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The Founding of the Kingdom of Israel (c. 1000 BCE)

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The Founding of the Kingdom of Israel (c. 1000 BCE)

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The unification of the Israelite tribes under King Saul and then King David, around c. 1000 BCE, created the Kingdom of Israel. When David conquered Jerusalem, and his son Solomon consolidated his rule, Israel's leading role in the religious and political history of the ancient Near East had begun. The building of the First Temple in Jerusalem became an integral part of Jewish religious life.

Finkelstein, Israel, and Silberman, Neil Asher. The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology’s New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts. Free Press, 2001.

Dever, William G. What Did the Biblical Writers Know and When Did They Know It?. Eerdmans, 2001.

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The Zhou Dynasty Overthrows the Shang Dynasty (c. 1046 BCE)

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The Zhou Dynasty Overthrows the Shang Dynasty (c. 1046 BCE)

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It was about 1046 BCE that the Zhou Dynasty overthrew the Shang Dynasty in China and started the Zhou era. The Zhou introduced a main political philosophy, the so-called "Mandate of Heaven," which legitimized the authority of the ruler as divinely appointed. During the early Zhou period, elements of feudalism were found because power was distributed among regional leaders or lords. However, this set the foundation for China's later imperial system.

Shaughnessy, Edward L. China: Empire and Civilization. Oxford University Press, 2000.

Keightley, David N. The Ancestral Landscape: Time, Space, and Community in Late Shang China. University of California, Berkeley, 2000.

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The Decline of the Egyptian New Kingdom (c. 1070 BCE)

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The Decline of the Egyptian New Kingdom (c. 1070 BCE)

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Starting to decline after the reign of Ramesses III, who reigned from circa 1186 to 1155 BCE, Egypt's New Kingdom had been dominant for many centuries. The empire also faced the invasions of the Sea Peoples, along with internal strife and economic problems, which weakened it further. At around 1070 BCE, Egypt entered into a period of fragmentation and weakness leading to the Third Intermediate Period of Egypt during which time Egypt was frequently under the control of foreign powers.

Wilkinson, Toby. The Rise and Fall of Ancient Egypt. Random House, 2010.

Shaw, Ian. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press, 2000.

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The Expansion of the Phoenicians (c. 1100-800 BCE)

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The Expansion of the Phoenicians (c. 1100-800 BCE)

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It was during this period that the Phoenicians-a Levantine seafaring people-extended their reach across the Mediterranean, establishing great colonies in North Africa (most notably, Carthage), Spain, and Sicily; these greatly facilitated the diffusion of culture and trade. The single most important contribution of the Phoenicians to global culture was the alphabet-a system of writing ancestral to modern scripts.

Markoe, Glenn E. Phoenicians. University of California Press, 2000.

Moscati, Sabatino. The World of the Phoenicians. Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1968.

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The Mycenaean Civilization Decline (c. 1200 BCE)

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The Mycenaean Civilization Decline (c. 1200 BCE)

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The Mycenaean civilization dominated Greece during the Late Bronze Age. Its collapse, around 1200 BCE, could be attributed to internal conflicts, natural calamities, and other external pressures such as the so-called invasion of the Sea Peoples. The fall of Mycenaean Greece precipitated a period called the Greek Dark Ages, where literacy and large-scale building showed extreme decline.

Drews, Robert. The End of the Bronze Age: Changes in Warfare and the Catastrophe Ca. 1200 B.C. Princeton University Press, 1993.

Dickinson, Oliver. The Aegean from Bronze Age to Iron Age: Continuity and Change Between the Twelfth and Eighth Centuries BC. Routledge, 2006.

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The Iron Age Begins                                (c. 1200-1000 BCE)

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The Iron Age Begins                                (c. 1200-1000 BCE)

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The transition from the Bronze Age into the Iron Age was a vital technological shift. Starting around 1200 BCE in the Near East, iron tools and weapons gradually replaced bronze tools and weapons, finding their way into Europe and elsewhere. Iron tools were cheaper and stronger than those made of bronze, and this fact helped shape the nature of agriculture, war, and people's daily lives. This development contributed also to the decline of older Bronze Age empires.

Snodgrass, Anthony M. Archaeology and the Emergence of Greece. Cornell University Press, 2006.

Waldbaum, Jane C. “The First Archaeological Appearance of Iron and the Transition to the Iron Age.” The Coming of the Age of Iron, Yale University Press, 1980.

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 The Late Bronze Age Collapse            (c. 1200-1150 BCE)

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 The Late Bronze Age Collapse            (c. 1200-1150 BCE)

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The Late Bronze Age Collapse constitutes one of the most dramatic and far-reaching events to have occurred in the ancient world, where major civilizations fell around the Eastern Mediterranean. These included empires such as the Hittites and the Mycenaeans, while others, like the Egyptian New Kingdom, were weakened. This collapse was induced by a combination of variables that included invasions, internal rebellions, droughts, and economic crises.

Cline, Eric H. 1177 B.C.: The Year Civilization Collapsed. Princeton University Press, 2014.

Drews, Robert. The End of the Bronze Age: Changes in Warfare and the Catastrophe Ca. 1200 B.C. Princeton University Press, 1993.

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The Vedic Period in India (c. 1500-500 BCE)

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The Vedic Period in India (c. 1500-500 BCE)

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The Vedic civilization developed during the Vedic Period in the northern Indian subcontinent. This followed the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization. As one would expect, this period saw the composing of the Vedas, the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism. The Vedic Age provided the very foundation on which the social and religious orders that would later form the basis of Indian history, including the caste system, would rest.

Thapar, Romila. Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300. University of California Press, 2004.

Witzel, Michael. “Vedas and Upanishads.” In Flood, Gavin, ed., The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism. Blackwell Publishing, 2003.

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The Trojan War (c. 1200 BCE, semi-legendary)

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The Trojan War (c. 1200 BCE, semi-legendary)

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The Trojan War, as narrated in Homer's Iliad, likely occurred around 1200 BCE. Its historicity was recently subject to much debate, although it does appear that there were at least minor wars between the Mycenaeans and the city of Troy, now in modern-day Turkey. The story of the Trojan War profoundly impacted Greek culture and literature.

Shaughnessy, Edward L. China: Empire and Civilization. Oxford University Press, 2000.

Keightley, David N. The Ancestral Landscape: Time, Space, and Community in Late Shang China. University of California, Berkeley, 2000.

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The Minoan Civilization’s Decline (c. 1450 BCE)

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The Minoan Civilization’s Decline (c. 1450 BCE)

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The Minoan civilization, centered on the island of Crete, is thought to have begun its decline around 1450 BCE due to natural disasters, such as the eruption of Thera, and invasion by Mycenaean Greeks. It was the work of the Minoans that outlined sophisticated architecture, art, and trade networks across the sea to Egypt and the Near East.

Castleden, Rodney. Minoans: Life in Bronze Age Crete. Routledge, 1990.

Manning, Sturt W. “The Chronology and Collapse of the Aegean Bronze Age: New Evidence from Radiocarbon.” Science, vol. 282, no. 5390, 1998.

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The early Vedic period, which focuses on the composition of the Rigveda in India, introduces Vedic religion and society. During this time, Indo-Aryan tribes settled across northern India and early political structures were established and the codification of religious and social practices codified practices that would eventually provide the basis for later Hinduism.

Witzel, Michael. The Origins of the World’s Mythologies. Oxford University Press, 2013.

Jamison, Stephanie W. The Rigveda: The Earliest Religious Poetry of India. Oxford University Press, 2014.

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The Beginning of the Olmec Civilization (c. 1500-400 BCE)

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The Beginning of the Olmec Civilization (c. 1500-400 BCE)

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The Olmec civilization, which began to flourish along the Gulf Coast of modern Mexico by 1500 BCE, is often described as Mesoamerica's "mother culture" because of its impact on subsequent civilizations. Some of its most iconic features included monumental stone heads and general precedents for Mesoamerican religion, urban planning, and hieroglyphic writing systems.

Diehl, Richard A. The Olmecs: America’s First Civilization. Thames & Hudson, 2004.

Coe, Michael D. Mexico: From the Olmecs to the Aztecs. Thames & Hudson, 2013.

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The Kassite Dynasty in Babylon (c. 1531-1155 BCE)

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The Kassite Dynasty in Babylon (c. 1531-1155 BCE)

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The Kassites were an undetermined origin people who, upon the fall of the First Babylonian Empire around 1595 BCE with the Hittite sack of the city, seized on opportunities presented to take over Babylon. By 1531 BCE the Kassites took control and reigned into the region for almost four centuries, a feat which has barely been equalled by any other Mesopotamian dynasty.

Under Kassite rule, Babylon once again became preeminent, but the empire's political and military influence was not quite as grand as that of the former Babylonian Empire under Hammurabi. In fact, the Kassite kings ruled over an administrative, stable, and prosperous kingdom which developed culture, trade, and architecture. The Kassites preserved the traditions of Babylon and continued to build monumental buildings such as the famous religious center at Nippur.

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622 CE - The Hijra (Migration of Muhammad)

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622 CE - The Hijra (Migration of Muhammad)

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The Prophet Muhammad and his followers made the journey from Mecca to the city that was later named Medina in an event that came to be known as the Hijra. The migration impelled by years of persecution in Mecca marked a turning point for Islam and the Muslim community. As Muhammad's teachings of monotheism and social justice gained adherents, they simultaneously generated hard opposition from the Quraysh tribe that controlled Mecca and viewed his influence as challenging to its authority. Medina would be the refuge where Muhammad could establish a community led under the principles of Islam, thereby constituting the first ummah, or Muslim community. It is so fundamental to Islam that the Hijra marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar, symbolic of a new social and religious order. The reason this event was chosen is that it actually marked the establishment of Islam as a socio-political force, even up to today forming religious, political, and social structures.

Hourani, A. (1991). A History of the Arab Peoples. Harvard University Press.

“Hijra.” Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved from britannica.com.

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The Battle of Tours took place in 732 CE near Tours, France, and was one of the many critical battles between Frankish and Muslim forces. The army of the Franks, under Charles Martel, defeated the advancing Umayyad forces, hence hindering the further northward expansion of Islam into Western Europe. This victory had complimented Martel's position that he clearly had the greatest eligibility and greatly secured his role as the protector of Christianity in Europe, gaining him immense influence within the Frankish kingdom. Historians often consider the Battle of Tours to be the dividing line in European history because it maintained the dominance of Christianity throughout the region. Without such a victory, the face of Europe would have culturally and religiously been drastically different. The event chosen here has a wide effect on the identity of Europe and on the building of so-called Christian-European civilization.

Wickham, C. (2009). The Inheritance of Rome: A History of Europe from 400 to 1000. Penguin Books.

“Battle of Tours.” Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved from britannica.com.

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800 CE - Coronation of Charlemagne as Emperor

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800 CE - Coronation of Charlemagne as Emperor

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In 800 CE on Christmas Day, Charlemagne, who is known as the King of the Franks, was crowned "Emperor of the Romans" by Pope Leo III in St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. This process marked the revival of the Western Roman Empire that had fallen several centuries earlier and set the Holy Roman Empire running. This alliance with the Pope further enhanced the relationship between the Frankish monarchy and the Catholic Church, a relationship which would prove to be very significant later in European politics as well as in Christianity. His empire unified much of Western and Central Europe under Christian rule and introduced reforms in education, codifications in law, and improvements in the economy. This event is important because it made real the ideal of a single Christian Europe under the protection of both a political and religious leader-a prototype for European monarchies to come.

Fichtenau, H. (1957). The Carolingian Empire. Blackwell Publishers.

“Charlemagne.” Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved from britannica.com.

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The Treaty of Verdun divided the great empire of Charlemagne between his three grandsons in 843 CE, following disagreements over succession. It neatly cut up the lands into three parts: West Francia, corresponding roughly to modern France; East Francia, which is modern Germany; and Middle Francia, comprising most of Italy and Lotharingia. It not only institutionalized the breakup of Charlemagne's empire, but it literally set the fundamental framework within which modern France, Germany, and Italy would later come to be. The empire was fragmented into various forms of regional identity and political boundary that would take many centuries to evolve. The Treaty of Verdun is one of those events in medieval history which shows how the territorial division can take part in shaping the emergent European identities and influence the geopolitical balance of Europe.

McKitterick, R. (1983). The Frankish Kingdoms under the Carolingians, 751-987. Longman.

“Treaty of Verdun.” Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved from britannica.com.

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Gunpowder changed the face of warfare and technology across the world. Gunpowder was used for fireworks and ceremonial purposes in China, but some ideas started to arise such as using them for warfare. It was founded by Chinese alchemists accidentally. The Chinese government used gunpowder for weapons like bombs, rockets, and early firearms. It had revolutionized the type of military conflict the world experienced, and it spurred new technologies in the arenas of chemistry, engineering, and metallurgy. The dispersion of gunpowder technology by trade and conquest transformed global warfare, marking a new era in which gunpowder-based arms became central to military strategy.

Temple, R. (1986). The Genius of China: 3,000 Years of Science, Discovery, and Invention. Prion Books.

“Gunpowder.” Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved from britannica.com.

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In 1054 CE, the Christian Church split into two parts. The Western part was renamed the Roman Catholic Church. The Eastern part was known as the Eastern Orthodox Church. This division within the church was due to numerous theological, cultural, and political arguements . There were disagreements over papal authority, theological practices, and different liturgical languages; the Western Church used Latin, while the Eastern Church used Greek. The excommunications between the Pope in Rome and the Patriarch of Constantinople, thus, formalized a division that had existed for many centuries. The implications of the schism were more deep-seated since it set the independent Christian traditions and contributed to the political isolation between Western Europe and the Byzantine Empire that influenced relations and made a difference in the course of Crusades.

Herrin, J. (2007). Byzantium: The Surprising Life of a Medieval Empire. Princeton University Press.

“Great Schism.” Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved from britannica.com.

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William of Normandy led the Norman Conquest of England in 1066 CE. The outcome was it reshaped English history, culture, and governance. He defeated the army of England in the Battle of Hastings and, for himself, claimed the throne of England. This conquest opened the doors to Norman culture, language, and feudalism to England, changing its legal and social structures. William's rule also overhauled the English monarchy and constructed a centralized authority that would dramatically alter the political landscape in England. Other long-term effects of the conquest included a mix of Norman and Anglo-Saxon cultures that would have an influence on the development of the language and the legal systems of England. The Norman Conquest represents an important moment in history because the changes it initiated would shape England's political and cultural development for many years after the event.

Morris, M. (2012). The Norman Conquest: The Battle of Hastings and the Fall of Anglo-Saxon England. Pegasus Books.

“Battle of Hastings.” Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved from britannica.com.

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The Concordat of Worms was signed in the German city of Worms in 1122 CE and resolved the issue of the long Investiture Controversy between the papacy and the Holy Roman Emperor. It came with a stipulation that the pope had to invest bishops with spiritual authority, while the emperor remained free to grant temporal power. This was because of the dispute over the appointment issue between the church and the state, which was the cause of the controversy, in addition to the greater struggles of dominance during the medieval period. This event was important because it marked a shift in the balance of power between secular rulers and the Catholic Church.

https://www.britannica.com/event/Concordat-of-Worms

https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/medieval-england/the-concordat-of-worms/

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The Signing of the Magna Carta (1215 CE)

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The Signing of the Magna Carta (1215 CE)

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The Magna Carta was signed at Runnymede, England, in June 1215, when English barons rebelled against King John for excessive taxation and misapplication of the rules. This document restrained the powers of the king while giving certain rights to the nobles; hence, a constitutional form of government was established. This pact resulted from the general dissatisfaction with monarchical rule and established that even kings were not above the law. The Magna Carta is often cited as being a founding document for modern democracies and rule of law.

https://www.history.com/topics/british-history/magna-carta

https://www.britannica.com/event/Magna-Carta

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In 1236, the Mongols embarked on a disastrous invasion in Eastern Europe under the leadership of the great Batu Khan. Indeed, this campaign was the continuing rapid expansion of the Mongol Empire under Genghis Khan and his successors to come. The Mongols used advanced military strategies coupled with mobility and psychological war to conquer vast territories: parts of Russia, Poland, and Hungary. The invasion brought about massive destruction but also facilitated increased trade and cultural exchange between Europe and Asia. This event is a very good example of how the Mongol Empire influenced world history in many aspects.

https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/mongol-invasion

https://www.britannica.com/event/Mongol-invasions

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The Black Death started in 1347 and was one of the most virulent pandemics to strike human civilization. Communicated through the fleas on rats and passed on along trade routes, the bubonic plague is estimated to have killed 25-30 million Europeans-one-third of the population. The pandemic had wide economic and social effects, with labor shortages, a decline in feudalism, and changes in religious perspectives as people searched for reasons for the destruction. The Black Death was one of the most important historical events to reshape medieval Europe and its societal structures.

https://www.cdc.gov/plague/history/index.html

https://www.historytoday.com/archive/black-death

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The Hundred Years' War was a long war between England and France. It started in 1337 because of disputes over the possession of territory and claims to the French throne. The war is noted for its significant battles, including Agincourt, and for its introduction of military practices like the longbow. The war finally ended in 1453 when the French drove the English out of most of their domains in France. This war nurtured early nationalism in both the nations along with the dismantling of feudalism.

https://www.britannica.com/event/Hundred-Years-War

https://www.historyextra.com/period/medieval/hundred-years-war-summary/

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On May 29, 1453, the Fall of Constantinople marked the end of the Byzantine Empire. Sultan Mehmed II of the Ottoman Empire led the successful siege, employing massive cannons to breach the city’s formidable walls. The fall of Constantinople shifted the balance of power in the Mediterranean and is often considered the end of the medieval period. It also prompted European exploration to find new trade routes to Asia, influencing the Age of Discovery.

https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-fall-of-constantinople-1453-180962610/

https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/renaissance-reformation/medieval-europe/v/fall-of-constantinople-1453

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Johannes Gutenberg invented the printing press with moveable type in Mainz in 1440. For the first time, it became possible to produce books in large quantities-a process far cheaper and more efficient than copying manuscripts by hand. The invention greatly facilitated the dissemination of knowledge, contributing to the onset of the Renaissance and to the Protestant Reformation. The printing press is considered one of the most revolutionary inventions in human history.

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Johannes-Gutenberg

https://www.history.com/topics/inventions/printing-press