melvin on social media, you'll not only find him promoting S.T.E.A.M., or pitching a show for Nat Geo, you also will find him promoting rescue dogs who need homes.

"Everyone needs an opportunity to exist in this world and that includes dogs too, or cats, any animal," he said. Although he fell in love with the Rhodesian breed, he loves all breeds and wants to ensure all people and animals have a chance. "It helps humanity when we take care of the children and the dogs and people who don't have their own ability to take care of themselves."

"Once I convert the van I will take Zorro with me and take him on the stage and wait until I finish or add to the conversation with a well-placed bark," he said.

And what about that NASA photo? There are some funny outtakes, but it's that famous photo of the dogs kissing Melvin that will live forever in our hearts. Even if the dogs weren't supposed to be in the photo, we're glad they were.

Learn more about Leland Melvin and his book, "Chasing Space" on his website.

Featured photo: NASA

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This Astronaut Famously Included His Dogs in His NASA Portrait-and Now He Has a New Puppy You Have to Meet

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This post contains affiliate links. Read more here. When NASA astronaut Leland Melvin was assigned to a space shuttle mission in 2008, he was told he could bring his family for the official photo shoot wearing the famous orange "pumpkin suit."

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In the article, "Astronaut," the author shows the history of NASA missions, the different types of astronauts on a spaceship, and what they do. Emphasis had shifted away from flight experience and toward superior academic achievement. The article also tells us about the first scientist-astronaut. They joined the program in 1965 to deepen their understanding of geology, astronomy, physics, and biochemistry. There are two different types of astronauts that go in a spacecraft; Pilot astronauts and mission specialist astronauts. Pilot astronauts command and pilot shuttles and could command vessels that travel back to the moon or even Mars. Mission specialist astronauts work with the pilots to maintain spacecraft and equipment, conduct experiments, and launch satellites. This connects to the book because Leland Melvin finally got to go to space, and this will help us understand who was on the flight with him.

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Purdue College of Science, Purdue University

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An astronaut is a person trained to pilot a spacecraft, travel in a spacecraft or work in space. Over time, NASA missions evolved and so, too, did the qualifications for becoming an astronaut. By 1964, emphasis had shifted away from flight experience and toward superior academic achievement.

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This text analyses the 2 different types of space stations monolithic and modular. A monolithic space station is one vehicle that is launched from a rocket. A modular space station is 2 vehicles. The main idea in this text is that space companies use 2 types of space stations. In the text "Wikipedia: Space stations" the author examines the 2 types of space stations that space companies use.

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A space station is a spacecraft capable of supporting a human crew in orbit for an extended period of time and is therefore a type of space habitat. It lacks major propulsion or landing systems. An orbital station or an orbital space station is an artificial satellite (i.e., a type of orbital spaceflight). Stations must have docking ports to allow other spacecraft to dock to transfer crew and supplies. The purpose of maintaining an orbital outpost varies depending on the program. Space stations have most often been launched for scientific purposes, but military launches have also occurred.

Space stations have harboured so far the only long-duration direct human presence in space. After the first station, Salyut 1 (1971), and its tragic Soyuz 11 crew, space stations have been operated consecutively since Skylab (1973), having allowed a progression of long-duration direct human presence in space. Stations have been occupied by consecutive crews since 1987 with the Salyut successor Mir. Uninterrupted occupation of stations has been achieved since the operational transition from the Mir to the ISS, with its first occupation in 2000. The ISS has hosted the highest number of people in orbit at the same time, reaching 13 for the first time during the eleven day docking of STS-127 in 2009.

As of 2023, there are two fully operational space stations in low Earth orbit (LEO) - the International Space Station (ISS) and China's Tiangong Space Station (TSS). The ISS has been permanently inhabited since October 2000 with the Expedition 1 crews and the TSS began continuous inhabitation with the Shenzhou 14 crews in June 2022. These stations are used to study the effects of spaceflight on the human body, as well as to provide a location to conduct a greater number and longer length of scientific studies than is possible on other space vehicles. In 2022, the TSS finished its phase 1 construction with the addition of two lab modules: Wentian ("Quest for the Heavens"), launched on 24 July 2022, and Mengtian ("Dreaming of the Heavens") launched on 31 October 2022, joining the ISS as the most recent space station operating in orbit. In July 2022, Russia announced intentions to withdraw from the ISS after 2024 in order to build its own space station. There have been numerous decommissioned space stations, including the USSR's Salyuts, Russia's Mir, NASA's Skylab, and China's and Tiangong 2.

Starting with the ill-fated flight of the Soyuz 11 crew to Salyut 1, all recent human spaceflight duration records have been set aboard space stations. The duration record for a single spaceflight is 437.75 days, set by Valeri Polyakov aboard Mir from 1994 to 1995. As of 2021, four cosmonauts have completed single missions of over a year, all aboard Mir. The last military-use space station was the Soviet Salyut 5, which was launched under the Almaz program and orbited between 1976 and 1977.

The first mention of anything resembling a space station occurred in Edward Everett Hale's 1869 " The Brick Moon". The first to give serious, scientifically grounded consideration to space stations were Konstantin Tsiolkovsky and Hermann Oberth about two decades apart in the early 20th century. In 1929, Herman Potočnik's The Problem of Space Travel was published, the first to envision a "rotating wheel" space station to create artificial gravity. Conceptualized during the Second World War, the " sun gun" was a theoretical orbital weapon orbiting Earth at a height of 8,200 kilometres (5,100 mi). No further research was ever conducted. In 1951, Wernher von Braun published a concept for a rotating wheel space station in Collier's Weekly, referencing Potočnik's idea. However, development of a rotating station was never begun in the 20th century.

Salyut, Almaz and Skylab

In 1971, the Soviet Union developed and launched the world's first space station, Salyut 1. The Almaz and Salyut series were eventually joined by Skylab, , and Tiangong-1 and Tiangong-2. The hardware developed during the initial Soviet efforts remains in use, with evolved variants comprising a considerable part of the ISS, orbiting today. Each crew member stays aboard the station for weeks or months but rarely more than a year.

Early stations were monolithic designs that were constructed and launched in one piece, generally containing all their supplies and experimental equipment. A crew would then be launched to join the station and perform research. After the supplies had been used up, the station was abandoned.

The first space station was Salyut 1, which was launched by the Soviet Union on April 19, 1971. The early Soviet stations were all designated "Salyut", but among these, there were two distinct types: civilian and military. The military stations, Salyut 2, Salyut 3, and Salyut 5, were also known as Almaz stations.

The civilian stations Salyut 6 and Salyut 7 were built with two docking ports, which allowed a second crew to visit, bringing a new spacecraft with them; the Soyuz ferry could spend 90 days in space, at which point it needed to be replaced by a fresh Soyuz spacecraft. This allowed for a crew to man the station continually. The American Skylab (1973-1979) was also equipped with two docking ports, like second-generation stations, but the extra port was never used. The presence of a second port on the new stations allowed Progress supply vehicles to be docked to the station, meaning that fresh supplies could be brought to aid long-duration missions. This concept was expanded on Salyut 7, which "hard docked" with a TKS tug shortly before it was abandoned; this served as a proof of concept for the use of modular space stations. The later Salyuts may reasonably be seen as a transition between the two groups.

Unlike previous stations, the Soviet space station had a modular design; a core unit was launched, and additional modules, generally with a specific role, were later added to that. This method allows for greater flexibility in operation, as well as removing the need for a single immensely powerful launch vehicle. Modular stations are also designed from the outset to have their supplies provided by logistical support craft, which allows for a longer lifetime at the cost of requiring regular support launches.

The ISS is divided into two main sections, the Russian Orbital Segment (ROS) and the US Orbital Segment (USOS). The first module of the International Space Station, Zarya, was launched in 1998.

The Russian Orbital Segment's "second-generation" modules were able to launch on Proton, fly to the correct orbit, and dock themselves without human intervention. Connections are automatically made for power, data, gases, and propellants. The Russian autonomous approach allows the assembly of space stations prior to the launch of crew.

The Russian "second-generation" modules are able to be reconfigured to suit changing needs. As of 2009, RKK Energia was considering the removal and reuse of some modules of the ROS on the Orbital Piloted Assembly and Experiment Complex after the end of mission is reached for the ISS. However, in September 2017, the head of Roscosmos said that the technical feasibility of separating the station to form OPSEK had been studied, and there were now no plans to separate the Russian segment from the ISS.

In contrast, the main US modules launched on the Space Shuttle and were attached to the ISS by crews during EVAs. Connections for electrical power, data, propulsion, and cooling fluids are also made at this time, resulting in an integrated block of modules that is not designed for disassembly and must be deorbited as one mass.

The Axiom Orbital Segment is a planned commercial segment to be added to the ISS starting in the mid-2020s. Axiom Space gained NASA approval for the venture in January 2020. Up to three Axiom modules will attach to the International Space Station. The first module could be launched no later than 2024 and will be docked to the forward port of Harmony, requiring relocation of the PMA-2. Axiom Space plans to attach up to two additional modules to its first core module, and send private astronauts to inhabit the modules. The modules could one day detach into the Axiom Station in a manner similar to Russia's proposed OPSEK.

China's first space laboratory, Tiangong-1 was launched in September 2011. The uncrewed Shenzhou 8 then successfully performed an automatic rendezvous and docking in November 2011. The crewed Shenzhou 9 then docked with Tiangong-1 in June 2012, followed by the crewed Shenzhou 10 in 2013.[citation needed ]

According to the China Manned Space Engineering Office, Tiangong-1 reentered over the South Pacific Ocean, northwest of Tahiti, on 2 April 2018 at 00:15 UTC.

A second space laboratory Tiangong-2 was launched in September 2016, while a plan for Tiangong-3 was merged with Tiangong-2. The station made a controlled reentry on 19 July 2019 and burned up over the South Pacific Ocean.

The Tiangong Space Station ( Chinese: 天宫; pinyin: ; 'Heavenly Palace'), the first module of which was launched on 29 April 2021, is in low Earth orbit, 340 to 450 kilometres above the Earth at an orbital inclination of 42° to 43°. Its planned construction via 11 total launches across 2021-22 is intended to extend the core module with two laboratory modules, capable of hosting up to six crew.

Two types of space stations have been flown: monolithic and modular. Monolithic stations consist of a single vehicle and are launched by one rocket. Modular stations consist of two or more separate vehicles that are launched independently and docked on orbit. Modular stations are currently preferred due to lower costs and greater flexibility.

A space station is a complex vehicle that must incorporate many interrelated subsystems, including structure, electrical power, thermal control, attitude determination and control, orbital navigation and propulsion, automation and robotics, computing and communications, environmental and life support, crew facilities, and crew and cargo transportation. Stations must serve a useful role, which drives the capabilities required.[citation needed ]

Space stations are made from durable materials that have to weather space radiation, internal pressure, micrometeoroids, and thermal effects of the sun and cold temperatures for very long periods of time. They are typically made from stainless steel, titanium and high-quality aluminum alloys, with layers of insulation such as Kevlar as a ballistics shield protection.

The International Space Station has a single inflatable module, the Bigelow Expandable Activity Module, which was installed in April2016 after being delivered to the ISS on the SpaceX CRS-8 resupply mission. This module, based on NASA research in the 1990s, weighed 1,400 kilograms (3,100 lb) and was transported while compressed before being attached to the ISS by the space station arm and inflated to provide a 16 cubic metres (21 cu yd) volume. Whilst it was initially designed for a 2year lifetime it was still attached and being used for storage in August 2022.

The space station environment presents a variety of challenges to human habitability, including short-term problems such as the limited supplies of air, water, and food and the need to manage waste heat, and long-term ones such as weightlessness and relatively high levels of ionizing radiation. These conditions can create long-term health problems for space-station inhabitants, including muscle atrophy, bone deterioration, balance disorders, eyesight disorders, and elevated risk of cancer.

Future space habitats may attempt to address these issues, and could be designed for occupation beyond the weeks or months that current missions typically last. Possible solutions include the creation of artificial gravity by a rotating structure, the inclusion of radiation shielding, and the development of on-site agricultural ecosystems. Some designs might even accommodate large numbers of people, becoming essentially "cities in space" where people would reside semi-permanently.

Molds that develop aboard space stations can produce acids that degrade metal, glass, and rubber. Despite an expanding array of molecular approaches for detecting microorganisms, rapid and robust means of assessing the differential viability of the microbial cells, as a function of phylogenetic lineage, remain elusive.

Like uncrewed spacecraft close to the sun, space stations in the inner Solar System generally rely on solar panels to obtain power.

Space station air and water is brought up in spacecraft from Earth before being recycled. Supplemental oxygen can be supplied by a solid fuel oxygen generator.

Space stations have harboured so far the only long-duration direct human presence in space. After the first station, Salyut 1 (1971), and its tragic Soyuz 11 crew, space stations have been operated consecutively since Skylab (1973-1974), having allowed a progression of long-duration direct human presence in space. Long-duration resident crews have been joined by visiting crews since 1977 ( Salyut 6), and stations have been occupied by consecutive crews since 1987 with the Salyut successor Mir. Uninterrupted occupation of stations has been achieved since the operational transition from the Mir to the ISS, with its first occupation in 2000. The ISS has hosted the highest number of people in orbit at the same time, reaching 13 for the first time during the eleven day docking of STS-127 in 2009.

Many spacecraft are used to dock with the space stations. Soyuz flight T-15 in March to July 1986 was the first and as of 2016, only spacecraft to visit two different space stations, Mir and Salyut 7.

The International Space Station has been supported by many different spacecraft.

The Tiangong space station is supported by the following spacecraft:

The Tiangong program relied on the following spacecraft.

The Mir space station was in orbit from 1986 to 2001 and was supported and visited by the following spacecraft:

Research conducted on the Mir included the first long term space based ESA research project EUROMIR95 which lasted 179days and included 35 scientific experiments.

During the first 20 years of operation of the International Space Station, there were around 3,000 scientific experiments in the areas of biology and biotech, technology development, educational activities, human research, physical science, and Earth and space science.

Space stations provide a useful platform to test the performance, stability, and survivability of materials in space. This research follows on from previous experiments such as the Long Duration Exposure Facility, a free flying experimental platform which flew from April1984 until January1990.

On the International Space Station, guests sometimes pay $50 million to spend the week living as an astronaut. Later, space tourism is slated to expand once launch costs are lowered sufficiently. By the end of the 2020s, space hotels may become relatively common.[citation needed ]

As it currently costs on average $10,000 to $25,000 per kilogram to launch anything into orbit, space stations remain the exclusive province of government space agencies, which are primarily funded via taxation. In the case of the International Space Station, space tourism makes up another chunk of money to run it.

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A space station is a spacecraft capable of supporting a human crew in orbit for an extended period of time and is therefore a type of space habitat. It lacks major propulsion or landing systems. An orbital station or an orbital space station is an artificial satellite (i.e., a type of orbital spaceflight).

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Summary: In this article they explain how the gravity on a spacecraft is much less than on earth and can cause space sickness. It can also affect our balance. but if you spend a few days in space you can get used to the symptoms. When you come down to earth though, you can experience gravity sickness again because of the new change in gravity. When you are in space the gravity can mess with your body fluids and cause face swelling and stuffy noses. you heart can also weaken so you might get some dizziness. In space there is no need to used your legs and lower back so the mussels in that area can weaken because you aren't using them too much. Main Idea: The gravity change in space can cause many changes in your body, some that can go back to normal when coming back to earth. This relates to my book because if you go to space with medical problems you can have worse problems when going to and from space.

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JAXA Human Spaceflight Technology Directorate

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How can you stay healthy while experiencing the dream of living in space?

©JAXA/NASA

What sort of changes occur when you go to space?

Astronaut KANAI Norishige sitting in a rotating chair

Many people experience "space sickness"

On the ISS, or spacecraft that have flown into space, the force of gravity is much weaker than on the earth. As a result, many people show symptoms of "space sickness," such as headaches, nausea, and vomiting. When we are on the earth, we are strongly affected by the force of gravity. We have a small organ called the vestibular organ deep inside our ears (in the inner ear) that plays a key role in keeping our bodies balanced.
This organ converts information on gravity and acceleration experienced by the body into electrical signals and sends them to the brain. While on the earth, the brain always receives gravity information from the vestibular organs, and uses it to keep the body balanced.
In the low gravity of space, the information received from the vestibular organs changes. This is thought to confuse the brain, leading to space sickness. But this condition does not continue for very long. If you stay for a few days in space, your brain adjusts its interpretation of the vestibular information, so the space sickness goes away. There are individual differences in the severity of space sickness, and some people don't experience it at all. When you return to earth, you experience the effects of earth's gravity again, and thus "gravity sickness" sometimes occurs, with similar symptoms as space sickness.

Astronauts look like their faces are bloated. Why?

Medical challenges in space: fluid shift and changes in size

The face often swells in space

Blood and other bodily fluids are pulled by gravity into the lower body. When you go to space, gravity weakens and thus fluids are no longer pulled down, resulting in a state where fluids accumulate in the upper body. This is why the face swells in space. The mucous membranes of the nose also swell, so astronauts often have congested noses. If you stay for a while in space, the fluids in your body balance out, and facial swelling typically begins to disappear after a few weeks.
Conversely, astronauts returning to earth often experience dizziness when standing up, known as orthostatic hypotension. This occurs because gravity on the earth is stronger than in space, and it is more difficult to deliver blood from the heart to the head. In space, blood can be delivered with less force, so weakening of the heart muscles may also be a cause of dizziness when standing.

What happens to your body when you spend a long time in space?

Astronaut KANAI Norishige, training while observing the view from the Cupola ©JAXA/NASA

Bones and muscles weaken

If you stay for a long time in space, your muscles and bones will weaken, primarily in the legs and lower back. Gravity always acts on you while you're on the earth, so even if you're not really conscious of resisting gravity, you're always using the muscles of your lower body. In space, where gravity is very weak, posture can be maintained without standing on your legs, and there's no need to use your legs to move about. Muscles weaken and bone mass decreases if you stay for a long time in space.
Therefore, research is underway to verify, in space, the effects of existing drugs for preventing bone loss by astronauts. Also, to prevent weakening of muscle and bone, astronauts exercise for about two hours a day during their stay on the International Space Station (ISS).

Is radiation more intense in space?

Astronaut FURUKAWA Satoshi with Area PADLES dosimeters in Kibo ©JAXA/FSA

In outer space, with no atmosphere, radiation is more intense and has major impacts on the human body.

The surface of the earth is enveloped by the atmosphere. This atmosphere provides the oxygen we need to breathe, and also protects organisms from the UV rays and radiation that impinge on the earth. Astronauts who stay in space, where there is almost no atmosphere, are exposed to higher energy radiation than on the earth. If a person is exposed to a lot of higher energy radiation, the risk increases that they will develop diseases such as cancer.
At JAXA, we work hard to keep space radiation exposure below a specified level, and thereby prevent astronauts from developing health problems.

Does anything besides the body change while in space?

Expedition 48 crew enjoys a meal in the Zvezda (Russian) service module ©JAXA/NASA

People can experience intense stress living in cramped spaces

The ISS has considerably more living space than earlier spacecraft. Even so, the scope for activity is extremely limited compared to life on the earth. Astronauts develop stress before even realizing it when living and working together in a cramped space with other astronauts for a few months. The astronauts on the ISS come from different places, including Russia, America, Canada, Europe, and Japan, so factors such as language barriers and cultural differences may also lead to stress. To reduce the stress of astronauts, an environment where they can talk with family and friends while in space is provided, and space food is improved.

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What Happens to the Human Body in Space<span class=

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Get information on the Life in Space. Website of the Human Spaceflight Technology Directorate at the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA).

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Building the International space station

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Building the International space station

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This short paragraph tells us about how these space stations were built. It shows a diagram of the international space station. It also tells us about these astronauts' discoveries while in space and working on the space station. I think the main idea was to show the reader how many discoveries and the space station-building process. In the short paragraph thing called "Building the International Space station," the author is trying to show us how many discoveries the international space station has made throughout the years.

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In this article, "Value of NASA," the author shows the different goals in NASA, and explains how they impact us by strengthening the economy, how it improves life, and how NASA fosters American Innovation. NASA strengthens the economy because each state plays a role in space exploration, like the Artemis Program. They helped get the first woman and person of color to go to space and land on the moon. NASA improves life because they make inventions for space to find other areas on other planets, so we could live on them one day. NASA spin-offs help detect certain cancers, protect firefighters, and more. Research in space helps improve health on Earth, like understanding bone loss, developing vaccines,m and improve eye surgery. NASA satellites can help us predict weather like natural disasters. NASA fosters American Innovations, for example, they have improved flight including supersonic, air travel, electricity powered-flights, and improved air-mobility. NASA also helps small businesses research new ideas, and develop innovative aeronautics. The author shows the different goals in NASA, and explains how they impact us by strengthening the economy, how it improves life, and how NASA fosters American Innovation. This connects to the book because Leland Melvin was wondering about what NASA really does.

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NASA Strengthens the Economy

Each state plays a role in space exploration and discovery, including the Artemis program to land the first woman and first person of color on the Moon. The impact of NASA spending is spread across all 50 states and the District of Columbia.

We released the second agencywide economic impact report in 2022, using data from the 2021 fiscal year. The report estimates NASA efforts during that period:

Generated more than $71.2 billion in total economic output

Supported more than 339,600 jobs nationwide

Resulted in an estimated $7.7 billion in federal, state, and local tax revenues

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Each state plays a role in space exploration and discovery, including the Artemis program to land the first woman and first person of color on the Moon. The impact of NASA spending is spread across all 50 states and the District of Columbia.

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In this article, the author shows us how astronaut training is very difficult and explains how/why.

Schedules can be very busy, and each astronaut has their own schedules. It may be difficult to adjust. Much effort must also be put in. 30-40 astronauts must train in 1 year at 5 different places, which means lots of organizational effort.

In conclusion, astronauts must work very hard to train for just 1 or 2 missions. Such a hassle! This connects to our story because it may affect Leland and his crew. This knowledge may help us understand

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ESA astronaut training is one of the most challenging programmes to follow and it is also very challenging to organise. This is because the decentralised training given by all the international partners participating in the ISS programme demands a high degree of coordination.

Not only the content of the different international training sessions has to be harmonised, but also the teaching approach and training concepts, as well as the multicultural backgrounds of trainees as well as instructors.

Integrated training schedule

All this has to fit into one overall integrated training schedule, which is a challenge of its own - remember that all astronauts and cosmonauts have individually tailored training plans, which means that no two astronauts get exactly the same training at the same time.

If you consider that 30 to 40 astronauts and cosmonauts undergo training in one year at five different sites, you realise that all this calls for a tremendous organisational effort. The ISS partner space agencies have successfully managed the harmonisation of this training for over a decade.

So what do the astronauts have to go through to qualify for a flight to the International Space Station (ISS)?

There are three phases to astronaut training:

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msm astronauts challenges of astronaut training

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ESA astronaut training is one of the most challenging programmes to follow and it is also very challenging to organise. This is because the decentralised training given by all the international partners participating in the ISS programme demands a high degree of coordination.

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In this article, the author introduces the different ways that astronauts trained for space and explained the different changes that occurred overtime.

This all started in 1950. It was hypothesized that microgravity in space could be simulated in airplanes. Soon, however, it was true. The air force began training astronauts. Zero gravity corporation took over this program and used a modified Boeing 747 called the Gforce1. Astronauts have been trained for microgravity ever since. although many people have a chance of getting sick .(known as the vomit comet), it is very important for astronauts for it helps them get used to space activities/life. Soon, astronauts started using adapted space suits to adequate weight and other important things.

In conclusion, zero-gravity environments are used to help astronauts train for space and are constantly changing- for the better. This connects to our book because Leland must go through this training process.

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How Do Astronauts Train For Zero-Gravity Environments? | Starlust

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How do astronauts train for space, particularly the zero gravity/ microgravity environment that is so different from the gravity we live in here on Earth?

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In the article "How I overcame disability to become a NASA astronaut" the author exposes Leland's life working with NASA and explains how Leland overcame the fact that he was deaf.
Leland Melvin at a very young age loved science, and chemistry when his mom once bought him a chemistry set, that's why he wanted to be an astronaut at a very young age. eventually in 1998 he was accepted by NASA. His position was a mission specialist on STS-122.
When Leland Melvin trained to go into space he had an accident while he was training in a 300 pound space suit, because of this accident it cost Leland all of his hearing. When this happened NASA told Leland that he would never fly in space. he got back a little bit of hearing from his right ear and NASA didn't know what to do with Leland. he got sent to Washington to work in education.
Leland went through a pretty hard life, his friends died in a space accident and the dad of one of his friends told his to go into space and continue his legacy, he was stumped he didn't know how because he couldn't fly into space. The chief eventually signs a waver for Leland to fly into space and thats exactly what he did.
connection to the book: i think this connect to my book because it helps me understand more about how he got back into training after he lost his hearing.

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How I overcame disability to become a NASA astronaut | Leland Melvin | Big Think

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Summary: In the article, "Nasa considers its next flagship space telescope." The author explains many of the struggles it took to make the spaceship. This shows that four teams of scientists were making a model of what they thought the spectroscope should look like. This process to a lot of time to figure out how to do it, but in the end, they were able to get it done. After this long process, Nasa had to study and test all four of the telescopes that the four groups of scientists created. This was important so that the people knew which one worked the best. After this, they had to rate which one they like the best so that they could use that one for putting it up into space.
It relates to the book: I think this article relates to my book because it lets me better understand the different types of achievements that Nasa made so that I could better understand if they say it in the book since they talk about Nasa a lot in the book. This video helped me understand what a space telescope is.

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Summary: In the video, "Space Shuttle Inside", the author examines how Space Shuttles are an important invention that NASA created, and with it they experienced what it was like in space. NASA was able to accomplish many goals with the Space Shuttle. However they did have problems along the way, but that still didn't stop them. They would find out what the problem is and try again, no matter what. Space Shuttle's parts are very important that if one doesn't work or  if it breaks, everything will go wrong. If they didn't have a piece for making the Space Shuttle, they can't continue unless they find, or get another one of that. This is important because they learned new things from not only the parts of the Space Shuttle, but what they achieved by going to space inside of it.
Relate to my book: This relates to my book because Leland needed to learn all about the orbiter parts in order for him to get on it. This video talks about what is not only outside, but also what was inside of it.

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How did the Orbiter Vehicle work? (Space Shuttle)

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The main idea of this video is that they are explaining exactly what they are doing in the international space station. In the space station, they are trying to grow food faster with a certain type of technology that might just change everything we know. In the space station, they are finding things that we can't find, they also show us how the space station works. In the video "International Space Station" the people in the space station show us how everything works and how they are trying to grow food faster with technology, this could change everything we know.

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The International Space Station: A Laboratory in Space

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Summary: When astronauts go into space for a long-duration flight they are at risk of losing balance and hearing in their ears. The article talks about how there is a bone in the back of your ear and it holds air cells vital for hearing -  when fluid collects in this area, it can cause pain and injury. The text also states that long-duration spaceflight was associated with 9.28 greater odds of mastoid effusions compared with short-duration. This may be because it damages tubes and vessels that link the inner ear to the back of the throat and head. Lastly the text states that on the ISS, in the event of a medical emergency, astronauts can go back to earth and be treated relatively quickly, within hours. On a mission to the moon or Mars, treatment would be limited to supplies and techniques available on the vehicle. Possible treatments include simulating Earth-like gravity on the Mars spaceship or thigh cuffs that can trap blood in the legs. This all shows that in space or on a space craft, injuries can be highly possible and not many ways to treat it besides what is on the space craft or stopping the orbit and going back to earth to be treated. This is important because if someone wants to go to space they need to know the risks of what could happen and the lasting effects of things that happen in space. Main Idea: Zero gravity and the pressure in space can make someone very ill or have a negative effect on their health and/or body. This connects to my book because when Leland was training to be an astronaut he went into a pool to text what it was like with the pressure and zero gravity in space and he had to pop his ears, but he didn't have to tool to do it, so, he lost a lot of his hearing.

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Doctors studied the MRI scans of space shuttle and space station astronauts

They found astronauts in space for six months had a greater risk of deafness

This is because they are more likely to suffer mastoid effusions on the ear bone

Astronauts making the seven-month trip to Mars face an increased risk of going deaf and suffering balance problems, according to the findings of a new study.

Researchers from the Medical University of South Carolina used MRS scans to discover that long space missions can cause a fluid build-up in the ear.

Such build-ups can cause hearing loss and giddiness - a condition called 'mastoid effusions' - impacting the bone at the back of the ear.

Donald Trump wants the first manned mission to Mars to happen by 2033. The trip will take around seven months - longer than astronauts currently stay on the ISS.

Scroll down for video

The study involved MRI scans of 35 astronauts - 17 from the NASA Space Shuttle program team and 18 of them having spent time on the International Space Station.

Travelling outside Earth's atmosphere into the reaches beyond has long been likened to doing a headstand - because of zero gravity, researchers say.

A study found astronauts on (ISS) expeditions lasting six months were over nine times more likely to suffer a condition called 'mastoid effusions.'

This was compared to those who took part in shorter Space Shuttle missions of around two weeks.

The mastoid bone is at the back of the ear and contains air cells vital for hearing - when fluid collects in this area, it can cause pain and reduced faculties.

Corresponding author Dr Donna Roberts, of the Medical University of South Carolina said there was a direct link between conditions on the ISS and mastoid effusions.

Head congestion is one of the most common symptoms experienced by astronauts as the nose, ears and eyes become clogged with fluid.

Spaceflight leads to over three and a half pints of blood shifting upwards, from the lower to the upper body.

The study published in JAMA Otolaryngology-Head & Neck Surgery is the first to measure the affect on the sinuses mastoid air cells.

No differences were found in the sinuses of the astronauts in the study.

However, long-duration spaceflight was associated with a 9.28 greater odds of mastoid effusions compared with short-duration.

This may be because it damages tubes and vessels that link the inner ear to the back of the throat and head, explained Dr Roberts.

She said in zero gravity, astronauts experience nasal stuffiness and head pressure, but there is little data concerning any physiological changes of the nasal sinuses or mastoid air cells.

NASA has avoided the use of CT (computed tomographic) scans to limit the dose of radiation astronauts receive, given the exposure they experience during spaceflight.

But, as part of routine medical protocol, they all undergo pre and post-flight MRI scans of the head.

Her team took advantage by reviewing these scans - all of which were obtained before and after either Space Shuttle or ISS missions.

'Long duration spaceflight on the ISS is associated with an increased incidence of mastoid effusions,' Roberts said.

'The cause of this phenomenon is likely multi-factorial, but possible explanations may be reflective of several conditions associated with effusions seen on Earth.

'Further investigation is needed to provide a definite explanation for the development of these effusions and to determine whether these results can be applied to more than this small astronaut population.'

Dr Michael Stenger, of NASA's Human Research program, who was not involved in the study, said the consequences need to be better understood by space doctors.

New medical requirements will be needed for upcoming exploration missions away from Earth, Stenger siad.

This is because a mastoid effusion could increase the risk for debilitating ear pain.

'On the ISS, in the event of a medical emergency, astronauts can de-orbit and be treated relatively quickly, within hours.

'On a mission to the moon or Mars, treatment would be limited to supplies and techniques available on the vehicle.'

Possible remedies include simulating Earth like gravity on the Mars spaceship or thigh cuffs that can trap blood in the legs.

'The space research and medical community is aggressively working to identify the proper magnitude and duration of these countermeasures,' said Stenger.

'This work becomes increasingly important as more novel consequences of long-duration spaceflight are discovered.'

He said it was an exciting time in human space flight with the advent of commercial operators and the upcoming manned missions to the Moon.

'Although it has been 50 years since the Apollo 11 moon landing and 20 years sincehumans began continuously residing on the ISS, researchers continue to make novel discoveries regarding the human body in space,' said Stenger.

The findings have been published in the journal JAMA Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery.

HOW DOES SPACE RADIATION IMPACT ASTRONAUTS' HEALTH?

Astronauts journeying to Mars would likely be bombarded with 700 times the levels of radiation experienced on Earth.

Even on the International Space Station, astronauts are exposed to 200 times more radiation as a result of their work than would be experienced by an airline pilot or a radiology nurse.

As a result, NASA is constantly monitoring local space weather information.

If a burst of space radiation is detected, mission control in Houston, Texas, can instruct astronauts to abort space walks, move to more shielded areas of the orbiting laboratory and even adjust the station's altitude to minimise any health impacts.

Solar flare activity can cause acute radiation exposure effects - such as changes to the blood, diarrhoea, nausea, and vomiting - which can be recovered from, and other impacts that are non-reversible and/or fatal.

Long-term cosmic ray bombardment is a greater concern.

This can increases the risks of cancer, generate cataracts and cause sterility.

It can also cause damage to the brain, central nervous system and heart, paving the way for various degenerative diseases.

DNA changes from space radiation can even be passed on to subsequent children.

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Astronauts going to Mars may be at increased risk of deafness

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Doctors studied the MRI scans of space shuttle and space station astronauts They found astronauts in space for six months had a greater risk of deafness This is because they are more likely to suffer mastoid effusions on the ear bone Astronauts making the seven-month trip to Mars face an increased risk of going deaf and suffering balance problems, according to the findings of a new study.

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In the article, "About NASA Langley Research Center," the author shows the different types of workers and explains what they do. There are two main types of workers; Engineers and Researchers. The researchers in the Langley Research Center study the air and different atmospheres in space and on Earth. Engineers in the Langley Research Center use the information given by the researchers to make space crafts for the future, so one day, we could live on other planets. These two types of workers in the Langley Research Center are really important because they could change our lives one day. This connects to our book because a worker from Langley Research Center named Rosa Webster met Leland Melvin and got him a job at the Langley Research Center.

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The next time you get on a plane or watch a U.S. space launch, picture in your mind coastal Virginia and the city of Hampton, near the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay. It's the home of NASA's Langley Research Center, 800 acres of cutting edge aerospace technology. Langley continues to forge new frontiers in aviation and space research as it has since 1917, when it was established as the nation's first civilian aeronautics laboratory. Langley's mission and contributions to aerospace, atmospheric sciences and technology commercialization are improving the way the world lives. More than half of NASA Langley's research is in aeronautics. Many of the facility's 3,300 civil service and contract employees focus on improving today's military and civilian aircraft, while designing tomorrow's jets. Not only does Langley develop Airframe Systems, scientists also examine the layers of air planes and spacecraft fly through in Atmospheric Sciences. Researchers have expanded their studies into other atmospheres, the kind spacecraft will find on distant planets. Next generation spaceships will be able to survive unforgiving extraterrestrial environments, because of work done at Langley in NASA's Center of Excellence for Structures and Materials and in wind tunnels and test facilities. Langley leads NASA initiatives in aviation safety, quiet aircraft technology, small aircraft transportation and aerospace vehicles system technology. It supports NASA space programs with atmospheric research and technology testing and development. Its research has a significant impact on the global economy, making the skies safer, quieter and more efficient.

For more information visit NASA Langley's website.

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is the central civilian agency that directs the United States space program. NASA began its operation on October 1, 1958, as a result of the National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958. Although NASA activities are integrated with other scientific and technological efforts, the Agency is an independent organization with the primary mission of the peaceful exploration of space for the benefit of all humankind.

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virginia aerospace science and technology scholars

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About NASA Langley Research Center - VASTS VASTS

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The next time you get on a plane or watch a U.S. space launch, picture in your mind coastal Virginia and the city of Hampton, near the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay. It's the home of NASA's Langley Research Center, 800 acres of cutting edge aerospace technology.

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How Do Astronauts Train For Zero-Gravity Environments? | Starlust

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How do astronauts train for space, particularly the zero gravity/ microgravity environment that is so different from the gravity we live in here on Earth?

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Watch time: 0:48-2:51
In the video "Let's talk about racism" the narrator shows how racism happens in many unfair ways without people even being able to notice it and explains what racism actually means at a deeper level. Racism is a type of discrimination against a group or groups of people because of how they look, their culture, clothing, and more. Racism is not okay and still happens even though there are many laws all over the world that are specifically against it. In a lot of countries most people are discriminated against because of the color of their skin though that should not matter. That would be a form or type of racism. Racism occurs in many ways and sometimes you may not even see it happening when it's right in front of you. There are many different ways of spotting racism like if someone is saying mean or derogatory terms, is bullying someone, or is not allowing them to practice their culture. These are all forms of racism that should not be done and if you can stand up for the person who is being bullied. Racism can be very hurtful towards those who experience it. People who experience racism might feel anxious, scared, or unwanted in their society. When people get discriminated against just because of being themselves they might feel alone and that shouldn't happen. Racism can happen in many different ways and can affect others very deeply. This is important because if continue discriminating against our kind people will continue feeling alone and there will be no kindness left in the world. Racism is wrong and should be stopped. This connects to the book Chasing Space by Leland Melvin because it helps the reader understand how Leland was judged and discriminated against because he was a black football player.  This also helps explain how racism affected Leland and how it almost cost him his scholarship.

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2. What is white privilege in our society?

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2. What is white privilege in our society?

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In the video "Heartbreaking Moment When Kids Learn About White Privilege" it shows how just because of the color of your skin you are not given fair chances in society to this day and explains how many people who have lighter skin start out better than those with darker skin which is completely unfair. One issue with this form of racism is that it is completely just based on your skin color and not your actual abilities as a human, so their starting point is already setback compared to the others. If you have different skin color your path is already decided for you and you don't have a choice which isn't fair. You should be able to do what you want and get the same treatment as others instead of being pushed back or delayed in what you want to achieve. This system is preventing people from furthering their capabilities and is pulling them back almost like their is a fence stopping them but for people who do not have colored skin they are able to pass that fence. Another issue of this form of racism is that it is completely unnoticed. This form of racism is called systemic racism. Systemic racism is when communities are separated by the majority of people with the same color of skin. Many people even of color do not notice this. What this system does is that it gives people of color poorer treatment than people who are not of color. This isn't fair at all because for example, if I am a person of color and i get the same grades as a person who is not of color he is more likely to be set up for success than I am which is clearly a disadvantage for me. This video explains how the kids with darker skin have more of a disadvantage because of systemic racism. This is important because it helps people understand that racism is not always visible and can happen in many different wrong ways that you might not even realize. This relates to the book Chasing Space because Leland Melvin experienced a lot of racism in college football and doubt from other players/coaches because he was black which probably came from kids who received better treatment because of systemic racism.

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Heartbreaking Moment When Kids Learn About White Privilege | The School That Tried to End Racism

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Summary: In the video, "NASA’s 2021 Included Mars Landing, First Flight, Artemis, More" the narrator shows the different types of missions/projects that Nasa has accomplished in 2021. One example, of a mission that Nasa completed in the video is Project Mercury. This project was able to help them figure out things about Meurucy that they needed to know. Nasa was able to still do work when covid was still happening. This shows that they were motivated to not let covid stop them from staying as a business. While there is still so much to learn and figure out about the different projects and missions Nasa has completed, Nasa has completed so much in the year that covid was taking place.
Relates to my book: I think this vidoe relates to my book because my book always refreces to different mission and projects that Nasa has completed. This video helped me understand the different things Nasa has accomplished in the year that covid was taking place.

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NASA's 2021 Included Mars Landing, First Flight, Artemis, More

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In 2021, NASA completed its busiest year of development yet in low-Earth orbit, made history on Mars, continued to make progress on its Artemis plans for the Moon, tested new technologies for a supersonic aircraft, finalized launch preparations for the next-generation space telescope, and much more - all while safely operating during a pandemic and

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Summary: in the radio stating news article thing  WBUR a it tells us all about Leland Melvin. Leland Melvin was an American engineer and NASA astronaut. He was born 1964. Leland started his career as a wide receiver in the NFL from 1982 to 1985. He stopped playing in the NFL due to a hamstring injury, evidence that shows this from the article WBUR states, " but then cut him after he was slowed by a hamstring injury". Leland became an astronaut in 1998. You may be thinking that at NASA he wont get hurt like he did while playing football well that's incorrect. Leland had a severe injury while his time training at NASA. This injury left him completely deaf. although he didn't completely get his hearing back several years later it did and then he got back into space. This shows that even though his life had many ups and downs and obstacles he is still and inspiration to many people. In Conclusion Leland Melvin went through many Obstacles and he never gave up. That's why he is still so successful and inspiring to many individuals. in the website LelandMelvin.com the author reveals the careers that Leland had, and explains what positions he played in his careers.  In the article WBUR the author exposes the many obstacles that Leland faced, the author also presents the way Leland came over those obstacles.
i think this article relates to my book because it talks about how Leland overcame challenges just like in my book. this furthers my understanding because it tells me more about his background than the book does. and it helps me understand his point of view.
site
WBUR
https://www.wbur.org/

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Summary: In this article, "NASA Facts for Kids" the article shows the different types of projects such as Project Mercury, the Apollo program, the space shuttle program, and more. The article also talks about Nasa's future going to Jupiter. The main idea is that Nasa commits to the projects that they want to complete.
Connections to my book: This connects to my book because my book talks about Nasa. The article helped me understand the different projects that NASA does.

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Flag

Agency overview

Formed

July 29, 1958; 65 years ago

Preceding agency

Jurisdiction
US Federal Government

Headquarters

Two Independence Square, Washington, D.C.,
United States
38°52′59″N 77°0′59″W ﻿ / ﻿ 38.88306°N 77.01639°W

Motto
For the Benefit of All

Employees

17,219 (2019)

Annual budget

US$ 21.5 billion (2019)

Agency executives

Website

NASA.gov

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA) is an independent agency of the United States Federal Government that deals with space exploration and aeronautics, the operating and designing of planes. NASA has had many successful missions, for example the ISS, and Apollo 11, which put the first man on the Moon in 1969. NASA was started on July 29, 1958. NASA's motto is: "For the Benefit of All". The current Administrator of NASA is Jim Bridenstine since April 2018.

Founding and the Sputnik crisis

NASA was preceded by the " House[National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics]]" (NACA). NACA was a US federal agency founded on March 3, 1915 to undertake, promote, and institutionalize aeronautical research. On October 1, 1958 the agency was dissolved, and its assets and personnel transferred to the newly created National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). NASA was founded to compete with the Soviet Union in the space race. In the 1950s and 1960s there was a space race between the US and the Soviet Union - now called Russia. The Soviets started first launching Sputnik 1, the first object made by people to go into orbit, in October 1957. The Americans were worried by this. It caused a crisis known as the Sputnik Crisis as the Americans feared the Russians might start building weapons in space. This all happened at a time called the Cold War when the USA and the Soviet Union were always very close to war.

Space flight programs

Project Mercury (1958-1963)

Originally NASA was very small with only four laboratories and around eighty people working there. German engineers and scientists led by Wernher von Braun helped them build rockets. They had helped build the V-2 missile in Germany during World War II and the Redstone missile for the US Army afterwards. Their Army missile laboratory was transferred to NASA.

In 1960 they set up the Mercury project. The Mercury Project space missions were designed by NASA, mostly to test if humans could survive in space. After they proved it was possible for people to live in space they moved on.

On May 15th 1961 astronaut Alan Shepard became the first American in space. Less than a year later, John Glenn became the first American to orbit or circle the Earth. He did so in a spacecraft called Friendship 7. Once the Mercury Project proved that humans could live in space, the Gemini Project was started. Less than a year after it began, the Apollo Program also began.

Project Gemini (1961-1966)

After the success of Mercury, NASA realized it had to start planning for its missions to the Moon. The Gemini spacecraft was built for two men. It was still small and cramped similar to the Mercury capsule, but allowed for more freedom of movement. Project Gemini proved that two spacecraft could rendezvous (meet and dock) in space. Neil Armstrong, the first man on the Moon, was also on the first Gemini flight to dock with another spacecraft in outer space. The Gemini spacecraft did not dock with another spacecraft with people in it. Instead, it docked with a rocket called "Agena target vehicle". The last few Gemini missions were science experiments and spacewalks designed to prepare for the Apollo Program, which would land human beings on the Moon.

Apollo program (1961-1972)

The Apollo program was started by President John F Kennedy in the 1960s. The program was made of 16 missions designed to send a man to the Moon and return him safely back to Earth. The first Apollo mission, Apollo 1, ended in disaster when a fire in the command module killed all the astronauts on board. The Apollo 8 and 10 missions went to the moon. They tested equipment and took photos but did not land.

The project's main success came in 1969 when Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin landed on the Moon as part of Apollo 11. The mission was a big success for NASA and over six million people watched it worldwide. After Apollo 11, six more Apollo flights went to the moon. Five of them landed. The one that did not land, Apollo 13, had to abort its mission when an oxygen tank exploded in the spaceship. Apollo 17 was the last mission to land on the Moon.

Skylab (1965-1979)

After Congress stopped the Moon landings, NASA needed a new direction. Using a leftover Saturn V rocket, the giant rocket that sent men to the Moon, they created a space station that orbited above the Earth. This space station was called Skylab. Skylab was very big on the inside, even bigger than a small house. Skylab was visited by Apollo spacecrafts. There were three missions to Skylab. Each of them carried important experiments. The last crewed mission, Skylab 4, spent 84 days, 1 hour, 15 minutes, 30 seconds, longer than any space mission had spent until 1977. Skylab broke up in the atmosphere in 1979.

Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (1972-1975)

During the Space Race, the Soviets had designed their own spacecraft to fly to the Moon. Their spacecraft was called Soyuz. The Soviets never landed on the Moon, they had too many problems. Instead, they started creating small space stations. The Soyuz spacecraft is what they used to go to these space stations. US and Soviet Union were part of the Cold War. In order to make peace between Soviet Union and US, they decided they would dock an Apollo spacecraft to a Soyuz spacecraft in space. After docking, the crews performed experiments and learned about each other's cultures. Apollo-Soyuz was the last flight of the Apollo spacecraft. It has never been used since, and never will be.

Space Shuttle program (1972-2011)

In the 1980s and 1990s NASA began to concentrate on building Space Shuttles. Four Shuttles were built in 1985. The first to launch was the Space Shuttle Columbia in April 12, 1981. At this time the public began to lose interest in the space program and NASA faced budget cuts. They had planned for the Space Shuttles to cost less as they could be used more than once. But eventually it turned out the Space Shuttles were more expensive as building them in the first place cost more money than normal. There were further problems for NASA after the Space Shuttle Challenger disintegrated in flight in 1986, killing all seven of its astronauts. The incident is known as the Challenger Disaster.

The Challenger Disaster forced NASA to think about the way they worked. The entire Space Shuttle fleet was suspended for a year. After that, NASA launched the Hubble Space Telescope into orbit. Its most famous photo was the Hubble Deep Field.

In 2011, NASA shut down the Space Shuttle program. They were more expensive to use than other launch vehicles.

International Space Station (1993-present)

In the early 1980s, NASA planned Space Station Freedom as a counterpart to the Soviet Salyut and Mir space stations. It never left the drawing board and, with the end of the Soviet Union and the Cold War, it was cancelled. The end of the Space Race prompted the U.S. administration officials to start negotiations with international partners Europe, Russia, Japan and Canada in the early 1990s in order to build the International Space Station. This project was first announced in 1993 and was called Space Station Alpha. It was planned to combine the proposed space stations of all participating space agencies: NASA's Space Station Freedom, Russia's Mir-2 (the successor to the Mir Space Station, the core of which is now Zvezda) and ESA's Columbus that was planned to be a stand-alone spacelab.

Curiosity rover (2011-present)

Curiosity is a car-sized rover. It was made to explore the crater Gale on Mars. Curiosity was launched from Cape Canaveral on November 26, 2011, at 15:02 UTC and landed on Aeolis Palus inside Gale on Mars on August 6, 2012, 05:17 UTC. The Bradbury Landing site was less than 2.4 kilometres (1.5 miles) from where the rover landed after a 560 million kilometres (350 million miles) journey. The goals of the rover include an investigation of the Martian climate and geology.

NASA's future

NASA is continuing operations include missions to the planets Mars, Saturn and Pluto. Missions to Jupiter are also planned for the near future. The New Horizons spacecraft flew past Jupiter in February 2007, studying some of the planet's moons. On July 14, 2015 the craft flew by Pluto, took high resolution pictures of the planet's surface and analysed the chemical properties of its atmosphere.

NASA announced in 2004 that they plan to have a permanent Moon base by 2020. A senior NASA administrator also stated in 2007 that NASA aims "to put a man on Mars by 2037".

However, in early 2010, President Barack Obama cancelled the Constellation project that was aiming to have humans return to the moon's surface by 2020. He said the project was "behind schedule and lacking in innovation". At the same time he cut back the amount of money NASA will be getting from the government in 2011.

When President Barack Obama did this, he also worked with NASA to create the Space Launch System. This, with commercial launch vehicles ( launch vehicles that are not owned by NASA), will take humans to the Moon and Mars.

NASA Missions

NASA has launched over 500 missions in its 50-year history. Over 150 missions had humans on board. Such manned missions are the most expensive and make the most news but the majority of launches are for space exploration, science, and other purposes that do not need people. NASA spacecraft such as Cassini-Huygens and the Voyager program have visited every planet in the Solar System. Four NASA spacecraft have left the Solar System, Voyager 1, Voyager 2, Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11. As of 2013 Voyager 1 is around 18,800,000,000 (18.8 billion) kilometers away from Earth.

Related pages

Images for kids

In Spanish: NASA para niños

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At Johnson space center, people who want to be astronauts undergo a very, very, competitive selection process. Once the astronauts are selected, they have to complete 2 years worth of training.

After their 2 years of training, they learn how to fly. Many of them are schooled in shuttles and space station systems. They learn Earth sciences, meteorology, space science, and engineering. Not only that, but they practice land/water survival, aircraft operations, and scuba diving.

there are 2 types of astronauts, pilots and mission specialists. They do different things. Pilot astronauts are assigned to fly the shuttle and command missions. Mission specialists are the flight engineers. They conduct spacewalks, perform robotics tasks, and conduct research.

In conclusion, astronauts have to go through vigorous training sessions. But soon, once they become astronauts, it would all pay off.

This connects to our story because Leland Melvin must complete this training. With this information, we may understand what Leland Melvin had to go through.

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This article is about the importance of doctors in NASA. Although it takes 12-14 years of school, it really does help NASA. The doctors have to make sure that the astronauts are ready to fly. The article has a picture of Chris Cassidy being carried to the medical tent after he landed in their Soyuz TMA-08M capsule in a remote area near the town of Zhezkazgan, Kazakhstan. This happened on September 11, 2013. There is another image that shows an ISS crew member getting medical help on a helicopter. This article mainly focuses on the preparation of being a NASA doctor, what they do, and how they are important. This relates to the book because Leland Melvin needed a medical professional when he had a problem with his ears during training.

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Given the significant investment in training and preparation for missions, it is critical that flight crewmembers are kept as healthy as possible.

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Summary: This video shows these three NASA employees. Paula Cain is a thermal blanket technician. This means that she builds custom thermal blankets for satellites. Joy Ng tells stories about NASA's Earth and heliophysics research. Geronimo Villanueva specializes in the search for organic molecules on Mars and Ice Bodies. The main idea in this video is that there are many different people working for NASA, and all of them are important. This relates to the book because there were a lot of people that will help Leland Melvin get to space.

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Who Works At NASA? What It Means To Be a NASA Employee

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Summary: Being in space for a very long time can cause things to happen to your body, especially your brain. When things like these happen it can take proteins away from your body and when you get down back to earth, your proteins enter back into your blood stream. Some other proteins enter your body in space and then decrease below the starting level from before the astronauts went into space. Some people who go into space get a sticky protein that makes a clump on your brain and is associated with Alzheimer disease. Main Idea: Some people can get really sick if they go into space and when they come down it can get better. This relates to the book because if you go into space with an injury it could get worse because you have to be in swift condition in space and Leland is not.

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Long space missions could cause brain damage similar to concussions, study finds

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Staying in space for a long time can cause brain damage, according to a new study.

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summary: in the video "from NFL player to NASA astronaut" i explains all about Leland's life with football. Leland starting to love and play football at the age of only 7 years old. then in 1996 he was drafted as a wide receiver by the Detroit lion in the 11th round. Although Leland had a great life he did face a major injury while in the NFL. Leland Melvin faced a horrible hamstring injury. In the article "Detroit free press"  it states "Pulled his hamstring early in camp that year." this shows that Leland did face many life changing injuries in his life. in the video" from NFL player to NASA astronaut" the author exposes how Leland Melvin played in the NFL. and explains how Leland got hurt while playing.
I think that this relates to my book because it shows how Leland Melvin stopped playing football, and how important it is to his life.

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From NFL Player to NASA Astronaut | Leland Melvin

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Summary: In this video two people explains the different kinds of deaf levels and people. The people also explain what types of different education some deaf people might go through. The video also explains how deaf people might hear certain specific noises or nothing at all. The video explains different cultures, traditions, and languages deaf people might have as well. It also mentions how people can become deaf due to many reasons and how it works inside of your body. The main idea in this video is that there are many different deaf people who have many different experiences with their hearing loss. This connects to the book Chasing Space because it helps the reader understand what Leland was being told when he learned he was deaf and what kind of deafness he was experiencing.

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What are some of the levels of hearing loss and how do they work?

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What are some of the levels of hearing loss and how do they work?

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Summary: In this article it explains the different stages or levels of hearing loss people may experience. The article explains how the 5 different levels of hearing loss work and affect a person. The article also mentions how you can get your hearing loss treated. It tells the reader extra important facts about hearing loss and its effects. It also explains how the different stages of hearing loss feel/sound for some people. The main idea of this article is about the 5 different stages of hearing loss and how it affects different types of people. This connects to the book Chasing Space because it helps explain what kind of hearing loss Leland Melvin might have experienced. This helps the reader gain a deeper understanding of how bad Leland's hearing loss actually is.

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Understanding the 5 Stages of Hearing Loss

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Hearing loss is common, but it varies from person to person. This can make it challenging to know when to see your ENT. Understanding the stages of hearing loss

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This video, tells us about what is inside space stations. The show, also tells us a little about how this space station works. Some space stations have really high-tech things to use to learn about space. When the space stations come back down to Earth they have a kite attached to them so they could glide down safely. In the video "Take a Tour of the Space Station" by SciShow Kids they tell us almost exactly what happens in a space station, and why they are there in the first place. This relates to the book because it tells us what the people do to get into the space station this needs a lot of training to do this job, and Leland needs a lot of training to go to space.

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Summary: In this article, the Nasa Tv people wrote about how and what the space shuttle is and why it is used for space. They write about how the space shuttle made astronauts accomplish their dream goals, what parts they needed to create the space shuttle, and also how it was possible for it to launch and land. This article explains a lot about Space Shuttle and is very useful if you need to learn about it. These people write this information to inform the reader that it's more than just a rocket, without that it would be tough to go into space. A central idea that the author is trying to form is that Astronauts accomplish goals that no one would ever be able to achieve, and an accomplishment they overcame was space shuttles. Even if people would give negative comments and discourage them, they kept on going and never gave up until they achieved what they wanted to.
Relate to my book: My book is about Leland Melvin and how he accomplished many goals that he never thought of because of a new invention called space shuttle, and this article helps me further my understanding about what a space shuttle is and how it works.

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The space shuttle launched like a rocket and landed like a glider. It carried people and cargo into space.

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What is the purpose of a Space Stations?(medium

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What is the purpose of a Space Stations?(medium

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This short article by "pbs.org," tells us about the purpose of space stations and why they are essential. It tells us how space stations befit us and how they will advance our medicine and technology. It also tells us valuable information about space and other things. Space stations can be really helpful if we really need them. In the article by "pbs.org" they tell us all about what space stations are what we learn inside of them, and how they can help humans thrive longer. This relates to the book because in the book they tell us the technology they use for training and in this article, it tells us what technology they use in space stations. They are mostly the same things.

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The mission of the International Space Station is to enable long-term exploration of space and provide benefits to people on Earth.

With six state-of-the-art laboratories, the Space Station will be the premiere research facility in space, four times larger and more capable than any previous space station. It is hoped that it will allow for advancements in medicine, technology and science. For example, studies in micro and hyper gravity will help researchers better understand its effects on humans and offer insight into how the human body works. Growing protein crystals in a space environment can help scientists create better treatment for numerous diseases that currently have no cure. In addition, the laboratories on the Space Station will allow for innovative space research projects to improve our understanding of the Earth's environment and the universe in which we live.

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The Space Station will also serve as the gateway to new frontiers in human space exploration, a place where we can learn how to live and work "off planet." It will allow for the study of long-term effects of weightlessness on the human body and as a test bed to understand what adjustments need to be made to current methods before astronauts are sent to Mars and beyond. In addition, it will allow for critical research in fluids, combustion, life support systems and the radiation environment, which is needed for future human space exploration.

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The mission of the International Space Station is to enable long-term exploration of space and provide benefits to people on Earth. With six state-of-the-art laboratories, the Space Station will be the premiere research facility in space, four times larger and more capable than any previous space station.

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Summary:This video teaches us many of the ways Astronauts get ready for space.
Astronauts are required to simulate life on the moon. They shine lights that emulate the light on the moon, practice the activities that they are required to do, and so much more!

Additionally, scientists and astronauts work on the equipment. At 5:24 in this video, they discuss how the suits are not perfect and that scientists need to fix it. Scientists modify the suits so that many problems are fixed.

The moon has less gravity and makes you feel weightless. Astronauts are ready for this because they practice in a similar environment, underwater. The ocean has little-to-no gravity, so it is a perfect place to practice.

In conclusion, scientists and astronauts work together to fix problems and eventually achieve near-impossible tasks!

This connects to our story because Leland Melvin must complete this training. With this information, we may understand what Leland Melvin had to go through.

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Summary: In this video "An astronaut is injured in outer space... you have 30 hours to help him," It talks about how being in space even without an injury can be dangerous for your health. It can also be dangerous because many things can happen in space. It also states how students and adults work to find solutions to some of the problems in space. Some people go to competitions for things like this, where they have to design a prototype for helping injuries in space and to help prevent injuries in space. The article also talks about how in space your bones slow down, or stop formation completely, and this could make injuries in space even more possible. My main idea is that injuries in space can be very bad, and they could happen very easily,but many people are trying to help prevent it, or if it happens, then treat it without coming down from space. This connects to the book because Leland has many injuries from his football time and he needs all his body fluids and proteins to live.

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Students were asked to build a medical device that can both prevent musculoskeletal fractures in outer space. (Photo/Courtesy of NASA)

We love theories that make a difference.

At this point in the semester, students just want to see the theories they've regurgitated in class day after day put into action in the real world. In fact, they want to build a "theory" based on what really happens.

Over the course of a weekend in late February, NASA and the USC Viterbi School of Engineering gave them a chance to do just that. The Associated Students of Biomedical Engineering (ASBME) organized the first "makeathon" in the university's history.

The challenge they got fit the epic feel of the event - design and build a medical device that can both prevent and treat upper-extremity musculoskeletal fractures in outer space. Use only readily available materials (copper wire, duct tape, cardboard and Velcro) ... and the collective brainpower of four students you just met.

Oh, and make it ultra-lightweight and ultra-affordable.

In 30 hours or less.

A sticky problem

Astronauts are moon-rock tough. At least that's what The Martian has us believe as astronaut Mark Watney, lost on Mars, casually performs amateur self-surgery, sans anesthesia.

If stapling your own stomach doesn't prove you have the guts to survive on Mars, try growing potatoes using your own poop. So that last part has little to do with biomedical engineering, but the reality of injury or death in zero gravity has long haunted those researching the final frontier.

"We tend to forget that, over the course of their careers, astronauts can spend anywhere between 1 to 2.4 years in space," said event co-ogranizer Adam Seifert, ASBME co-president, a junior biomedical engineer. "In this time, bone loss is a well-documented complication, but it's been largely unsolved. The solution has to be something out of the box and very creative."

According to NASA, Russian Gennady Padalka currently holds the record for most days spent in space. Padalka has spent 879 days in space over the course of five missions. American astronauts Jerry Lynn Ross and Franklin Chang Díaz hold the record for most spaceflights. They each flew seven missions.

Bone changes

Constrained to Earth, our bones retain fracture resistance by remodeling through a balance of bone resorption and formation. In a microgravity environment, bone resorption increases dramatically, while bone formation slows down or stops altogether. According to NASA, this leads to bone mass loss "at a rate of about 10 times that of osteoporosis."

What's worse, bone density loss during space travel isn't entirely preventable by current exercise standards on the International Space Station. This leaves astronauts exposed to the whole gamut of musculoskeletal injuries.

Tianna Shaw '88, project manager for multidisciplinary teams at NASA's Ames Research Center, formally introduced the problem at the makeathon kickoff event on Feb. 26.

Your role as biomedical engineers is extremely important.

Tianna Shaw

"Your role as biomedical engineers is extremely important," Shaw told the 75 undergraduates participating in the competition. "The future of a whole variety of activities at NASA depends on modern advancements in medicine. We're looking to you to design miniaturized versions of biomedical instruments [used on Earth] that could fit in a space lab."

Shaw explained that astronauts must be able to stay in space for years without needing to return to Earth for injury treatment. Crew members exercise for two and a half hours a day, six times a week (15 hours a week) while in orbit to avoid these issues. But physical exercise alone is not enough to mitigate the risks.

MacGyvering a solution

For the subsequent 30 hours, following NASA's charge, 14 teams of four to five scrambled to brainstorm and design a medical device under extreme material and functional constraints.

In true MacGyver fashion, some early prototypes were made out of pizza boxes, coffee cups and splash sticks. At the eight-hour mark, the whistle blew and teams presented preliminary designs to a panel of judges who selected five teams to advance to the device fabrication stage.

Those five teams took over USC Viterbi's Fabrication Lab, gaining access to tools like laser cutters and 3-D printers and brought their designs to life. The other teams had to stretch their talents to the limits and hack a solution without the aid of fancy lab equipment.

"They really started from nothing," said Shira Bernard, AMSBE co-president and biomedical engineering senior who co-organized the event. "Some teams went on through the whole night. Through equipment failures, material failures, they had to adapt and work together like in the real world."

The makeathon forced participants to undergo a month's worth of design process in the course of a few days.

"The fact that these students could tackle this problem after seeing it for the first time shows how they can think on their feet," said Ellis Meng, USC Viterbi professor and chair of biomedical engineering. "What really excites me about challenges like this is that students have the ability to show off their creativity and unleash the 'true engineer' inside that we don't necessarily see in class."

All teams, regardless of placing, prepared a final presentation for a panel of faculty judges and their peers. They were graded on design motivations, device functionality, impact on the field and how it answered NASA's needs. The finalized designs will be sent to NASA for review and further development.

"It's an amazing opportunity to get to work on a real-world problem and present our solutions to a real-world client like NASA," Bernard said.

Bernard and Seifert want this event to grow into an annual cornerstone of USC Viterbi excellence and make it a legacy of the ASBME.

"We want to see people from all over the spectrum of majors and California universities participating," Seifert said. "This will be a perfect place for people to put into practice what they've learned in the classroom."

More stories about: Biomedical Engineering

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An astronaut is injured in outer space ... you have 30 hours to help him

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We love theories that make a difference. At this point in the semester, students just want to see the theories they've regurgitated in class day after day put into action in the real world. In fact, they want to build a "theory" based on what really happens.

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Summary: In this video, the astronauts tell you about how life was living in space, how exciting it was to float in air. The first time they went on a Space Shuttle, they were happy to be a part of the last one. As they were starting their new journey, they also became friends and had a great time with each other. It was such an important mission because NASA people wanted to show everyone what they accomplished and/or achieved.  This video also explains how after they landed on Earth, they knew it would be over, so they didn't want to leave the Space Shuttle. It shows how much love and affection they put towards this and how they had a great time. The main idea of this video is about how the astronauts really care about changing the world and discovering new things.
Relate to my book: My book is about Leland Melvin becoming an astronaut and how he wanted to make change just like any other astronauts. How every moment in that space shuttle was the best moment they ever had. The space shuttle made him feel a part of others and feel equal. This helps me further my understanding about how much space shuttles mean to astronauts.

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The Shuttle's Last Flight | An End. A New Beginning.

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  In the article, "Space Shuttle" the author explains how astronauts began to accomplish their goals of finding more about space and studying more deep into it. Astronauts put so much effort towards learning about space because they want to show the world what they can do. This article talks about the parts that were needed and the history behind it. All of the parts are important, but the main section of the space shuttle is the most and was called the orbitor, so that means if something happens to it, a big consequence will occur. That part was main because the orbiter carried the crew and cargo. Like an airplane, it had wings and a tail. All together, the system weighed 4.4 million pounds (2 million kilograms) and stood 184 feet (56 meters) high. If one single thing went wrong, something bad would happen and the whole plan would crash and burn. In order for the astronauts to land on Earth, everything had to go by plan or else it's over. During a launch, austronauts were not the only ones working hard, the machines were as well. The orbitor had to do jobs no one else can, and if something happens to it, it would be over. On every mission, astronauts onboard carried out scientific experiments. They released satellites that the shuttle had brought from Earth. At the end of a mission, the orbiter returned to Earth and landed like an airplane. There are many different kinds of history astronauts have for every discovery or adventure in space, but the big history for all the astronauts was that it would end the shuttle program in 2011. Atlantis carried out the final shuttle mission, during July 8–21, 2011. Space Shuttles is something that all astronauts wanted to be on and achieve something with the whole new adventure.
Relate to my book:This article connects to my book because the article talks about what happened before with the space shuttles which is also what Leland went through before experiencing going in a space shuttle.

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The space shuttle was the first reusable spacecraft. The U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) developed the shuttle, which was formally called the Space...

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Summary: In this video, "Time to Science what is NASA? It talks about when Nasa became to be what we know as Nasa today. The video also talks about the different projects that Nasa has done such as Project Mercury. To add on, the video also talks about how Nasa is influencing the world for the better. This relates to Nasa because it shows how Nasa is doing right now and what is happening. My main idea is that Nasa Is making the world a better place every step of the way.
Relates to my book: I think the video relates to the book because Leland Melvin was training at Nasa to become an astronaut. This video helped me understand what Nasa does.

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In the article, "The NFL’s Racist ‘Race Norming’ Is an Afterlife of Slavery" the author describes that many black people have experienced the same form of racism in the NFL and explains how the NFL's "race norming" is like the "afterlife of slavery". One of the example of why NFL's "race norming" is an issue is that many black people do not get proper health care or the same health care that white people do in the NFL. The article explains that many football players have made accusations towards the NFL for not providing proper health care after concussions and other injuries. The article says that "Black retirees, who are overrepresented in the number of former players, staked legitimate claims about their impaired health after risking their minds and bodies for this American sport. Bottom line: the race norming practice limited Black players’ access to the compensation they were rightfully owed." This shows how it was not just one black person's issue but that many black people were facing the same racist problem from the NFL. Another example of why the NFL's "race norming" is an issue is because it is like "the afterlife of slavery." The NFL is purposely being racist and mistreating people of color and is assuming things about them before hand just from their skin color. They are putting people's lives in danger just because of the color of their skin which is so similar to slavery. The NFL is treating people differently because of how they look which is exactly what the problem of slavery and segregation was.
Main Idea #3: The last reason that the NFL's "race norming" is wrong is because there are many things that may seem little but are extremely racist and wrong that happen in the NFL. The NFL may make assumptions that black players are worse than white players or will not give them proper treatment/pay. The article states that "The ways that Black football players navigate their time as current and former NFL athletes point to the continued social inequities that plague the league beyond claims of anti-Black racism. This is the same league whose cheerleaders accused it of gender discrimination." This shows that the NFL has never really been nice to black players and that black football players deserve more than they get. This is important because people should be aware of racism in college sports, should help give people the treatment they deserve, and should promote fairness/equality.This connects to Chasing Space by Leland Melvin because it shows what kind of racism he might have experienced when he was aiming for a football career. It helps the reader understand what he went through for his football career.

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On June 2, 2021, the National Football League (NFL) announced it would discontinue the use of race norming-the practice of assuming a lower baseline of cognitive abilities in Black players-in legal settlements for concussion-related injuries. For the past several years, Black former professional football players, led by former Pittsburgh Steelers Kevin Henry and Najeh Davenport, had been speaking out against the practice. Henry, Davenport and colleagues demonstrated that race norming was interfering with their ability to receive compensation and benefits from the settlement. Black retirees, who are overrepresented in the number of former players, staked legitimate claims about their impaired health after risking their minds and bodies for this American sport. Bottom line: the race norming practice limited Black players' access to the compensation they were rightfully owed.

In 2013, the NFL settled for $765 million after more than 4,500 retired players brought concussion-related lawsuits against the league. In theory, approximately 18,000 former players were eligible to receive the settlement, which is meant to cover compensation, medical exams, further research, and legal fees for concussion-related neurological diseases such as dementia, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease and chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE). While this settlement seemed like a victory to some, Black players quickly found out that it would be harder to access these funds because the NFL required that cognitive tests used be adjusted for race. With this in mind, Henry and Davenport quietly filed a lawsuit against the NFL in the fall of 2020.

"Black former players are automatically assumed (through a statistical manipulation called 'race-norming') to have started with worse cognitive functioning than White former players. As a result, if a Black former player and a White former player receive the exact same raw scores on a battery of tests designed to measure their current cognitive functioning, the Black player is presumed to have suffered less impairment, and he is therefore less likely to qualify for compensation," their lawsuit contended.

The June announcement was, rightly, met with shock that the practice had even been in use. But for those of us who are attuned to the actions and strategies of the most profitable and popular professional sport league in the United States, the news wasn't much of a surprise. It is just the latest example on the laundry list of the NFL's anti-Black, racist and discriminatory practices over the past decades. For the NFL, race norming depends on the belief that race is a binary, biological concept, and therefore that differences in Black bodies and minds are not only existent, but quantifiable. But they're wrong on all accounts: race norming is an inherently anti-Black form of scientific racism that is evidence of slavery's afterlife.

As Black feminist anthropologists-one who specializes in sport (Canada) and the other in medicine and public health (Carter)-interested in the social and lived experience of Blackness in the United States, we question how one's interactions with the social world are influenced by one's racialized experiences. The ways that Black football players navigate their time as current and former NFL athletes point to the continued social inequities that plague the league beyond claims of anti-Black racism. This is the same league whose cheerleaders accused it of gender discrimination. A league where only one player on an active roster has felt comfortable disclosing their sexuality as a gay man. A league where only three of 32 head coaches are Black and where some teams maintain racist caricatures as mascots. And a league where Black athletes account for more than 70 percent of the labor force on the gridiron.

When we reconsider the racial demographics of this situation alongside the plantation metaphors that riddle play in the NFL, then the injuries that athletes sustain, especially concussions and their side effects, can be classified, in the words of Saidiya Hartman, as the afterlife of slavery. And these injuries, vis-à-vis concussions and subsequent neurological disorders, are just one of the ways that anti-Blackness will continue to impact athletes long after they retire and are no longer affiliated with their professional teams. Often, these athletes' lives are fundamentally changed by their experience with the sport.

In his investigation of the spectacle and business of hockey, scholar Nathan Kalman-Lamb writes of the structural importance of injury, pain and violence to a team spectator sport. And as despicable a notion as this is, it's true. These are woven into the fabric of football. Largely for this reason, average NFL careers across all playing positions are only 2.66 years long. Thus, the tag "Not For Long," from sociologist Robert Turner's ethnography of NFL athletes, rings true as ever. Given the capitalist impulse of the league, these athletes are cared for just enough to protect the investment that has been made in their labor. NFL teams spent over $500 million on injuries in 2019, but the question becomes, whose bodies, injuries and health matter most to the league?

By requiring race norming to determine neurocognitive impairments in former players, the NFL acted as a racialized organization, as defined by sociologist Victor Ray, legitimizing the unequal distribution of resources to the majority of their players. Not only did this practice extend the NFL's participation in anti-Black practices, it also allowed the league to live up to its capitalist ideals. By 2015, the agreement in the settlement had been updated to nearly $1 billion available for settlement claims funded by the NFL. Even with the NFL's overwhelming financial prominence, race norming was one way the league could more closely moderate who was eligible (read: worthy) for a settlement. Yet, despite its contemporary uses, race norming can be traced back to plantation slavery, eugenics efforts globally and a long history of racial science used to justify the belief in inferior racial groups. These misguided scientific endeavors are rooted in an idea that Black people's bodies are inherently different from white people's bodies.

Scholars Lucia Trimbur, Lundy Braun and Dorothy Roberts have outlined that race norming (also called race correction and ethnic adjustment) and more broadly race-based medicine are not new phenomena. Such statistical practice has been used in medical specialties like pulmonology, neuropsychology, obstetrics, urology and nephrology. Braun 's work reveals Thomas Jefferson's "discovery" of differences in pulmonary function between Black enslaved people and white people-rooted in his beliefs that Black enslaved people had lower lung capacity than whites. This "fact" spread and then directly impacted the development of race correction in spirometers-an apparatus still used to measure respiratory disease today.

In nephrology, eGFR, another race-normed test, is the gold standard for measuring kidney function. This test measures levels of creatine and adjusts for gender, age and race. In 1999, a study developed a statistical prediction equation for eGFR based on race because scientists "determined" that Black people's muscle mass "on average" was higher than white people's-which they argued leads to higher kidney function. This deduction is not only flawed because race is not biological (nor is it genetically linked), but also because the muscle mass of living humans simply cannot be measured feasibly in clinics, according to nephrologist Nwamaka D. Eneanya.

Despite calls from the nation's leading experts to end its use, the test continues to persist. Race norming practices in lung and kidney function mirror the NFL's use of cognitive impairments. The impacts of these anti-Black practices within medicine are not just dire because of potential financial compensation but because there are real consequences on Black people's health and well-being in this country.

Outside of these examples and off the gridiron, these findings about race norming are reminiscent of studies that show bias in pain treatment based on assumptions of biological differences between white and Black patients, unequal COVID-19 treatment and outcomesfor Black patients, the ongoing Black maternal health crisis as Black women face higher rates of pregnancy-related deaths, the misdiagnosis of diseases like amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) in Black patients, and countless other ways that racialized and gendered biases influence the care of historically marginalized groups.

Recently, scientists announced an effort to study the connections between the NFL and ALS, the illness commonly referred to as Lou Gehrig's Disease, after the famous Yankee baseball Hall-of-Famer. As of the writing of this piece, 13 former NFL players have come forward with an ALS diagnosis. In a league where 70 percent of players are Black and nearly 73 percent nonwhite, only two Black men with ALS have come forward, while the other 11 persons with ALS are white. These lopsided ratios suggest the ways that the environment, bias, structural inequities and racial capitalism in slavery's multiple afterlives impact medical diagnosis and care-not simply who gets a settlement from the NFL.

Those who submitted claims for this concussion-related settlement are navigating the NFL's anti-Black afterlife. Concussions are a major component of this, given they are underreported during play and so little is known about their long-term effects in living former players. Through this system, as Hortense Spillers suggests, the bodies of these Black players are reduced from their full humanity to merely flesh. We must continue to examine anti-Blackness in its full extent in order to keep Black bodies from harm, injury and, most importantly, a premature death, as we continue to live in slavery's afterlife.

This is an opinion and analysis article; the views expressed by the author or authors are not necessarily those of Scientific American.

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The NFL’s Racist ‘Race Norming’ Is an Afterlife of Slavery

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On June 2, 2021, the National Football League (NFL) announced it would discontinue the use of race norming-the practice of assuming a lower baseline of cognitive abilities in Black players-in legal settlements for concussion-related injuries. For the past several years, Black former professional football players, led by former Pittsburgh Steelers Kevin Henry and Najeh Davenport, had been speaking out against the practice.