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Merino and Castelli wanted more rights and a constitution. The Bolivian Guerillas stopped the royal forces before they could do damage to Argentina. José De San Martin liberated large portions of South America from Spanish rule with the help of using scorched earth method. Independence was declared in 1816. San Martin then went on to liberate Chile making Spain lose most of it's colonies.

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Argentinian Independence | 3 Minute History

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Argentina was in a war with the Spanish, viceroyalties, Roo De La Plata and Peru. In 1812 they were under the command of General Manuel Belgrano and had a big victory at battles of Tucuman and Salta. But the Argentine patriots were not happy with their leadership. So they overthrew the government and were more determined to gain independence. They started a Navy which helped them significantly and gained independence from the Spanish with the help from Guerilla resistance.

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Modern Argentina represents an important part of South American, Spanish, and colonial history. It is a large country (the 8th largest in the world) and covers many different biomes, cultures, and geographic locations. In terms of population, it is a sparse country, with the vast majority of the population centered around the capital, Buenos Aires, and its surroundings. As such, much of the history of Argentina has centered around Buenos Aires too.

Argentina's history can be defined in four distinct phases: the pre-Columbian era, the colonial era, the era of the struggle for independence, and the modern era. The era of colonial Argentina from the early 16th century to the early 18th century forms a significant part of Argentina's history, intrinsically linked to the formation and conduct of the modern country, as does the early 19th-century struggle for independence.

Spanish Discovery & the Beginnings of Colonial Argentina

Europeans first visited the area of Argentina in 1502 during the voyages of Amerigo Vespucci. Of primary importance to the region of colonial Argentina was the Río de la Plata, the river that feeds into the estuary that separates Argentina and Uruguay. In 1516, the first European to sail up these waters was Juan Díaz de Solís doing so in the name of Spain. For his efforts, he was killed by the local Charrúa tribe. It was clear to the Spanish that colonization of the area would be a challenge.

The city of Buenos Aires was founded in 1536 as Ciudad de Nuestra Señora Santa María del Buen Ayre, but the settlement only lasted until 1642, when it was abandoned. Native attacks had made the settlement untenable. Thus, colonial Argentina was off to a very bad start.

After the Spanish conquest of the Incas, governorates were established across the continent. Spanish South America was neatly divided into six horizontal zones. The area encompassing modern-day Argentina lay across four of these zones: Nueva Toledo, Nueva Andalucia, Nueva León, and Terra Australis. In 1542, these divisions were superseded by the Viceroyalty of Peru, which subdivided South America more pragmatically into divisions known as "audencias." The northern part of colonial Argentina was covered by La Plata de Los Charcas, while the southern part was covered by the Audencia of Chile.

A second, more permanent attempt to colonize the area was conducted in 1580, and Santísima Trinidad was established, with the settlement's port being named "Puerto de Santa María de Los Buenos Aires."

From the very beginning, Buenos Aires suffered from a difficult economic position. High rates of piracy meant that, for a port city like Buenos Aires that relied on trade, all trading vessels had to have a military escort. This not only increased the time of transporting goods but significantly drove up the prices of doing business. As a response, an illegal trade network emerged that also included the Portuguese in their colony to the north. Port workers and those who lived by the port, known as porteños, developed a deep distrust of Spanish authority, and a rebel sentiment blossomed within colonial Argentina.

In the 18th century, Charles III of Spain tried to remedy the situation by easing trade restrictions and turning Buenos Aires into an open port, to the detriment of other trade routes. The French Revolution, as well as the American War of Independence, had affected the colonists in Argentina, specifically Buenos Aires. Anti-royalist sentiment continued to grow within the colony.

In 1776, the administrative region covering Buenos Aires and its surroundings was redrawn and became the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata. Nevertheless, the city thrived and became one of the biggest cities in the Americas.

In the late 18th century, the Spanish also tried to found settlements along the Patagonian coast in the South, but these settlements experienced harsh conditions, and many were eventually abandoned. A century later, an independent Argentina would clear Patagonia of native settlements, but the region would remain sparsely inhabited till the present day.

The Napoleonic Wars Come to Argentina

Since the beginning of the 18th century, the British had drawn up plans to establish possessions in South America. One plan called for a full-scale invasion of ports on both sides of the continent in a coordinated attack from the Atlantic and the Pacific, but this plan was scrapped. In 1806, Spain and its colonies were under the control of the French Empire of Napoleon Bonaparte. Buenos Aires was thus a target of value for the British Navy, who now had an excuse to try to take the colony.

Having captured the Cape Colony in South Africa from the French-controlled Batavian Republic (Netherlands) at the Battle of Blaauwberg, the British decided to attempt the same action on the Río de la Plata against Spanish assets in colonial Argentina and Uruguay (both part of the Viceroy of the Río de la Plata). With most of the line troops deployed in the north to deal with an indigenous revolt led by Túpac Amaru II, Buenos Aires was poorly defended. The Viceroy was adamant about not arming creoles in the city and thus had few soldiers to defend the city. He also decided that it was more likely that the British would take Montevideo to the north of the Río de la Plata and dispatched his troops there. The British encountered very little resistance, and Buenos Aires fell on June 27.

Less than a month later, the colony led a successful counterattack with Buenos Aires line troops and militia from Montevideo and managed to occupy the entrances to the city to the north and west. Realizing their untenable position, the British surrendered. The following year, however, they would return in greater numbers. The colonial Argentines had little time to prepare.

On January 3, 1807, the British returned with 15,000 men and attacked Montevideo in a joint naval and military action. The city was defended by 5,000 men, and the British had to make short work of capturing the city before Spanish reinforcements could arrive from Buenos Aires. The fighting was fierce, with both sides taking around 600 casualties, but the Spanish were quickly forced to surrender the city to the British invaders.

Santiago de Linier, a French officer in Spanish service, organized the defense of Buenos Aires. He had also been instrumental in defeating the British the previous year. The British met stiff resistance from the local militia, which included 686 enslaved Africans. Unprepared for the style of urban warfare that awaited them, the British fell prey to pots of boiling oil and water thrown from windows, as well as other projectiles thrown by the local inhabitants. Eventually overwhelmed and suffering severe casualties, the British surrendered.

The Road to Independence & Modern Argentina

With very little help from their colonial masters in Spain, the Argentines (United Provinces) were buoyed by their victories against their British foes. Revolutionary sentiment rose to new levels, and militias were formed as the people of colonial Argentina realized the power of their own agency.

From 1810 to 1818, the Argentines were locked in a war for freedom against their colonial masters, but there were also civil conflicts about how the state should be run after independence was achieved. The rebels were not simply fighting against Spain but also the Viceroyalties of the Río de la Plata and Peru. This meant that the revolutionaries were not operating on a single front but had to expand the revolution through conflict in many areas in South America.

Although the early campaigns of 1810 and 1811 were a failure for the Patriots against the Royalists, their actions inspired Paraguay to declare independence, adding another thorn in the side of Royalist efforts. In 1811, the Spanish Royalists suffered setbacks too, suffering defeat at Las Piedras, being defeated by the Uruguayan Revolutionaries. The Royalists, however, still held the Uruguayan capital of Montevideo.

A renewed offensive against the Royalists in the northwest of Argentina began in 1812 under the command of General Manuel Belgrano. He turned to scorched-earth tactics to deny the Royalists any means of resupply. In September 1812, he defeated a Royalist army at Tucumán and then achieved a decisive victory against the Royalists at the Battle of Salta in February the following year. The Argentine Patriots, however, were unhappy with their leadership, and in October 1812, a coup deposed the government and installed a new triumvirate more committed to the cause of independence.

One of the government's first tasks was to build a naval fleet from scratch. An improvised fleet was built, which later engaged the Spanish fleet, and against all odds, won a decisive victory. This victory secured Buenos Aires for the Argentine Patriots and allowed the Uruguayan Revolutionaries to finally capture the city of Montevideo.

In 1815, the Argentines tried to press their advantage and, without proper preparation, launched an offensive against the Spanish-held north. With little discipline, the Patriots suffered two defeats and effectively lost their northern territories. The Spanish could not, however, capitalize on this and were prevented from occupying these territories by guerilla resistance.

In 1817, the Argentines decided on a new tactic to defeat the Spanish Royalists in the north. An army was raised and dubbed "The Army of the Andes" and was tasked with attacking the Viceroyalty of Peru via the territory of Chile. After winning a victory against Royalist forces at the Battle of Chacabuco, The Army of the Andes took Santiago. As a result, Chile declared independence with Supreme Director Bernardo O' Higgins at the helm.

The new nation of Chile then took the lead in suppressing the threat from the Viceroyalty of Peru. On April 5, 1818, the Royalists suffered a crushing defeat at the Battle of Maipú, effectively ending all serious threats from the Viceroyalty of Peru. Small, sporadic battles happened along the border until December 1824, when the Army of the Andes finally crushed the Royalists at the Battle of Ayacucho and ended the threat to Argentinian and Chilean independence once and for all.

The successful emergence of colonial Argentina as an independent nation was not the end of difficulties for the people of the former Spanish colony. Decades of civil wars followed that involved many breakaway countries, as well as other nations such as Brazil, France, and Britain. Relative stability was gained in 1853 with the ratifying of the Argentine Constitution, but low-intensity skirmishes continued until 1880 with the federalization of Buenos Aires. Despite this, Argentina would continue to grow in strength with waves of immigration from Europe.

By 1880, the borders of Argentina were relatively the same as they are today. It is the eighth largest country in the world, and throughout the 19th century would rise in prominence, playing important parts in the history of South America and the entire world.

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Modern Argentina: A Struggle for Independence from Spanish Colonization

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Here is the rich and complex story of modern Argentina, from Spanish colonization to independence from Spain.

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Italy was divided into different states until the revolutions in 1848 swept across Europe. In Rome they had a republic and was led by Giuseppe Mancini. The king of Sardinia Victor Emanual led the unification movement alongside prime minister Kavor. They gained many Allies including Napoleon to invade Austria. They soon took over the rest of the states then lastly capturing Rome.

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After years of Foreign reign over the states of what is now known as Italy, Giuseppe Mazzini wanted a unification. They gained allies to help them overtake power from Spain. France and England joined them. Garibaldi went to Sicily to lead an uprise. A thousand redshirts then took over the island of Sicily. Once Garibaldi and Victor Emanual met Victor was the King of Italy

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"One in arm, in language, in faith," emphatically wrote Italian novelist Alessandro Manzoni in his patriotic poem March 1821. Like many other 19th-century patriots, Manzoni dreamed of a united Italian state free from foreign control. The unification of the Italian peninsula under one flag was one of the main goals of the ("Rise Again"). The movement also aimed to radically renew Italian society by introducing liberalism, constitutionalism, and freedom of speech. Alternating episodes of popular uprisings and moments of pragmatic diplomatic negotiations, the Risorgimento culminated in the 1861 proclamation of the new Kingdom of Italy.

The Napoleonic Period & the Origins of Risorgimento

While the conservative governments of the Italian peninsula observed with growing concern the unfolding of the French Revolution, many Italians, particularly the bourgeoisie, viewed its ideals as an answer to their discontent with the status quo. When Napoleon Bonaparte established the "sister republics" and then the Kingdom of Italy, ideas of freedom, equality, and a sense of national consciousness began to spread among the Italians. As a result, various political groups started to advocate freeing the regional states from foreign rule and uniting them into a single national entity.

During the Napoleonic regime, Italian society underwent a process of radical renewal and modernization. The French emperor regularly appointed educated bourgeois to administrative and executive roles, not just aristocrats. He also created an Italian army, thus bolstering a national consciousness among the soldiers. The Napoleonic era witnessed the dissolution of the feudal system in most of the peninsula, with the new Napoleonic code replacing feudal jurisprudence. Many properties and lands of the Roman Catholic Church were confiscated by the state.

The Restoration & the First Insurrections

After the collapse of the Napoleonic regime, the Congress of Vienna (1814-15) returned most of the Italian states to their former rulers to restore the pre-revolutionary status quo. As a result, the Italian peninsula was once again under Austrian hegemony. In 1847, Count Metternich of Austria famously declared: "The word 'Italy' is a geographical expression, a description which is useful shorthand, but has none of the political significance the efforts of the revolutionary ideologues try to put on it." When they came back to power, the old political elites abolished the reforms introduced by the French and dismantled the Napoleonic administration.

In many states, the reactionary policies were met with widespread discontent that occasionally culminated in revolts and conspiracies. In 1820, for example, members of the Carboneria, a secret society formed in southern Italy in the early 1800s, forced Ferdinand, king of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, to introduce the Spanish constitution. Called Carbonari (Charcoal Burners), the members of the Carboneria advocated liberal, constitutional, and representative regimes and aimed to free the Italian peninsula from foreign hegemony. After the Congress of Vienna, the Carbonari led the opposition against the conservative regimes reinstated in Italy. Their liberal and patriotic ideals spearheaded the Risorgimento.

In Piedmont, liberal bourgeois, backed by like-minded aristocrats, organized a revolt (1821) against King Victor Emmanuel I with the support of Charles Albert, heir apparent to the throne. After the king's abdication, Charles Albert was appointed regent and granted a constitution. However, Charles Felix, Victor Emmanuel's brother and successor, refused to ratify it. With the help of Austrian troops, Charles Felix quickly suppressed the revolt and regained control of the kingdom. In 1831, similar uprisings took place in Modena, Parma, and Bologna. The conspirators established provisional governments. However, their success was short-lived, and the Austrian forces easily restored the previous status quo. In the aftermath, Austria arrested many revolutionaries and implemented stricter censorship.

The failure of these rebellions was partly due to the divisions among the exponents of the patriotic front. While the different groups shared the same goal of uniting Italy under one flag, they disagreed on how to achieve it. On the one hand, the Giovine Italia (Young Italy), a movement founded by Giuseppe Mazzini in 1831 in Marseille, favored the creation of a united republican, democratic nation. Mazzini also worked to spread a national consciousness among all social classes, as he firmly believed that only a popular uprising could free the Italian peninsula from foreign control.

On the other hand, the Neo-Guelfs and liberal Catholics advocated for a constitutional monarchy. In his 1843 Del primato morale e civile degli Italiani (On the Moral and Civil Primacy of the Italian Race), Vincenzo Gioberti, the leading exponent of the Neo-Guelfs, argued for the establishment of an Italian federation presided by the pope. Gioberti saw renewal as the restoration of spirituality, a task only a renovated Church could achieve. In Le speranze d'Italia (The Hopes of Italy), Cesare Balbo championed an antirevolutionary road to national independence.

The Revolutions of 1848 & the First War of Independence

In 1848, inspired by the political upheaval in the rest of Europe, a new wave of patriotic revolutions broke out across the Italian peninsula. As a result, several rulers granted more liberal constitutions. In Piedmont-Sardinia, King Charles Albert promulgated the Statuto Albertino that would later become the constitution of the Kingdom of Italy. However, Austria was determined to put a swift end to the revolutions. In Milan, the insurgents built barricades and fought against the Austrian army for five days. In the end, Field Marshal Radeztky retreated his troops into the so-called Quadrilateral, an area between Mantova, Peschiera, Verona, and Legnago. The event, later known as the Cinque Giornate di Milano (Five Days of Milan), was one of the few successful popular initiatives of the Risorgimento.

To preclude republicans and democrats from taking the lead of the patriotic demonstration, King Charles Albert declared war against Austria. Soon, pressured by popular opinion, other rulers sent their troops to join the fight. After some successful battles, however, Charles Albert halted his military campaign to urge Lombardy to merge with Piedmont. Meanwhile, on April 29, Pope Pius IX withdrew his troops, stating that he couldn't wage war against his "brothers in Christ." After the crushing defeat of Custoza, Charles Albert signed the Salasco Armistice (August 1848) and agreed to withdraw his troops from Lombardy and Venetia.

The Salasco Armistice provoked the outrage of the democrats, who refused to accept its terms. In Venice, Daniele Manin led the resistance against the Austrian army. In Rome, a popular uprising caused the pope to flee to Gaeta, while a constituent assembly proclaimed the Roman Republic governed by Aurelio Saffi, Carlo Armellini, and Giuseppe Mazzini. In March 1849, after the defeat of Novara, Charles Albert abdicated in favor of his son, Victor Emmanuel II, who signed a non-punitive peace treaty with Austria. The unsuccessful war brought down the constitutional governments backed by the Democrats. In August 1849, the Roman Republic fell against the attack of the French army. Soon, all the previous rulers were reinstated on their thrones.

Camillo Benso di Cavour: Master of Diplomacy

In Piedmont, the democratic parliamentary majority refused to ratify the treaty and pushed to introduce liberal reforms. In 1850, Count Camillo Benso di Cavour became a member of the cabinet led by the moderate Massimo d'Azeglio. As Minister for Agriculture and later Finance, Cavour devised a laissez-faire economic policy, signed international commercial treaties, promoted economic growth, and modernized agriculture. In 1852, he formed with the center-left leader Urbano Rattazzi an alliance known as connubio (marriage). With the connubio, Cavour managed to unite the liberal wings of the aristocracy with the rising bourgeoisie. At the same time, he excluded the "old" elite and the democrats from the cabinet.

Cavour also implemented a careful diplomatic strategy to improve Piedmont's position among the Western powers. After the outbreak of the Crimean War, Cavour formed an alliance with France and England. As a result, Piedmont took part in the 1856 Congress of Paris as a victor. At the congress, Cavour remarked that Austrian hegemony in the Italian peninsula was the root cause of the country's social and political instability.

While Cavour honed his diplomatic policy, Mazzini's democratic, republican front suffered a significant setback. In 1857, an insurrection in southern Italy, known as the Sapri Expedition, failed as the insurgents were unable to galvanize the population. As a result, Mazzini's Partito d'Azione (Action Party) disbanded amid criticism. The defeat of the democratic movement led many patrioti to believe national unity could be achieved only under the Savoy monarchy and by diplomatic relations. In 1857, the monarchist front founded the Società Nazionale (National Society), later supported by Daniele Manin and Giuseppe Garibaldi, a charismatic patriot and skilled military leader.

The Second War of Independence

In 1858, Cavour and Napoleon III secretly met at Plombières, where the French emperor agreed to support Piedmont in the event of Austrian aggression. On January 10, 1859, at the opening session of the parliament, Victor Emmanuel II declared: "If we respect the treaties, we are nevertheless not insensitive to the cries of distress which we hear emanating from so many parts of Italy." He then began to enlist volunteers and created the Cacciatori delle Alpi (Hunters of the Alps), a military corps led by Garibaldi.

In April, Austria issued an ultimatum to Piedmont requesting the demobilization of its army. When Piedmont rejected the demand, Austria declared war. Honoring the terms of the conference of Plombières, Napoleon III sent his troops to Italy. The allies, led by the French emperors, defeated the Austrian army at Magenta and Solferino. Meanwhile, in Tuscany, Parma, Modena, and the northern Papal Legations, the patrioti formed provisional governments asking for unification with Piedmont.

However, in July, Napoleon III, pressured by the outcry of his Catholic supporters against the Italian campaign, signed an armistice with Francis Joseph of Habsburg at Villafranca. The Austrian emperor granted Lombardy to Napoleon III, who then gave it to Piedmont. After Cavour resigned, Victor Emmanuel II signed the armistice. The provisional governments, backed by Britain, staunchly rejected the terms of the peace treaty. After the concession of Savoy and Nice to France, however, Napoleon III reconsidered his position. Cavour's strategy had proven successful. A series of plebiscites in the northern duchies and papal states officially ratified the territories' unification with Piedmont.

Garibaldi's Expedition of the Thousand & the Unification of Italy

Despite the success of Cavour's diplomatic negotiations, the southern and central regions of the peninsula remained under foreign control. In Sicily, popular opposition to Bourbon rule was widespread, with many asking for autonomy. In April 1860, Palermo rebelled against young King Francis II. The insurrection quickly extended to the whole island. Francesco Crispi, a Sicilian Mazzini supporter, urged Garibaldi to go to Sicily and lead the uprising.

The night between May 5 and 6, 1860, Garibaldi and his "thousand volunteers," also called Redshirts or Garibaldini, set sail from Quarto, a coastal town near Genoa. Once in Sicily, Garibaldi's troops quickly gained control of the entire island. In August, without the Piedmontese king's consent, Garibaldi marched onto Naples. After suffering a crushing defeat at Volturno, Francis II fled to Gaeta.

Meanwhile, Cavour, alarmed by the growing success of the popular movement, sent the Piedmontese army to the central papal territories to regain control of the situation. An armed confrontation between the Garibaldini and the regular troops seemed unavoidable. However, Garibaldi defused the crisis when he met Victor Emmanuel II at Teano, where he greeted him as "King of Italy" and gave him the newly liberated south. On March 17, 1861, the parliament assembled in Turin officially declared Victor Emmanuel II "King of Italy for the grace of God and the will of the nation." Turin became the capital of the new kingdom.

Last Stages of Risorgimento: 3rd War of Independence, Acquisition of Venetia, & the Roman Question

Only Rome and Venetia remained separate from the new Italian nation. In 1866, when war broke out between Prussia and Austria, the Italian government of Alfonso La Marmora saw the conflict as a chance to complete the unification of the peninsula. The Italians attacked the Austrian troops in Venetia. However, they suffered catastrophic defeats at Custoza and Lissa. In the end, Italy annexed Venetia only thanks to the mediation of Napoleon III, who obtained it at the Treaty of Vienna and, in turn, handed it over to the Italian government.

Before his untimely death in June 1861, Cavour had declared that Rome must be the capital of the new Italian nation. Under his policy of "a free church in a free state," Cavour postulated the separation of state and church, arguing that the pope should renounce his temporal power to focus on his spiritual and apostolic mission. In 1862, Garibaldi and his volunteers tried to solve the Roman Question with a new expedition. However, fearing a hostile French and German reaction, the Italian government sent its army to stop him.

In 1864, Italy and France signed the September Convention: while Italy agreed not to occupy Rome, France consented to remove its garrison from the papal city. A secret clause bound the Italian government to move its capital to Florence, thus abandoning Cavour's plan. In the same year, Pius IX issued his Syllabus of Errors, an uncompromising condemnation of all modern doctrines, freedom of thought and speech, and the separation of church and state. However, Napoleon III's defeat at Sedan left the pope without military support. It was the breakthrough Italy needed. On September 20, 1870, Italian troops entered Rome through the so-called "breach of Porta Pia."

Though Italy had finally completed the unification of the peninsula, the Roman Question was far from over. Pius IX declared himself a prisoner and refused to accept the Law of the Guarantees, the unilateral deal that granted him an annual income of more than 3 million lire, perpetual use of his palaces, and the fulfillment of his spiritual authority. In 1874, the pope emphasized his rejection of the new status quo with the Non expedit, a decree that prohibited Catholics from voting in the national elections. The Roman Question would not be solved until 1929 when Fascist Italy and the church signed the Patti Lateranensi (Lateran Treaty).

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Risorgimento: The Long Road to the Unification of Italy

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The 19th-century movement for Italian unification (Risorgimento) aimed to free Italy from foreign rule, renew its society, and unite the various states of the peninsula under one flag.

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Napoleons power over Spain led to many outbreaks. Then in 1810 Miguel Hidalgo Y Castillo launched the Mexican war issuing Grito de Dolores. They started out strong then Miguel was captured and killed but other leaders took over. Liberals took over Spain and would then give Mexico their independence. Spain started to struggle and would give Mexico their independence. In 1821 Mexico was granted independence and the catholic church was maintained.

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Eleven years after the outbreak of the Mexican War of Independence, Spanish Viceroy Juan de O'Donojú signs the Treaty of Córdoba, which approves a plan to make Mexico an independent constitutional monarchy.

In the early 19th century, Napoleon's occupation of Spain led to the outbreak of revolts all across Spanish America. On September 16, 1810, Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, a Catholic priest, launched the Mexican War of Independence with the issuing of his Grito de Dolores, or "Cry of Dolores" (Dolores referring to the town of Dolores, Mexico). The revolutionary tract called for the end of Spanish rule in Mexico, redistribution of land, and racial equality. After some initial successes, Hidalgo was defeated, captured, and executed. However, he was followed by other peasant leaders, such as José María Morelos y Pavón, Mariano Matamoros, and Vicente Guerrero, who all led armies of native and racially mixed revolutionaries against the Spanish and the Royalists.

Ironically, it was the Royalists-made up of Mexicans of Spanish descent and other conservatives-who ultimately brought about independence. In 1820, liberals took power in Spain, and the new government promised reforms to appease the Mexican revolutionaries. In response, Mexican conservatives called for independence as a means of maintaining their privileged position in Mexican society.

In early 1821, Agustín de Iturbide, the leader of the Royalist forces, negotiated the Plan of Iguala with Vicente Guerrero. Under the plan, Mexico would be established as an independent constitutional monarchy, the privileged position of the Catholic Church would be maintained, and Mexicans of Spanish descent would be regarded as equals to pure Spaniards. Mexicans of mixed or pure Indian blood would have lesser rights.

Iturbide defeated the Royalist forces still opposed to independence, and the new Spanish viceroy, lacking money, provisions, and troops, was forced to accept Mexican independence. On August 24, 1821, O'Donojú signed the Treaty of Córdoba, thus ending New Spain's dependence on Old Spain.

In 1822, as no Bourbon monarch to rule Mexico had been found, Iturbide was proclaimed the emperor of Mexico. However, his empire was short-lived, and in 1823 republican leaders Santa Anna and Guadalupe Victoria deposed Iturbide and set up a republic with Guadalupe Victoria as its first president.

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Spain accepts Mexican independence | August 24, 1821 | HISTORY

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Eleven years after the outbreak of the Mexican War of Independence, Spanish Viceroy Juan de O'Donojú signs the Treaty of Córdoba, which approves a plan to make Mexico an independent constitutional monarchy. In the early 19th century, Napoleon's occupation of Spain led to the outbreak of revolts all across Spanish America.

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Napoleon made his brother king of Spain which made people of new Spain mad. Then this priest spoke against the Spanish rule. Evalgo wanted the population to turn on the Spanish but most were still loyal. He still started an army and defeated the royalists outside of Mexican city but were later defeated and captured. The royal army did not like the constitution of 1812 so they switched sides and were with the rebels. In 1821 they signed the treaty of Cordoba which gave Mexico their independence under the plan of Iguala

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Mexican War of Independence | 3 Minute History