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Για τα παιδιά που αποτέλεσαν την έμπνευση μας και δεν θα σταματήσουν ποτέ να αποτελούν την ελπίδα μας

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Για τα παιδιά που αποτέλεσαν την έμπνευση μας και δεν θα σταματήσουν ποτέ να αποτελούν την ελπίδα μας

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ΘΕΟΔΟΣΙΑΔΟΥ ΓΕΩΡΓΙΑ – ΕΛΕΝΗ
ΚΕΡΚΥΡΟΠΟΥΛΟΣ ΜΑΡΚΟΣ
ΚΟΠΑΣΑΚΗΣ ΔΗΜΗΤΡΙΟΣ
ΛΥΣΙΤΣΑ ΓΕΩΡΓΙΑ
ΝΙΚΟΛΟΒΑ ΜΑΡΙΑ
ΠΑΠΑΔΟΠΟΥΛΟΣ ΑΝΑΣΤΑΣΙΟΣ
ΣΤΡΟΓΓΥΛΟΣ ΕΥΘΥΜΙΟΣ

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Κλιματική αλλαγή και ενέργεια

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Κλιματική αλλαγή και ενέργεια

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Οι πάγοι λιώνουν, η πολική αρκούδα χάνει τον βιότοπό της, η στάθμη της θάλασσας ανεβαίνει και τα ακραία καιρικά φαινόμενα εμφανίζονται όλο και πιο συχνά.

Η κλιματική αλλαγή δεν αμφισβητείται πια από κανέναν σοβαρό πολίτη. Δυναμικά κινήματα της νεολαίας, όπως το Fridays for the Future, δείχνουν ότι τα μέτρα για την αντιμετώπιση της κλιματικής αλλαγής είναι πια ένα κοινωνικό αίτημα.

Πρέπει όμως να είμαστε πάντα ενημερωμένοι και έτοιμοι να αλλάξουμε συνήθειες ώστε να ζούμε ελευθερώνοντας όσο το δυνατό λιγότερο αέρια του θερμοκηπίου γίνεται.

Εύκολο; Μαθαίνουμε, κρίνουμε, επιλέγουμε τρόπο ζωής για την αντιμετώπιση της κλιματικής αλλαγής.

Μαθητές σε δράση για το κλίμα

Το πρόγραμμα "Από την ιδέα στην πράξη: μαθητές σε δράση για το κλίμα", στοχεύει στην κατάθεση, σχεδιασμό και υλοποίηση από τους μαθητές, καινοτόμων ιδεών για τη μείωση του ανθρακικού αποτυπώματος του σχολείου με απώτερο στόχο την αντιμετώπιση της κλιματικής κρίσης.

Το πρόγραμμα περιλαμβάνει:
Α. παρατήρηση και αυτοψίες από τους μαθητές, συνεντεύξεις με μέλη της σχολικής κοινότητας για την κατανόηση των προκλήσεων για τη μείωση του ανθρακικού αποτυπώματος
Β. διατύπωση του προβλήματος που θέλουν να λύσουν και επινόηση ιδεών για την επίλυσή του μέσα από τη μεθοδολογία "Design Thinking"
Γ. εφαρμογή λύσης τεχνικού τύπου και επιδίωξη αλλαγής συμπεριφοράς

Προτείνεται το πρόγραμμα να ενταχθεί στα υπάρχοντα μαθήματα π.χ. στα Εργαστήρια Δεξιοτήτων, στα μαθήματα Τεχνολογίας και Φυσικών Επιστημών, κλπ.

Το πρόγραμμα πραγματοποιείται με την ευγενική δωρεά του Ιδρύματος Σταύρου Νιάρχου (ΙΣΝ) και την υποστήριξη των ιδρυμάτων A. Γ. Λεβέντη και Μποδοσάκη.

Δράση για την κλιματική αλλαγή

Σε έναν κόσμο που αλλάζει ραγδαία, καλούμαστε να αντιμετωπίσουμε κλιματική και περιβαλλοντική κρίση που απειλεί τόσο τις ανθρώπινες δραστηριότητες και την υγεία μας, όσο και τα οικοσυστήματα παγκοσμίως. Προτείνουμε λοιπόν εδώ ένα πρόγραμμα για τη Β'θμια εκπαίδευση πιο προσανατολισμένο στην ενεργό δράση αντλώντας από το υλικό και την εμπειρία της οργάνωσης για την Ώρα της Γης. Μπορείτε να το αξιοποιήσετε για 7 διδακτικές ώρες στο πλαίσιο των εργαστηρίων δεξιοτήτων στην θεματική 'Φροντίζω το Περιβάλλον'.

Η κλιματική αλλαγή στα Εργαστήρια δεξιοτήτων

Η κλιματική αλλαγή είναι ένας από τους τρεις τομείς εκπαιδευτικών προγραμμάτων της θεματικής "Φροντίζω το Περιβάλλον" στα εργαστήρια Δεξιοτήτων. Σας προτείνουμε λοιπόν ένα σχέδιο προγράμματος 7 διδακτικών ωρών με στόχο την ενημέρωση, ευαισθητοποίηση και ενδυνάμωση για ανάληψη δράσης από μαθητές πρωτοβάθμιας εκπαίδευσης.

H Ώρα της Γης (Earth Hour) είναι μία παγκόσμια δράση που διοργανώνεται κάθε χρόνο το τελευταίο Σάββατο του Μαρτίου, ενθαρρύνοντας τους ανθρώπους, τις επιχειρήσεις και τους κρατικούς φορείς, να σβήνουν τoν μη απαραίτητο ηλεκτρικό φωτισμό για μια ώρα, ώστε να εξοικονομείται ενέργεια, σε μία συμβολική κίνηση διαμαρτυρίας για την κλιματική αλλαγή και την ανάγκη προστασίας της φύσης. Κάθε χρόνο καλούμε τα σχολεία σε δράση αλλά υπάρχουν πάντα και γενικές δραστηριότητες που μπορείτε να κάνετε με τους μαθητές.
Φέτος στις 27 Μαρτίου, από τις 20.30 έως τις 21.30, σβήνουμε συμβολικά τα φώτα για μια ώρα. Στέλνουμε όλοι μαζί το μήνυμα για μια νέα αρχή. Πως; Δηλώνοντας συμμετοχή εδώ και κάνοντας τα τρία απλά βήματα που περιγράφονται εδώ: Προβληματιζόμαστε, Μάθαίνουμε, Αναλάμβάνουμε δράση!

Κλιματική αλλαγή στον πλανήτη, στη χώρα, στο σπίτι μας!

Ο κύριος στόχος του προγράμματος είναι οι μαθητές να γνωρίσουν το φαινόμενο της κλιματικής αλλαγής, να κατανοήσουν πώς οι καθημερινές ανάγκες του σύγχρονου ανθρώπου και η κατανάλωση της ενέργειας επιβαρύνουν το περιβάλλον προκειμένου να ευαισθητοποιηθούν και να επιλέγουν πρακτικές και προϊόντα που εξοικονομούν ενέργεια. Το υλικό δημιουργήθηκε σε συνεργασία με την Εταιρία Προστασίας Πρεσπών.

Οικολογικό 24ωρο: επιδαπέδιο παιχνίδι για το κλίμα

Στο παιχνίδι αυτό οι παίκτες (σε 4 ομάδες) καλούνται να συμπεριφερθούν οικολογικά και να αξιολογήσουν το καθημερινό τους οικολογικό αποτύπωμα στο περιβάλλον και τις αντίστοιχες συνέπειές του, μέσα από ένα διασκεδαστικό τρόπο. Μπορείτε να τυπώσετε σε μεγάλο χαρτόνι το "ταμπλό" του παιχνιδιού ή αν θέλετε να δανειστείτε το επιδαπέδιο θα πρέπει να επικοινωνήσετε μαζί μας στο n.coutava@wwf.gr για να περάσετε να το παραλάβετε από τα γραφεία μας. Το επιδαπέδιο αποτελεί μεταφορά του αντίστοιχου επιτραπέζιου παιχνιδιού που περιλαμβάνεται στο βιβλίο "Η οικολογία στο μαγνητικό τραπέζι", εκδόσεις Καστανιώτη.

5 σε 1: Επιδαπέδιο παιχνίδι για την κλιματική αλλαγή

Θέλετε οι μαθητές σας να μάθουν κάποιες βασικές έννοιες για την κλιματική αλλαγή, χωρίς να κλειστείτε σε μια τάξη και μάλιστα με τρόπο ευχάριστο και σύντομο; Θέλετε να αξιολογήσετε τι συγκράτησαν από το πρόγραμμα περιβαλλοντικής εκπαίδευσης που κάνατε όλο τον χρόνο; Παίξτε λοιπόν μαζί με το WWF ταμπού, παντομίμα, ζωγραφομαχίες και πολλά άλλα σε ένα παιχνίδι για μικρούς και μεγάλους. Καλή ζαριά!

Ξεκινήστε ένα πρόγραμμα για την Κλιματική Αλλαγή ή βοηθήστε τους μαθητές σας να ανακεφαλαιώσουν τις γνώσεις τους για το θέμα με ένα παιχνίδι! Μοιράστε το φύλλο εργασίας και ζητήστε τους να λάβουν απαντήσεις, για την κάθε ερώτηση, από κάποιον άλλον συμμαθητή τους. Ο πρώτος που συμπληρώνει σωστά τις απαντήσεις φωνάζει bingo και κερδίζει!

Ενέργεια, Κατανάλωση και Κλιματική Αλλαγή

Αυτοτελείς εκπαιδευτικές δραστηριότητες για όσους από εσάς δεν μπορούν να αφιερώσουν περισσότερο χρόνο για να κάνουν ένα πλήρες πρόγραμμα περιβαλλοντικής εκπαίδευσης. Οι περισσότερες από τις δραστηριότητες αυτές έχουν μεταφραστεί από τις αντίστοιχες του WWF UK.

Θέλετε να οργανώσετε στην τάξη σας μία έρευνα για τις αιτίες της κλιματικής αλλαγής και τους τρόπους με τους οποίους μπορούμε ελαχιστοποιήσουμε τη συμβολή μας σε αυτή, εξοικονομώντας ενέργεια; Μπορείτε να διευρύνετε τη δράση σας κινητοποιώντας όλο το σχολείο να κάνει το ίδιο.

Ανθρώπινα δικαιώματα και περιβάλλον

Συχνά ξεχνάμε το δικαίωμα στο περιβάλλον, το δικαίωμα σε καθαρό περιβάλλον και στους πόρους που μας παρέχει το περιβάλλον, στον ίδιο τον ανοιχτό χώρο, το δικαίωμα να έχουν και τα παιδιά μας την πρόσβαση σε ένα αντίστοιχο περιβάλλον. Μέσα από το υλικό τα παιδιά καλούνται να εξετάσουν τις δικές τους απόψεις και στάσεις και να δουν πώς η καθημερινότητά τους επηρεάζει τα παγκόσμια ζητήματα.

Το ταξίδι στην πόλη του μέλλοντος...

Στόχος του εκπαιδευτικού εργαστηρίου είναι να δώσει την ευκαιρία στους μαθητές να παίξουν, να μάθουν, να προβληματιστούν και να βρούνε λύσεις για ένα βιώσιμο μέλλον. Μπορούμε να ξεχωρίσουμε τελικά τις επιθυμίες από τις ανάγκες μας; Γιατί όσο κι αν η τεχνολογία μπορεί να προσφέρει λύσεις, αν δεν μειώσουμε, ως ανθρωπότητα, τις καταναλωτικές μας ανάγκες, ο πλανήτης δεν τα βγάζει πέρα. Το πρόγραμμα υλοποιήθηκε με την υποστήριξη της εταιρείας FRIGOGLASS.

ECO2nomy: Ένα παιχνίδι για τον πλανήτη και την τσέπη μας!

Τι σχέση μπορεί να έχει το φαινόμενο του θερμοκηπίου με την...τσέπη μας; Κι όμως με αυτό το πολύ απλό παιχνίδι οι μαθητές σας θα έχουν την ευκαιρία να διασκεδάσουν μαθαίνοντας ότι εξοικονομώντας ενέργεια εξοικονομούμε και χρήματα. Θα χωριστούν σε δύο ομάδες: τους καταναλωτές και τους τραπεζίτες και οι πρώτοι θα κληθούν να "πρασινίσουν" έναν συμβολικό πλανήτη/δέντρο με τις πράξεις τους, ενώ οι δεύτεροι θα τους ανταμοίβουν για αυτές. Τα ποσά που αντιπροσωπεύουν το ετήσιο κέρδος από τις συγκεκριμένες πράξεις είναι πραγματικά και μπορείτε να τα δείτε αναλυτικά εδώ.

Το Κλίμα Είναι στο Χέρι σου

Σε αυτό το CD-ROM σας παρουσιάζουμε με τρόπο εύληπτο, πρωτότυπο και περιεκτικό, το πρόβλημα της υπερθέρμανσης του πλανήτη, τις συνέπειες, τις αιτίες και τις λύσεις. Το υλικό έχει διανεμηθεί στους Υπεύθυνους Περιβαλλοντικής Εκπαίδευσης και στα ΚΠΕ σε όλη την Ελλάδα, από όπου μπορούν να το δανείζονται τα σχολεία. Το CD-ROM δημιουργήθηκε με την ευγενική χορηγία του Ιδρύματος Μποδοσάκη, του Ιδρύματος Σταματίου-Δεκόζη-Βούρου και του Ιδρύματος Ιωάννου Φ.Κωστόπουλου.

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Κλίμα/Ενέργεια

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Κλίμα/Ενέργεια

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Εκπαιδευτικά παιχνίδια για την κλιματική αλλαγή/ΚΠΕ ΕΛΕΥΘΕΡΙΟΥ ΚΟΡΔΕΛΙΟΥ ΚΑΙ ΒΕΡΤΙΣΚΟΥ

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Εκπαιδευτικά παιχνίδια για την κλιματική αλλαγή/ΚΠΕ ΕΛΕΥΘΕΡΙΟΥ ΚΟΡΔΕΛΙΟΥ ΚΑΙ ΒΕΡΤΙΣΚΟΥ

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Η μεγάλη δίνη πλαστικών του Ειρηνικού Ωκεανού

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Η μεγάλη δίνη πλαστικών του Ειρηνικού Ωκεανού

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Φάλαινα πέθανε λόγω συσσώρευσης 40 κιλών πλαστικών απορριμμάτων στο στομάχι της

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Φάλαινα πέθανε λόγω συσσώρευσης 40 κιλών πλαστικών απορριμμάτων στο στομάχι της

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What lies under? (Ferdi Rizkiyanto, 2011)

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What lies under? (Ferdi Rizkiyanto, 2011)

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ΠΛΑΣΤΙΚΗ ΡΥΜΑΝΣΗ ΣΤΗ ΘΑΛΑΣΣΑ

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ΠΛΑΣΤΙΚΗ ΡΥΜΑΝΣΗ ΣΤΗ ΘΑΛΑΣΣΑ

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ΠΛΑΣΤΙΚΗ ΡΥΠΑΝΣΗ ΣΤΗ ΘΑΛΑΣΣΑ 1Ο ΓΥΜΝΑΣΙΟ ΓΙΑΝΝΙΤΣΩΝ

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Migrants | Award-Winning CG Animated Short Film

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Migrants | Award-Winning CG Animated Short Film

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Migrants | Award-Winning CG Animated Short Film about Climate change

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Environmental Pollution Animation 2 YouTube

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Environmental Pollution Animation 2 YouTube

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Environmental Pollution Animation 2  YouTube

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Khalil Chishtee's Plastic Bag Sculptures

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Khalil Chishtee's Plastic Bag Sculptures

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Επίδραση των μικροπλαστικών στο νερό και τα υδρόβια συστήματα

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Επίδραση των μικροπλαστικών στο νερό και τα υδρόβια συστήματα

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Environmental Science and Pollution Research

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Abstract

Surging dismissal of plastics into water resources results in the splintered debris generating microscopic particles called microplastics. The reduced size of microplastic makes it easier for intake by aquatic organisms resulting in amassing of noxious wastes, thereby disturbing their physiological functions. Microplastics are abundantly available and exhibit high propensity for interrelating with the ecosystem thereby disrupting the biogenic flora and fauna. About 71% of the earth surface is occupied by oceans, which holds 97% of the earth's water. The remaining 3% is present as water in ponds, streams, glaciers, ice caps, and as water vapor in the atmosphere. Microplastics can accumulate harmful pollutants from the surroundings thereby acting as transport vectors; and simultaneously can leach out chemicals (additives). Plastics in marine undergo splintering and shriveling to form micro/nanoparticles owing to the mechanical and photochemical processes accelerated by waves and sunlight, respectively. Microplastics differ in color and density, considering the type of polymers, and are generally classified according to their origins, i.e., primary and secondary. About 54.5% of microplastics floating in the ocean are polyethylene, and 16.5% are polypropylene, and the rest includes polyvinyl chloride, polystyrene, polyester, and polyamides. Polyethylene and polypropylene due to its lower density in comparison with marine water floats and affect the oceanic surfaces while materials having higher density sink affecting seafloor. The effects of plastic debris in the water and aquatic systems from various literature and on how COVID-19 has become a reason for microplastic pollution are reviewed in this paper.

Graphical abstract

Introduction

Increased productivity and slow biotic decomposition of plastic led to its cumulation in the environment leading to adverse effects in aquatics. The plastics entering into the marine environment may remain for hundreds and thousands of years, during which they get fragmented due to the mechanical and photochemical processes resulting in the formation of microplastics (< 5 mm) or nanoplastics (< 1 μm) (Espinosa et al. 2016). Plastics are organic polymers emanating from petroleum that includes polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinylchloride, and polyester, out of which PE and PP are standard, holding first and second positions respectively in the global market, followed by PET (Leng et al. 2018) accounting for around 18% in global production, making it the third most manufactured plastic. Albeit not as prevalent as polyethylene and polypropylene, PET due to its safe nature, light weight, affordability, and low manufacturing cost is primarily used as packaging material. With its 1.37-1.45 g cm −3 density, PET sinks rapidly and is particularly accessible for benthic species (Weber et al. 2018). While PET show resistance to weathering, fragmentation mechanisms are not immune to it and abiotic weathering is likely to occur by photooxidation and hydrolysis in marine environments. The pH variance in ocean may possibly alter the chemical balance of microplastics by raising or lowering the rate of chemical leach from their surface, so PET, which is commonly understood to be safe, may become dangerous in the near future (Piccardo et al. 2020).

Almost 700 aquatic species in the world were adversely affected by the introduction of microplastics, including sea turtles, penguins, and other crustaceans (Marn et al. 2020). However, the predicament due to microplastic depreciates as most sufferers go unexplored over the vast oceans (Pabortsava and Lampitt 2020). Ingression of plastics into the ecosystem is mainly due to the erroneous human actions or unrestrained wastes from water or sewage treatment plants and textile industries (Ayalew et al. 2012; Nitesh Singh and Balasubramanian 2014; Gonte et al. 2014; Sharma and Balasubramanian 2015; Rastogi and Kandasubramanian 2020b; Rastogi et al. 2020). The terrestrial plastic accretion ultimately flows into the water systems due to inadequate landfill interment systems (Anbumani and Kakkar 2018).

Additive-free microplastics are not chemically hazardous to aquatic organisms, but they create problems in physical conditions such as bowel obstructions (Udayakumar et al. 2021). Depending on the demand of products, certain additives are added to the virgin microplastics resulting in additional property of adsorption of pollutants present in water and thereby impersonate as vectors. Researches reveal the harmful threats plastic poses to human health at any point of the plastic lifecycle, from the extraction of fossil fuels to consumer use to disposal and furthermore (Gore et al. 2016; Gore and Kandasubramanian 2018b; Gharde and Kandasubramanian 2019; Issac and Kandasubramanian 2020). A summarised picture of recent impacts on human health is shown in Fig. 2. Since microplastics can adversely impact various organisms, so the risk of humans to get affected by microplastics cannot be overlooked. As humans are the ultimate consumers of sea foods (Saha et al. 2021) which are highly affected by microplastics, there is a high chance of microplastic transfer to humans (Smith et al. 2018). Presence of microplastics in tap water (Tong et al. 2020), sea salt (Selvam et al. 2020), and bottled water (Mason et al. 2018) are proven studies on how many ways they can reach the human body. Recent studies of microplastics in human stool (Zhang et al. 2021) and placenta (Ragusa et al. 2021) are examples of its presence in humans. If plastics can harm humans so badly, then what happens when we consume such minute particles which are even more dangerous still needs to be studied.

This paper discusses one of the increasing concerns of the present world, i.e., Microplastics. Plastic debris with varying sizes consisting of macro, meso, micro, and nano that are plenty in numbers get transported all over the oceans with waves and winds and found floating on the surface. The floating microplastics mistook as food get ingested, resulting in massive impacts on the health of aquatic organisms. Critical issues faced in plastic pollution depend on the nature of the debris and the pathways they follow to reach the marine ecosystem. Waste dismissal from treatment plants, overrun of sewerages during heavy rains, biosolid runoff from agricultural fields were the methods by which aquatic systems get contaminated by microplastics. Due to the challenges in identification and sorting, studies on microplastics are limited. This review describes the source, distribution, plastics in microplastics, effects of microplastics in marine water and fresh water systems, impact of COVID-19 in microplastic pollution, and the extent to which they affect the aquatic organisms thereby aiming to raise consciousness about the adverse effects of microplastics.

Microplastics-a boon or bane

Potentially harmful and obnoxious contamination caused by plastics has been troubling people for centuries. Nevertheless, a lot of research is being conducted over the past few decades on less visible plastic debris of size less than 5 mm, i.e., microplastics(Weis 2020). Microplastics are synthetic solid particles or polymer matrixes, of regular or irregular form with size range 1 μm-5 mm, of primary or secondary origin, insoluble in water (Frias and Nash 2019). Microplastics can be seen in the form of fiber, film, foam, sphere, and pellet (Cowger et al. 2020). Thompson et al. in 2004 described the accretion of microsized particles ranging in size 20 μm in aquatic systems as microplastics.

Several researchers studied impact of MPs on various marine organisms such as mussels (Paul-Pont et al. 2016; Gandara e Silva et al. 2016; Wang et al. 2020b), oysters (Green 2016; Gardon et al. 2018), copepods (Jeong et al. 2017; Choi et al. 2020), and so on and continued unabated (Seltenrich 2015). The deleterious effects of microplastics are even passed on to high tropic levels (Avio et al. 2017) indirectly through consumption of microplastic injected organisms.

During wastewater treatments, the reduced size of microplastics results in their infiltration and direct release into the water resources. Microplastics, in general, are considered resilient to biotic degradation. Certain materials are subject to biotic degradation through fungi and bacteria and are imbibed or passively adsorbed by consumers at successive tropical levels after degradation, resulting in blockage of the gastrointestinal system (A. Glaser 2019). Microplastic is identified in species at all phases of marine food chain (Setälä et al. 2018). The sum of MPs consumed differs around organisms and location, and also can vary substantially even in the same region. Aquatic organisms are well known to swallow microplastics along with their food, showing clear signs of several animals that consume microplastics due to the size similarity with their food (Desforges et al. 2015; Walkinshaw et al. 2020). Study results imply that nearly all aquatic organisms ingest microplastics, showing a considerable variation in the volume of ingestion among various species. Foreseeably, there are three forms of deleterious effects connected to absorption of microplastics: (1) physiological effects attributed to ingestion (Davidson and Dudas 2016; Pedersen et al. 2020). The greater the number of MPs intake, the more likely it is to have a risk on the consumed species, such as reduced development and variance in feed habits (Horton et al. 2018). (2) Deadly reactions from the discharge of hazardous substances-additives such as plasticizer, antioxidant, flame retardant, pigments, etc. incorporated during the manufacture of plastic may be leached into body tissues, resulting in induced changes or bioaccumulation. The toxicity can also differ according to the ratio of additives needed for each plastic (Botterell et al. 2019). (3) Noxious reaction to pollutants absorbed involuntarily by microplastics-large surface area due to weathering, longer exposure periods and hydrophobic nature promote the sorption of pollutants to microplastic surface at a higher concentration thus making it as a carrier for contaminants to enter into the aquatic species. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, PCB, DDT, organo halogenated pesticides, hexachlorocyclohexanes, and chlorinated benzenes are some of the common contaminants present on microplastics (O'Donovan et al. 2018). POPs like PBDE, PCB, and some other chemicals have found to imitate natural hormones, causing disorder in reproduction. The dynamics of the absorption of persistent organic pollutants into plastic material depend, of course, on the properties of both the particular polymer and the specific contaminant (da Costa et al. 2017). Humans get subjected to microplastics through cosmetics, eating habits, dust particles, and usage of plastic products. The proportion of microplastic in the marine ecosystem keeps increasing with the steady boosts in plastic production and thereby showing detrimental effects (Willis et al. 2017).

Sundry types of microplastics

Intense weathering and other mechanical actions results in splintering of plastics, thereby escalating secondary microplastics in the aquatic systems than the primary microplastics. Based on shape, microplastics subdivided into filaments, microbeads, nurdles, foams, and fragments. Biopolymers (Haider et al. 2019) present in addition to the synthetic microplastics are of less concern due to their less hydrophobicity, and biodegradability forming carbon dioxide and water.

Microplastics: provenance and distribution

Table 1 Study on abundance, types, and source of microplastics from various locations

Plastic wastes from households, industries, etc. act as a source that may enter into the marine system directly or by other water bodies, thereby raising its amount and affecting the life of aquatics (Nizzetto et al. 2016) (shown in Fig. 4).

In agriculture, microcapsule fertilizers primarily favored to avoid nitrate leaching to groundwater are a primary source of MP contamination in the marine ecosystem that flows out to oceans through paddy field channels, denoting a high volume of MP flow during irrigation than the non-irrigation season. Scratches and discoloration displaced on the top surface of microcapsules during the paddy runoff process imply the emission of secondary microplastics(Katsumi et al. 2020).

A study conducted by the government of UK in 2020 concluded that microplastics shed from vehicle tyres are now among the other major contributors of microplastic pollutions in the sea. Tyre is a blend of elastomer, carbon black, fiber, as well as other organic and inorganic materials that enhance its stability (Evangeliou et al. 2020). The major portion of tyre particles directly reach the sea though air or other waterways (Chen et al. 2020).

Fishing, fish hatcheries, and offshore drilling (Barboza et al. 2018) are all plastic sources that enter the aquatic systems directly and pose a threat to biota as secondary microplastics following a long-term deterioration. Inadequacy in the management of waste imparted the microplastic pollution in freshwater ecosystems (Free et al. 2014). The limited size and low densities of microplastics make them dispersed by winds and waves and are thus ubiquitous (Shahul Hamid et al. 2018). Plastic debrises drifted along with wastewaters are not successfully eliminated by treatment plants, and so gets cumulated in the atmosphere (Li et al. 2018; Akarsu et al. 2020; Naji et al. 2021). Source of microplastic ingestion can also occur in an indirect manner in which the organisms that accidentally feed on microplastics are fed directly by the higher organisms in the food web.

Apart from physiochemical processes, the nature and entry point of the source also persuade the microplastic allocation in the water resources. Source recognition is a salient feature to achieve an accurate appraisal of quantity of microplastics that enter into the marine surface and also to introduce viable handling measures. The probable impacts of microplastics can be accessed from its allocation all through the aquatic system. The impact of pollutants is less in place of fewer microplastics and high in a place where the microplastics get cumulated. So to lessen the impending risks, it is indispensable to understand the allocation of microplastics.

The distribution and transportation of microplastics guided intricately by a multitude of factors, such as weathering and fragmenting, biofouling, tides, and strong currents. Microplastics allocate between the floor of the ocean, column of water, seabed, coastline, and in ecology with different biological, physical, and chemical mechanisms occurring on microplastics at each compartment (Katija et al. 2017; Choy et al. 2019). Due to a lack of information of compartments, the implications and possibilities for diminution are unclear.

Role of plastics in the fate of microplastics

Microplastics consist of a complex array of polymers with repeated monomers that constitute the polymer's backbone. The fundamental distinction between polymer is this backbone structure that specifies the physicochemical properties of a plastic (Rochman et al. 2019). Plastics are classified into two thermoplastic and thermosetting plastic. Thermoplastic can melt on heating and solidifies on cooling. PE, PP, PS, PET, ABS, PC, PA, etc. all belongs to thermoplastics. Thermosets are those which remain in permanent solid state after being cured once and they include polyurethane, urea formaldehyde, vinyl ester, etc. MP, thus, not only consists of a single polymer, but originates from a diverse group of substances that are chemically specific (Rochman et al. 2019).

Bioavailability is the percentage of overall amount of particles available for absorption by an organism found in the environment (Vallero 2016). The bioavailability of microplastics can be influenced by a variety of factors of which the abundance and properties of plastic is an important one. With further decay and fragmentation of plastic particles, the availability of microplastic that becomes biologically available to species will rise with time (Botterell et al. 2019). However, microplastics are prone to alter density and buoyancy regularly due to biofouling and ingestion, thereby being bioavailable to species at various levels throughout the water column. Higher density plastics are biologically available to benthic species whereas lower density plastics are mainly bioavailable to pelagic species. The microplastic composition is therefore an essential characteristic (de Sá et al. 2018).

Plastic composition refers to type of polymer, which in turn defines the density of debris. Plastics with low density, such as PP and PE, create debris that are less denser than water and is thus likely to stay floating, whereas PET, PS, and cellulose acetate contain plastics which are denser than water and hence appear to settle (Driedger et al. 2015) with respect to their rise and sink velocity.

The velocity of rise and sink (푤 r) (Mountford and Morales Maqueda 2019) is calculated (Eq. 1) by

$$ {\mathrm{w}}_{\mathrm{r}}=\frac{\left|{\rho}_{\omega }-{\rho}_P\right|}{\rho_{\omega }-{\rho}_P}\sqrt{\frac{\left|{\rho}_{\omega }-{\rho}_P\right| gL}{\rho_P}} $$

ρ P is the plastic density, ρ ω is the density of oceanwater, g is the acceleration due to gravity, and L is the frictional length (10−6 m).

Degradation of microplastic. Reprinted with permission from ref. (Guo and Wang 2019). Copyright 2019, ELSEVIER

The negative impacts on microplastic-exposed species can be grouped into 2 types-physical and chemical effects. Physical refers to microplastic shape, size, and concentration, whereas chemical relates to its associated harmful chemicals (Campanale et al. 2020). The sorption rates for hydrophobic contaminants by microplastics varies with its shape and type of polymer (Tourinho et al. 2019). Microplastics are often present as part of a combination or a complex collection of chemicals thereby showing that it can accumulate organic chemicals and trace metals from its surroundings. Additives or raw materials obtained from plastics and chemicals from the surrounding medium are the main chemicals contained in MP (Campanale et al. 2020). Owing to their elevated surface area to charge ratio, MPs adsorb persistent organic pollutant and other inorganic contaminants. Intake of MPs by marine animals results in higher toxicity due to the aggregation of organic hydrophobic compounds (Sunday 2020). Polymer's physical and chemical property such as diffusivity, surface area, crystalline, and hydrophobic nature determines the quantity and type of chemicals to be accumulated by the plastic (Rochman et al. 2019). Polyethylene and polypropylene rubbery polymers are supposed to diffuse more chemicals than the PET, PVC glass polymers. PE often displays a higher affinity for toxins than other plastics (Robeson et al. 2015). In exception, PS glass polymer (Hüffer and Hofmann 2016) shows a higher sorption rate due to the existence of benzene ring that enables the addition of chemicals onto the polymer thus showing the relation between sorption and chemistry of plastic (Alimi et al. 2018).

MP when consumed by aquatic species, gets bioaccumulated, thereby displaying particle or chemical toxicity and mixture effects contributing to disturbance in their metabolism, feed patterns, development, and reproduction with differing degrees of toxicological risks for each species (Sunday 2020). For example, polystyrene concentration resulted in diminished chlorophyll concentration in algae (Hazeem et al. 2020), whereas Daphnia magna displayed impairment in reproductive cycles (Aljaibachi and Callaghan 2018).

Effects of microplastics in various organisms

Table 2 Additives present in microplastics

Sussarellu et al. ( 2016), in their studies, showed the adverse impact of polystyrene microplastics on reproduction and feeding of oysters due to amendation in their food intake and energy distribution. On exposure to microsized polystyrene, oyster showed a reduction in number of eggs produced, ovocyte quality, and sperm motility. Fertilization in oysters occurs externally in the sea where the eggs and sperms are released, but due to the intake of micro polystyrene, fertilization is affected by reduced sperm speed and its fewer amount (Sussarellu et al. 2016). In its feces, a 6-μm micro polystyrene ingested by oyster was found, with no cumulation in the gut suggesting a large polystyrene ejection. The yield and growth of offsprings of microplastic exposed oysters dropped by 41% and 18%, respectively. The study stipulated information on the hostile effects of microsized PS on development and reproduction of oysters with considerable impacts on progeny. Apportioning of energy from reproduction to growth with the abatement in fertilization success is the result of exposure studies of polystyrene (Galloway and Lewis 2016).

In 2019, Bessa et al. studied the contagion in the aquatic ecosystem of Antarctic by assessing the presence of microplastics in gentoo penguins. In Antarctic regions, water contained microplastics, but the idea about its ingestion and entry through the food chain has not been studied in depth. Seabirds identified as biological markers of changes occurring in the environment also contemplated as indicators of environmental plastic pollution. The limited motion of gentoo penguins outside their vicinity makes them a standard indicator for the tracking of plastic particles in Antarctic marine systems. The occurrence, identification, and characterization of microplastics analyzed from the scats of gentoo penguins. Penguin scats from two different islands were collected, which contained 58% of microfibers, 26% fragments, and 16% of films. The entry of microplastics into the gastrointestinal tract of penguins are either directly due to misconception of plastics as food or feeding on contaminated prey or through polluted waters. The plastics debris gets cumulated in the guts of penguins preventing it from the consumption of food and also results in the absorption of toxic substances from water, thus affecting their growth and development (Bessa et al. 2019).

Cole et al. ( 2015) showed how ingestion of MPs affected the feed habit, fertility, and functioning of zooplanktons like copepods (shown in Fig. 6). The studies conducted on Calanus helgolandicus copepod mostly found in the Atlantic, a vital species acting as prey for larvae of many fishes due to their supersize, substantial amount of lipids and opulence. Ingestion of microplastics by copepod shows significant impacts on feeding, hatching, and their health. Copepod exposed to polystyrene microbeads of 20 μm resulted in a 40% reduction in the carbon biomass with a deficiency in their energy, showing the rapid consumption of lipids, thereby affecting their growth. The energy deficiencies also result in the death of copepods. Microplastic long-term exposure leads to small-sized eggs with reduced hatchings(Cole et al. 2015).

Effects of copepod in the controlled and microplastic medium. Reprinted with permission from Ref (Cole et al. 2015). Copyright; 2015. ACS

Zocchi and Sommaruga ( 2019) studied how the toxicity of glyphosate, a herbicide, varies with the incorporation of microplastics. The tests were conducted on Daphnia Magna as it is both microplastic and glyphosate sensitive. Daphnia Magna crustaceans are food for many aquatic organisms and feed themselves with small particles present in the water. Three glyphosate formulations like glyphosate-monoisopropylamine salt, glyphosate acid, roundup gran, and two different microplastics consisting of beads and fibers were used. Without the incorporation of microplastics, the fatality rate was high for glyphosate-monoisopropylamine salt 23.3%, but when microplastics were incorporated, a modification in the toxicity observed with the highest mortality rate for glyphosate acid. With polyethylene beads, glyphosate acid showed the toxicity of 53.3%, and with polyamide fibers, it showed 30%. So modification on noxious effects of contaminants is observed on combining with microplastics besides the pessimistic effects of microplastics alone. Daphnia Magna shows high fatality when ingested with microplastics(Zocchi and Sommaruga 2019).

Mussels, when subjected to microplastics, results in their grip loss due to a reduction in thread production that helps them to stick. Mussels adhere together, forming reefs for their shelter and breeding, thereby playing an imperative role in aquatic systems (Green et al. 2019). Berglund et al. studied the microplastic effects on mussels in 2019. An elevation in the number of microplastics observed with an increase in the mussel size. Large-sized mussel absorbs large amounts of water while storing higher quantities of fibers. The size-related filter function is less evident for plastic debris. The sum of fibers was higher than the number of plastics, and that may be due to the lower concentration or size of plastics. Elevation in the concentration of microplastics leads to fecal impaction or malnutrition in mussels. Furthermore, the ability to attract pollutants is high for plastics that would results in the emission of noxious substances into the mussels (Berglund et al. 2019).

The presence of microplastics and fibres were found in the demersal shark species of united kingdom for the first time (Parton et al. 2020). The major intake route of MP by sharks can be through its foods, which are mostly crustaceans and molluscs, or through direct feeding (Germanov et al. 2019). Owing to the small particle size detected by the researchers, there is a chance of immediate excretion but however the presence of chemicals bound to the fibres can have repercussions on their reproductive cycle and immune systems (Parton et al. 2020).

A work by Besseling et al. on 2017 reported on how the microplastic consumption increases susceptibility of marine worms to chemicals (PCB). Arenicola marina when exposed to polyethylene for 28 days showed reduced feeding and growth, high mortality rate, and bioaccumulation (Besseling et al. 2017). Table 3 shows microplastic effects on different species along with the polymer type, microplastic size, number of specimens used, and its experimental conditions.

Table 3 Study of microplastic impacts on various aquatic species

The presence of microplastics detected at all stages in the food web affecting the gastrointestinal tracts and tissues, which varies with the genre and emplacement. Organisms present in the marine ecosystem mistook microplastics as their food due to their similar size. Studies imply that all marine organisms intake microplastics, but the amount of their ingestion may vary with the type of species. It is important to monitor the excessive use of plastic additives and to enact laws and standards to control plastic litter sources due to the resulting danger of MPs to marine biota. Figure 7 depicts adequate primary methods adapted to reduce pollution.

Current studies on microplastic pollution

Microplastics have been found in the air we breathe (Enyoh et al. 2019), in the food we consume (Eerkes-Medrano et al. 2019; Zhang et al. 2020c, b), or in the soil where our crops grow (Corradini et al. 2019). They were discovered on peak of Everest (Napper et al. 2020) and at the depths of the deep ocean (Zhang et al. 2020a; Courtene-Jones et al. 2020). In humans, existence of microplastics in human stool (Schwabl et al. 2019) and for the first time MP fragments in human placenta (Ragusa et al. 2021) were confirmed.

Even the most isolated and pristine areas of the earth have been invaded by plastic particles. A recent study (Ross et al. 2021) found that the Arctic is rampantly contaminated by MP fibers that would possibly come from the laundering of clothes. Because of the increase in textile manufacturing and the lack of microfiber deterioration, aggregation of microfibers will become more extreme(Liu et al. 2021). In 96 out of 97 samples collected from around the arctic ocean, the most detailed analysis to date has detected microplastics. Fibers accounted for more than 92% of the MP and 73% of that were found to be polyester having the same size and color as those found in garments (Ross et al. 2021). The reduced microfiber density (Brahney et al. 2020) can make them more transportable over a long range by water and wind (Liu et al. 2021) and their high surface to volume ratio can bind more noxious contaminants, potentially making them more dangerous to the aquatic species that other forms of microplastics (Liu et al. 2019). A large proportion of microfiber can slip out of treatment plants owing to their limited size and get discharged into marine habitats (Napper and Thompson 2016).

Glass reinforced plastics primarily used in boat manufacturing due to their non-corrosive properties are a new emerging pollutant whose breakdown results in the release of microplastic and fiberglass. Powdered GRP, when exposed to blue mussel, revealed the presence of MP in the mantle cavity and inflammation in the gills, while in daphnia magna it culminated in the formation of clumps of smaller polymer materials in their appendages, resulting in an increase in its average weight, allowing it to sink, impacting its swimming pattern (Ciocan et al. 2020).

Countless numbers of marine organisms are at risk of swallowing or getting entangled in an enormous amount of plastic waste dumped in the water, and what attracts species to interact with plastic in the oceans is still a confounding aspect. One of the speculating factor might be the way plastic resembles food such as plastic bags are mistaken for jelly fish. A study on sea turtles reveals that aquatic species are not only drawn to plastic waste by how it appears, but also by how it smells. Plastic debris get covered with algae and other microorganism after several days in the oceans that they start to scent like food. Sea turtles react to airborne olfactory receptors originating from bio-fouled plastics in the similar manner they react to food odors (Pfaller et al. 2020), so the places where plastic wastes are concentrated can act as olfactory traps (Savoca 2018) that can drive the attention of other species and can be harmful.

Eurythenes plasticus, a new amphipod crustaceans occurring in marine habitats, was named after the plastic waste found in its hindgut by researchers. The particle found was about 649.648 μm long and was 83.74% similar to PET, a common polymer used in bottles, food packaging, and textile fabrics was found in the guts of the species. The shrimp-like creature, about two inches long, was found 20,000 ft underwater in the Pacific Ocean (WESTON et al. 2020) reveals that even creatures from undiscovered habitat are already polluted with plastics as they are feeding on MPs throughout their lifespan, which may have acute and permanent health consequences. Although the ecotoxicological effects of microplastic toxicity on deep-sea amphipods have yet to be studied, it is quite possible that the other undiscovered species living in the depths of pacific ocean are equally vulnerable to the ingestion of microplastic fibres (Peng et al. 2020). The settling of MP on its own to the bottom of the oceans may take several years, as in the case of spherical MP, it may take around 15 years and for fibers it may take about 6 and 8 months (Chubarenko et al. 2016). The development of ecocorona by macromolecule or other microorganism on the MP surface can change its size, hydrophobic nature, and chemical behavior and can act as a potential method for MPs to enter seabed (Galloway et al. 2017). The biofouled particles seem to be absorbed faster but slowly excreted when reaching the seabed, resulting in their accumulation on the tissue of species that cause malnutrition or impaired growth (Michels et al. 2018).

The Norway Nephrops norvegicus lobsters are deep sea scavengers (Andrades et al. 2019) that inhabits in European climatic conditions and are a strong bioindicator (Cau et al. 2019) of MP pollution. Analysis performed by Italian scientists in 2020 (Cau et al. 2020) found that crustaceans can modulate the deterioration of microplastics into tiny particles in which their stomach can essentially serve as a grinding mill that grinds the plastic particles into even smaller ones thus affecting the lower trophic levels of food chain. In the study, 85% of the examined specimens showed higher amount of microplastics in the intestine than in the stomach with length of 0.23 ± 0.16 and 1 ± 0.16 mm, respectively, indicating that a considerable proportion of absorbed microplastics leaving the stomach are broken by gastric mills, preceded by filtering systems that discourage larger particles from accessing the intestine. These results demonstrate the presence of a new form of "secondary" microplastic releasing into the marine environment by the lobsters (Cau et al. 2020). However, earlier studies (Welden and Cowie 2016) have already shown that continuous fed on plastics by lobsters results in higher mortality rate or affects their growth and reproduction.

Clustered mussels serve as barriers to microplastic waste poured into the ocean by delaying the ocean water that flows over it, leading to the tripling of the amount of plastic taken up by the filter feeders (Lim et al. 2020). The greater surface area of the mussel bed is thus more likely to settle higher concentrations of waste particles floating over them, thereby acting as a natural sink (Nel and Froneman 2018).

COVID-19 and microplastics

PPE overuse during pandemic exacerbates plastic waste in the seas as the final conclusion of all sources of degradation is geared toward the ocean. The problem will escalate as the outbreak drifts on, leading to a potential spike in the already existing plastic pollution in the marine environments (De-la-Torre and Aragaw 2021).

Conclusion and future scope

Microsized particles, commonly referred to as microplastics, are infesting the aquatic habit globally where a vast array of organisms absorb these minute particles in which a significant portion of the population comprises plastic remnants, causing chronic effects. The eminence of plastics as a carrier for the transportation of toxic substances or as an abrasive that physically harm the species in the habitat is far less evident. Microplastic concentrations persist to an upsurge in the ecosystem as a consequence of the steer emergence of primary microplastic and the disintegration of larger plastics. Microplastic impacts epitomize a severe issue in almost every marine system on the earth, regardless of how isolated from potentially polluting sources. However, the study on freshwater micropollutants are limited compared to that of marine systems; recently, it has become a matter of great concern. Due to the nearness to sources and reachability to more pollutants, MP present in freshwater is more critical to accumulation of contaminants. Therefore, species in freshwater environments can undergo greater exposure, particularly in the vicinity of industrial and densely populated areas where both hydrophobic toxins and microplastics may have higher concentrations. A reduction in growth of Gammarus pulex, freshwater crustacean, was observed with increasing polystyrene concentration (Redondo-Hasselerharm et al. 2018).

In order to tackle the destructive impacts of microplastics, low cost, high-quality, and environmentally sustainable plastic waste management is required. Although the main problem of plastic waste in water originates mainly from soil-based activities, it is recommended that this issue be addressed. Waste management measures include the minimization of sources, innovation in products, reuse of water, recycling and mulching, the transformation of waste into power, and hindering of debris at entrance points into the ocean. Microplastics may be used as an alternative to metals such as aluminium and its combination as it causes adverse toxic impacts on human body under administration, the application of microplastics in medicines as an active and alternate ingredient can treat the disease like duodenal ulcer and gastritis in the future. The removal and biodegradation of microplastics from water and aquatic systems are still limited in the laboratory which can be commercialized under large scale using microorganisms such as fungi, protozoans, and bacterial spores in the future. Methods can be implemented before the microplastics get converted into nanoplastics by segregating the high-density plastics that accumulate at the bottom and the low-density plastics that float at the surface of the water, to prevent further aquatic contaminations. This can be accomplished by the incorporation of coagulants; however, the harmful effects of these materials in our human body is still not figured out. The sewage outlets from industries fitted with ceramic filters can hinder the microplastics from entering into the water bodies preventing its contamination. In addition, considering the role of COVID-19 pandemic in microplastic pollutions, there is high need for environmentally responsible solutions so more and more study on biodegradable PPEs need to be done in order to prevent a potential pandemic of microplastics.

Acknowledgement

The authors are thankful to Dr. C. P. Ramanarayanan, Vice-Chancellor of DIAT (DU), Pune for the motivation, and support. The first author acknowledges Dr. B. Srinivasulu, Principal Director & Head of CIPET: Institute of Plastic Technology (IPT), Kochi, for the support. The authors are thankful to Mr. RaviPrakashMagisetty, Mr. Prakash M. Gore, and Mr. Swaroop Gharde, for their persistent technical support throughout the review writing. The authors are thankful to all anonymous Reviewers and the Editor for improving the quality of the revised manuscript by their valuable suggestions, and comments.

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The authors did not receive any funding for this work.

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1. CIPET: Institute of Plastics Technology (IPT), HIL Colony, Edayar Road, Pathalam, Eloor, Udyogamandal P.O., Kochi, Kerala, 683501, India

Merlin N Issac

2. Nano-Surface Texturing Laboratory, Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Defence Institute of Advanced Technology (DU), Ministry of Defence, Girinagar, Pune, Maharashtra, 411025, India

Balasubramanian Kandasubramanian

Contributions

MI performed literature study, data analysis, and technical writing. BK supervised the the results and data analysis and performed the technical revisions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Correspondence to Balasubramanian Kandasubramanian.

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Issac, M.N., Kandasubramanian, B. Effect of microplastics in water and aquatic systems. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28, 19544-19562 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-13184-2
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Keywords

Plastic debris

Microplastics

Marine system

Aquatic organisms

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Effect of microplastics in water and aquatic systems

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Surging dismissal of plastics into water resources results in the splintered debris generating microscopic particles called microplastics. The reduced size of microplastic makes it easier for intake by aquatic organisms resulting in amassing of noxious wastes, thereby disturbing their physiological functions.

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