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What is climate crises?

The term "climate crisis" is used to characterize the effects of global warming and other forms of climate change. Both this term and its synonym, "climate emergency," have been used to emphasize the gravity of the danger posed by climate change to humans and the Earth at large. Droughts are becoming increasingly frequent and severe over the world as an indicator of this issue. Increases in sea temperature are amplifying tropical hurricanes. With an increase in temperature comes a faster melting rate for snow, resulting in less snowpack in mountain ranges and the polar regions. Globally, glaciers are losing mass at an accelerated rate.

How is governance established in the environmental issue area? Who is involved in the governance of environmental issues?

Seeking outstanding environmental governance that will result in a healthy and thriving planet for all living things, both now and in the future, with adequate legislative frameworks at the global, regional, national, and local levels is of the utmost importance. With the goal of fostering long-term economic development and enhancing regional environmental quality, we are actively working to make this area greener and stronger. Who makes decisions, how decisions are made and implemented, what scientific data is necessary for decision-making, how the public and major stakeholders can participate in decision-making, and so on are all part of environmental governance. Some environmental problems can be solved on a national or even a local level, but others involve numerous countries and so require regional or even worldwide solutions. The situation could be made worse by transboundary issues, in which an environmental crisis in one country spreads to another.

The United Nations' international conferences, together with those of NGOs and the academic community, have all played critical roles in shaping modern approaches to environmental governance at the international level. They have put environmental issues at the forefront of the international agenda and created platforms for dialogue and institutionalization. Even though environmental protection isn't explicitly included in the United Nations Charter, conferences hosted by the UN have been essential in shaping modern environmental policy. Some environmental issues, such as climate change, call for regional rather than global remedies, and there have been significant regional initiatives in response. Challenges to environmental sustainability are addressed by a number of regional IGOs, including the European Union (EU), the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN).

What are some points of agreements and disagreements among states?

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is an international environmental Treaty dating back to the 1992 Rio de Janeiro Summit. Officially, the role of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (2021) is to ‘stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system’.  The UNFCCC specifies limits on greenhouse gas emissions and provides a framework for a series of international environmental agreements. The signatories to the convention have met on an annual basis since the mid- 1990s. Signatory nations establish national measurements of greenhouse gas emissions. Having said this, the significance of the convention is greatly limited by the absence of an effective enforcement mechanism. It is also constrained by the barriers posed by national sovereignty and disagreement amongst states over how to approach the issue of climate change, let alone a common measure of emissions.

The first major agreement under the UNFCCC was the Kyoto Protocol, signed in 1997. The first stage of the Kyoto Protocol established legally binding obligations for developed countries to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by an average 5% reduction in comparison to 1990 levels over the five-year period (2008-2012). The second stage was negotiated via the Doha amendment. However, implementation of the second stage was limited and the Kyoto process eventually lost momentum. Attention then shifted toward the Paris Agreement which was outlined and agreed upon at the end of 2015. In terms of its positive impact, the convention enjoys a broad sense of legitimacy due to the urgent need to tackle climate change. It is telling to note that membership is near unanimous, with almost all states becoming members of the convention. It has also provided a stable basis to make progress toward emission targets. For instance, the Kyoto Protocol represented the first-ever legally binding agreement to address climate change. It is also worth noting that the original Kyoto Protocol reduced CO2 emissions beyond the targets set. The most important constraint upon the UN convention is the lack of an effective enforcement mechanism. This has undoubtedly contributed to the failure of the UNFCCC to meet the goals of carbon dioxide emissions. Although the Kyoto Protocol did have a legal mechanism in place, its effectiveness was limited by the refusal of several major emitters to sign up to uphold the accord, chiefly the US. The multilateral character of the institution also makes it problematic to secure an effective and lasting agreement. Most notably, there is a sharp division between the developed world and the less developed economies. The North-South divide has been graphically exposed within several international environmental agreements. The withdrawal of major economies (such as Canada, the US, and Japan) from the second stage of Kyoto greatly undermined its overall impact. In the absence of a supranational set of institutions, it seems improbable that divisions between the wealthy economies and LEDCs can ever be fully resolved.

There is also the tendency towards building consensus based on the lowest common denominator. Given the need for unanimity, it is often possible for countries to raise objections in relation to their own national or economic interests and thereby stall the overall process. This, inevitably, results in the failure to achieve a meaningful and lasting response to climate change. This has also contributed to certain countries switching towards alternative agreements. For instance, the Climate and Clean Air coalition sought to reduce short-lived climate pollutants. It is a voluntary partnership led by governments throughout the world. In addition, the use of benchmarks is widely seen as inequitable given the vast difference in economic costs toward meeting overall targets.

How effective is global governance?

Due to the rising prevalence of global problems and opportunities, global governance is essential. Currently, crime and pandemics are examples of global challenges that can spread across borders and impact everyone. Additionally, the circumstances for peace and exceptional riches have been supplied by the ever-increasing integration of the global system. Putting an end to war, dealing with rising problems like technological perils and automation, and achieving previously unimaginable levels of prosperity and growth are all possible thanks to efficient global governance.

The biggest challenge humanity faces is overcoming existential dangers. The level of global collaboration needed to confront existential risk can be quantified. At one end of the spectrum, best-shot risks only require a single nation, organization, or even individual (i.e., a superhero) to have the means and the will to save everyone, while at the other end, weakest-link risks may require every nation to take action to prevent catastrophe, with no room for error.

Global government will be judged in the end based on its ability to improve human welfare, not only prevent harm. We may now raise the bar for ourselves as a species, both in terms of the direction we think mankind should take and the way we choose to act. Increases in global coordination don't have to be drastic for major improvements in human well-being to be achieved with current technology.

The term "effective global governance" refers to a system of international regulation that more effectively solves these issues than any one national or regional authority. Issues on a global scale can only be fixed by effective global government. There may be no way to control potentially dangerous new technologies or protect against existential threats posed by the weakest links in society without it. The potential for unparalleled prosperity is enhanced by its use. The next thing to do is figure out how to build efficient global governance.

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Karns and Mingst, Chapter 8: Global Governance

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What are the basic premises of economic governance today? Why do we need to internationally govern the economy?

Economic relations have changed substantially since the end of World War II in 1945, let alone since 1900, given how ubiquitous the current economic woes are. There were about fifty independent nations in 1945, each with its own government, currency, and legal system; economic activity took place largely at the national level; there was little international trade; and elites controlled most policymaking. There were also four different economic and thought systems at odds with one another in the world. The Soviet Union pioneered the socialist command economy, which is based on centralized planning and state ownership. The United States was one of a few of liberal market regimes that existed. Preferred commercial and colonial ties were maintained thanks to the imperial preference systems of the major European colonial powers. In sum, mercantilist and statist economic policies were adopted by the vast majority of countries. Trade, capital mobility, and currency convertibility were all stymied by tariffs and other restrictions. No one had ever done anything like this before, and there were no international institutions in place to support countries going through economic hardship or to promote development. There are currently 193 independent nations, and practically all national economies are open and linked in patterns of intricate interdependence. These include globalized production in particular industries, global financial markets, and significantly increased world trade. Multinational corporations, international financial institutions, and global markets have emerged as major players, while nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) have become more vocal. The dominant economic paradigm is a form of liberal (or neoliberal) market capitalism. To better manage international economic ties and to promote development, commerce, stability, and growth, states and nonstate actors have established a number of statutory and informal international organizations. Thus, markets for the production, distribution, and consumption of goods form, allowing people to improve their own standard of living. Competition within markets ensures that prices are kept as low as is practically possible. Therefore, markets are examples of economic efficiency since they promote individual economic growth. Institutions of government ensure basic order, facilitate unhindered trade, and maximize economic interaction. Increasing economic interconnection will lead to better economic development for all nations so long as national governments and international institutions promote the free flow of business and do not interfere with the effective allocation of resources provided by markets.

The understanding that the overdevelopment of the global economy has been followed by the underdevelopment of the global government has been at the heart of the debate over the governance, or as it is more popularly dubbed, "regulation," of the global economy in recent years. Liberalization of trade, deregulation of financial markets, and privatization of public assets have all contributed to what is now often known as "globalization," or the integration of the global economy. There has not been a corresponding growth in the global polity, and it is becoming increasingly apparent in policy circles that globalization might be undone by a failure to curb its excesses and bad repercussions (especially for substantial segments of the world's poor). Proponents of globalization have finally, albeit belatedly, come to terms with this problem. In the years following the end of the Cold War, it has become increasingly clear that acceptable management of the global economy requires some form of institutional oversight. There is widespread doubt about our ability to provide an effective international regulatory framework for the management of the global economy as a result of the Great Recession of 2007–9. It is important to remember that the processes and practices of governance remain temporally and politically contingent, as seen by the quick shift in the parameters of the discussion over economic management in the wake of the global financial crisis of 2007-2009. Who gets what, how, and whose interests are being served are perennial issues in modern politics, and they have been thrust back into the spotlight by the economic crises of the early twenty-first century. These notions and questions are deeply contested, and no definitive answers can be found; this is something that political philosophers know well but economists often overlook. It's also worth noting that the IMF's mandate has changed significantly since it was first established. After World War II, the IMF's mandate was fundamentally weakened by the broader, developing geopolitical context in which it was set, leading to the closure of the gold window and the beginning of an era of floating exchange rates. Beginning in the 1970s, the IMF's role moved from ensuring global monetary stability to policing the macroeconomic behavior of developing nations. During the 1980s and 1990s, the IMF's primary role was to advocate for a "neoliberal" agenda of economic liberalization, which included policies to promote asset privatization, government rollback, and capital account liberalization and eventually put the IMF at the center of controversial interventions into the domestic affairs of some of its members. The World Bank, much like the International Monetary Fund, has undergone a process of mission shift, transitioning from its starting position as a vehicle for European reconstruction in the post-World War II era to a vehicle for supporting neoliberal reform in impoverished countries. This change made sense during the age of decolonization. In fact, the Bank's "structural adjustment" policies supporting IMF strategy were a major point of criticism from the 1970s through the 1990s. Since then, the Bank has undergone an internal examination and reform process shaped by the shifting worldwide climate, which has brought forth new strategic variables and new ways of thinking about development. One of the defining features of the current system of global economic administration is the prevalence of conduct based on power rather than rules. How to find a reasonable compromise between the two is a perennial topic of inquiry in the field of international political economy. It's unlikely that there will be a major change to the system. A reforming approach to the current system remains challenging but is not impossible, as seen by efforts to mobilize a G20 approach toward global economic cooperation, the expansion of multilateralism, multilateral regionalism, and rising transnational regulatory network activities. Nonetheless, we have not yet reached a stage where established actors are willing to cede control to emerging actors or to the many and increasingly engaged strata of a flourishing global civil society. The main difficulty is adjusting multilateralism to the realities of a world dealing with shifting power dynamics and emerging policy agendas that do not lend themselves easily to the approaches of collective action problem-solving that dominated the latter part of the twentieth century.

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What are some of the advantages and pitfalls of the UN operations of peacekeeping?

The United Nations is a factor unto itself, a sort of autonomous government agency. Without trying to be too blunt, the experience of security operations since the end of the Cold War shows that the United Nations is unable to effectively exercise command and control over military operations. Planned, supported, and commanded peacekeeping missions are hardly more feasible now than they were during the Cold War era. And I don't see it changing anytime soon. Member states with significant military might are opposed to the United Nations having its own independent military capability. Secretary General Annan created a high-level international team to critically assess the UN's management of peace operations, taking account of the experience gained during the 1990s and the demonstrable need for change. The panel, led by Lakhdar Brahimi, found a lot to complain about. To urge states to take their obligations seriously, the Brahimi report used direct language to emphasize the importance of setting clear objectives and reasonable goals, as well as sending properly-trained and equipped forces. As may have been expected, member states failed to reach a consensus, and the report's recommendations were mostly ignored. For these two reasons, the United Nations as an actor has shied away from using force. To begin, nations are hesitant to give the secretary-general the weapons he needs to take military action. There are no reserves, no money, no independent intelligence, no proper command and control systems, and no trained staff on hand. A unilateral response from the secretary-general is not possible. Second, and probably more importantly, the lack of vested interests gives the secretary-office general the ability to remain neutral and open to negotiations with all parties to a conflict. Comprehensive research on the UN's efforts to negotiate the settlement of five ethnic disputes and the conclusion that enforcement is best left to others is presented. The Security Council should still provide the go-ahead for enforcement on rare instances, but regional arrangements or coalitions of the willing should be tasked with carrying it out. Post-conflict peacebuilding appears to be an area where the United Nations has a clear competitive advantage over the United States. Obfuscation has resulted from a failure to differentiate between military operations that the UN Secretariat can handle (conventional, even slightly muscular peacekeeping) and those that it cannot and should not (enforcement). The latter is troublesome in any situation, but they have provided governments that lack the willpower to take decisive action with an easy target: the United Nations. The third is that it should come as no surprise that the organization is often accused of failing to tackle problems that governments have already determined to be intractable. The UN's occasional willingness to use direct language has been a welcome change. The textbook also mentioned the 1999 report by the UN secretary-general on Srebrenica and the 2001 report by Ingmar Carlsson on Rwanda, both of which contained ample blame for all parties involved, and the subsequent remarkably frank document by a group led by Robert Fowler detailing the failures of sanctions against Angola. It is necessary to hold senior UN officials accountable for their actions, as they, like the other member states, have the ability to make decisions and can choose to do the right or wrong thing. Lack of political will on the part of a state is significant. To be sure, the United Nations' own officials are no less important.

The United Nations performance at the turn of the century is controversial. On one hand, the group has saved and bettered lives through its massive security operations in some of the world's most troublesome hot spots. Countries like Serbia in Kosovo and Indonesia in East Timor are two examples where "coerced consent" was used. There were seventeen active UN peacekeeping operations as of the end of 2012, with an additional twelve active UN peace-related field missions. When all approved missions are carried out, more than 110 thousand uniformed personnel from around 120 member states will be serving abroad. Norm entrepreneurs in civil society can make a difference, but only if their advocacy for an alternative vision is intellectually and doctrinally consistent and well-expressed by R2P advocates. The ultimate aim is to safeguard the core principles of the R2P norm so that they can be relied upon to prompt decisive responses that protect civilians against mass atrocities. More immediately, we want to make sure that proponents of the responsibility to protect are able to shape the direction and tone of any debate on the responsibility to protect in the United Nations General Assembly. The Security Council's recognition of the threat that widespread suffering poses to world peace and security since the interventions of the 1990s has become crystal obvious. Acceleration in the normative growth speed was highlighted by José Alvarez in the textbook: The passage of time and the accumulation of evidence of diplomatic practices between sets of nations reacting to one another's activities are two of the traditional descriptions of custom requirements. Perhaps most crucial is a shift in how we think about state sovereignty; once considered an immovable barrier to foreign activities, it is now understood as a responsibility to uphold norms of human rights and security when the political climate is favorable. The idea that state sovereignty grants the right to kill and oppress has been widely accepted for centuries, yet it is now evident that sovereigns have the duty to govern responsibly. At the same time that the most optimistic days of humanitarian intervention are coming to a close, a new normative age is beginning.

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Global Institutional Rank Structures for Economic and Labor Policymaking

The economic instability that had afflicted developed countries in the 1970s began to subside in the 1980s. During this time period, the global economy and trade began to see signs of improvement. During this time, neoliberalism was at its strongest, and debates regarding the scope, jurisdiction, and authority of nation-states were revived. The establishment of a global economic unit and market directly led to the rise of MNCs (large and multinational enterprises), which in turn was made possible by vast amounts of money and technology. Multinational corporations have become an endogenous contribution to globalization and so exemplify the "group dynamic" of contemporary capitalism. Some of the defining characteristics of our globalized era are the opening of formerly closed markets for goods and finances, the growth of FDI by multinational firms, and the maturation of regional agreements. Capital also became increasingly globalized, with the rise of MNCs in the 1980s and 1990s serving as a powerful counterpart to the broader economic conjuncture of the 1970s and establishing the global order through the world's economic might. As a result of this unmet demand, developing nations gave the aforementioned multinational corporations access to their markets, labor forces, and financial resources. Foreign capital in these countries either created or expanded its influence and control over the labor force and the decision-making processes, and the product became decoupled from a particular region. An examination of the 20th century's leading powers after World War II finds that the United States dominated in politics, the economics, and the weapons industry; the Soviet Union dominated in history and politics; and the nations of West Europe dominated in the industrial domain. Today's global economic superpowers tend to focus on a narrow range of industries.

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What is the basic argument of Haas's article? Does he think that it is possible to establish cooperation and how?

Haas’s key point was that the founders of every international organization set out to create an institution whose sole purpose was to "fix issues" that could only be addressed via collective effort. No partnership is imaginable except on the basis of explicit stated interests. For what reasons are we doing this? Interests are not antithetical to principles and goals, despite popular belief. In order to protect one's own interests, individuals often seek out ways to reduce their exposure to risk and volatility. One's interests are influenced by one's experiences, and one cannot have a notion of risk without some exposure to decisions that turned out to be less than optimum. However, how pleased one feels with an event depends on what was most wanted and how important the event was to them personally. Without values, it is impossible to express one's interests. Instead than pitting (ideal) values against (material) interests, it's important to have a clear understanding of what those interests are in order to properly evaluate them. Collective action is a reflection of the actors' values, which are expressed in the interests that will be achieved.

He claimed that negotiations can be heated or amicable, full of tension or relatively calm. Disputes do not develop if all parties agree that working together is beneficial. For example, it was generally accepted in the 19th century that British investment in Argentine cattle industry and electric infrastructure was mutually beneficial. It was not difficult to negotiate the finance and technology transfers that were commonplace at the time. After using the two countries as an example, he then underlined that sensitivity is quantified through the perceived consequences of a break in the pattern of interdependence. When initial arrangements for cooperation break down, the potential costs of establishing new ones provide a measure of vulnerability. Asymmetrical interdependence arises when individuals are exposed to the same stimulus but have different degrees of vulnerability. In addition, he stated that participants' perceptions of asymmetries are crucial to the development of international arrangements regulating interdependence in situations of complex interdependence. The perceived cost of asymmetrical reliance informs their identification of the problems necessitating control. Therefore, discussions of corrective actions are informed by sensitivity and vulnerability calculations. Legitimization hinges on influential political players adopting a fresh perspective. Governments, even when presented with new information on energy, growth, pollution, or food, will continue to evaluate policy options from the perspective of what is currently considered to be in the national interest. Learning that the national interest can be reinterpreted or enlarged and that international collaboration is essential for the accomplishment of national goals is crucial for making substantive issue connections. If there is a chance that both parties might benefit from working together, then sharing that knowledge can be justifiable. The order in which they should pick regimes is taken into account when doing so. When these measures don't have the desired effects, he argued, only then does the necessity for international cooperation emerge as a separate issue. Having to work together is a fortunate side effect of a misstep. The objectives haven't shifted much from what they were before; they're still distinct and unrelated.

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Do we owe stability to global interdependence?

Most literature on international relations has attempted to explain instability and war by tracing its roots back to the terrible religious wars that erupted in and around Germany in the seventeenth century. Peace and stability are concepts that need to be explained right now. The concept of interdependence, which was pioneered and systematically developed, provides the most important insight that may help us explain the dynamics of the current world order. The concept of mutual dependence has been around for quite some time, and not just in the academic realm. Many authors, typically economists, predicted that war would become impractical and unprofitable with the development of modern trade in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. These points of view have been frequently satirized. Even the victor of a full-scale war between Europe's major powers would suffer economic hardships as a result of the conflict. While Angell did note that this would render war obsolete, it is clear that he did not believe that interdependence alone would prevent war; otherwise, he would not have spent his life advocating for statesmen to forego the use of force. His prediction, in fact, was all too spot on. John Maynard Keynes's famous tract, The Economic Consequences of the Peace, merely lays out in retrospect and in detail what Angell foresaw: that destroying the German economy through crippling reparations would cause the economies of Britain and France to suffer as dearly. Years later, when international trade was booming and Western economies were once again intertwined, Richard Cooper elegantly resurrected the idea of interdependence in an essay.

Are the Pathologies of International Institutions mean as IOs are independent actors?

These networks, norms, and institutions are crucial to the international organization model for explaining regime change. It is possible to create a global body devoted to fostering relations between Canada and the United States. There is little to no involvement from official international institutions in the relationship. The norms associated with particular international regimes are included in the broader category of an international organization, which also includes patterns of elite networks and (if applicable) formal institutions. In this way, the Bretton Woods international monetary regime established norms for countries' financial transactions with one another. However, the international organization of the monetary issue area also included formal organizations like the International Monetary Fund and networks of ties among national treasures and central banks. Also, the UN's formal institutions and the informal networks of ties among governments, especially the governments of advanced industrial societies belonging to the OECD, were all a part of this larger pattern of an international organization that included the monetary issue area. However, Similarly to the fundamental structural models, the factors on which the international organization model relies are transitory and reversible. It is possible that existing regimes and the organizations associated with them will cease to exist if strong governments decide to destroy them and have the will and the ability to do so. When highly interconnected elite networks exist across multiple countries, the costs of toppling a regime are predicted to be high by the international organization model. But some states might decide to destroy an unfavorable regime if doing so meant disrupting those networks because the costs of doing so would become too great to bear. As a result, the international organization model would be less useful at this stage than the fundamental structural models. The international organization model is only likely to work in highly interdependent settings, and even then, the actions of governments intent on exercising their underlying power to change regimes could render the model's predictions invalid. The model's viability rests on the assumption that actors won't try to topple the regime by exploiting each other's weaknesses. However, if this does occur, structural models, as opposed to the international organization model, will be better guided to regime change because they will focus on underlying power resources within issue areas or generally. Therefore, as vulnerability interdependence outweighs sensitivity interdependence as a source of power, it should predominate in the international model. When fighting escalates beyond a certain point, the international organization model and sensitivity interdependence become largely irrelevant.

2 pathologies inherent in IOs with examples

Bureaucracies, by their very nature, have a need to organize and categorize vast amounts of data. A hierarchy of power underlies this sorting procedure. One of the most significant sources of bureaucratic power is the ability to classify things, to change their very definition and identity. The people who are subject to this authority often view it as arbitrary and unjustified, but bureaucrats can point to the bureaucracy's rules and regulations as proof that they were acting within the law. A bureaucratic decision with potentially devastating consequences. Think about how the term "refugee" has changed over time. People who are temporarily and voluntarily living outside of their country of origin include refugees, exiles, economic migrants, guest workers, diaspora communities, and those seeking political asylum, all of whom must be distinguished from one another. Second, IOs wield influence as a result of their role in establishing definitive meanings, which is inextricably linked to the act of categorization. Putting a name to the social setting is the first step in defining its parameters and limits. Having the ability to invest in situations with a specific purpose is a significant source of power because actors are oriented toward objects and objectives based on the meaning they have for them. IOs are not sole actors here, but they do make significant contributions via the resources available within their own organizations. Following WWII, a massive international apparatus was born, and we can see how it has expanded its tentacles into domestic and international politics through the language of development. What counts as development, who gets to do the developing (typically the state or 1Os), and who is the object of development are all determined by the discourse of development, which is created and arbitrated in large part by 1Os (local groups).

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What are the main theories relating to International Organizations?

Liberal Theory and Liberal Feminism:

Liberal theory is rooted in the classical liberal tradition, which argues that people are fundamentally good, that society can and will progress, and that people can be shaped and made more perfect by institutions to act in more ideal ways. According to liberals, flawed social institutions and miscommunication between political elites are to blame for injustice, aggression, and war. They are avoidable and can be eradicated through concerted, multilateral effort and changes to relevant institutions. The textbook traces liberalism back to the Grotian tradition of the 1700s; the Enlightenment of the 1800s; the political and economic liberalism of the 1900s; and the Wilsonian idealism of the 20th century. The Greek ideas that individuals are rational human beings and have the capacity to improve their conditions by creating a just society formed the basis of the Enlightenment's contribution to liberalism. If a more equitable society cannot be established, the fault lies with the existing framework. To liberals, individuals are the most important actors, but states are the most important collective actors. However, states are pluralistic and not unitary. To put it another way, states' interests and policies are influenced by moral and ethical principles, power relations among domestic and transnational groups, and shifting international conditions. Since states have different goals and interests, there is no universally accepted definition of a state's national interests. Liberals acknowledge the significance of transnational and intergovernmental organizations and non-state actors as well. There are two reasons why cooperation is possible and will grow over time, as liberals believe and as is stated in the textbook. First, they don't see the international system as a structure of relationships based on the distribution of power among states and a fixed concept of state sovereignty but rather as a context within which multiple interactions occur and where various actors "learn" from their interactions. This set of norms and institutions is important because it allows for effective international cooperation and ensures that power is exercised within reasonable bounds. Second, liberals believe that the spread of interdependence, knowledge, communication, and democratic values will increase mutual interests. Peace, prosperity, and fairness will all benefit from this increased level of cooperation. Liberals place a high value on the contributions that international organizations make to the cultivation of cooperative habits and the creation of stable political coalitions. They play a pivotal role in reducing the likelihood of war, encouraging the growth of common norms, and bolstering the established order. As possible components of international regimes, they engage in practical activities to aid in solving serious global issues. They can be used as tools of foreign policy and to restrain the actions of other states. In conclusion, positivist feminist theorists contend that liberal theory, as well as most of the international relations theory, has failed to adequately account for the status of women. Scholars of international organizations would do well to pay more attention to the leadership, staffing, and lobbying roles played by women in these organizations. Women's issues, including their role in economic development, their status as victims of crime and discrimination, and their treatment in times of war, are central concerns for liberal feminists, who advocate for greater focus on these issues when crafting organizational policies. Too much time has passed with these problems being ignored.

Functionalism:

The fundamental tenet of functionalism is that systems of government are driven by the practical requirements of citizens and their respective states. As a result, it sheds light on the historical development of a wide range of IGOs. However, functionalists argue that international economic and social cooperation is necessary for political cooperation and the end of war, the root causes of which are misinformation, poverty, hunger, and disease. They agree that cooperation outside of the traditional political and economic spheres is possible despite state rivalries. Cooperation on this scale has the potential to affect every aspect of society, from personal relationships to the economy to the military. Technical experts play a crucial role in this process, and it is expected that they will gradually distance themselves from their nation's flag in favor of new alliances with people of similar values from all over the world. As the saying goes, "form follows function," meaning that the structure of a given functional organization is determined by the nature of the problem being addressed. Early intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) like the Universal Postal Union and the Commission for Navigation on the Rhine can be better understood thanks to functionalist theory, as can the UN's specialized agencies like the World Health Organization, the UN Children's Fund, the Food and Agriculture Organization, and the International Labor Organization. But functionalism doesn't answer some important questions. While poverty, ignorance, hunger, and disease all play a role in starting wars, eliminating war itself should be the ultimate goal. The question at hand is how to tell political from apolitical concerns. Can we expect the same degree of cooperation in politics as we see in the economy and society? The European Union's efforts to unite its member states since 1950 have demonstrated how much functionalists misjudged the power of state sovereignty and national allegiances. Even with these caveats, functionalism has proven to be a useful way to think about IGOs and the cooperation that many IGOs try to promote in economic and social issues.

Realism:

Realism, in its various forms, is a product of a long philosophical and historical tradition that assumes that individuals act rationally to protect their own interests. Realists regard states as the primary actors in the international system, entities that act as a unit in pursuit of their national interest, which is generally defined as maximizing power and security relative to other states. States coexist in an anarchic international system that lacks an authoritative hierarchy. As a result, states must rely on themselves primarily to manage their own insecurity through the balance of power and deterrence. Because each state is concerned with gaining more power in comparison to other states, competition among states is fierce, and there is little room for cooperation. Most realist theorists do not argue that international cooperation is impossible, but rather that states have few incentives to enter into international agreements. Because international institutions and agreements lack enforcement power, they lack authority and thus real power. Realists do not recognize the importance or influence of nonstate actors such as NGOs and multinational corporations in international politics and governance, and they do not accept the concept of IGOs as independent actors. Most realists believe that deterrence and balance of power are more effective than international institutions in maintaining peace. Although most realists have little to say about the various forms of global governance, recent research on hegemonic stability and great-power behavior shows cross-fertilization among various theories. These approaches compel researchers to consider the role of dominant states in global governance outcomes, as well as how other actors influence governance processes.

Social Constructivism:

All constructivists agree that shared beliefs, socially constructed rules, and cultural practices shape the behavior of individuals, states, and other actors. They contend that what actors do, how they interact, and how others interpret their actions create and change the meaning of norms. The approach is founded on sociology and social theory. A concern with identity and interests and how they can change is at the heart of constructivist approaches—a belief that ideas, values, norms, and shared beliefs matter, that how individuals talk about the world shapes practices, and that humans are capable of changing the world by changing ideas. Unlike realists, constructivists believe that states' interests and identities are socially constructed, influenced by culture, norms, ideas, and domestic and international interactions. Constructivists value institutions as they are manifested in norms, practices, and formal organizations. Sovereignty is the most important institution in international society because it determines the identity of states. Constructivists, on the other hand, criticize those who see sovereignty as immutable, pointing to various transformations in understandings of sovereignty since Westphalia. To demonstrate how sovereignty determines state identity, consider how failed states retain their statehood and continue to be members of IGOs. Multilateralism is one of the key norms influencing state behavior, and how the shared expectations surrounding this norm affect state behavior. Constructivists study international organizations to learn about their social content and the dominant norms that govern behavior and shape interests, as well as how these interests influence actors. IOs may then act as agents of social construction, as norm entrepreneurs attempting to alter social perceptions. IGOs, in particular, have real power for constructivists. They contribute to the definition of the interests that states and other actors come to hold, and they do so in ways that are compatible with liberalism and a liberal global order. These are significant displays of power. Constructivists are also concerned about international organizations' ability to socialize individual policymakers and states. When institutional norms become deeply embedded and thus internalized, actors' identities and interests can be transformed. The majority of this research is concerned with the socializing effects of EU membership on prospective members. Thus, international organizations are seen as purposeful actors with independent effects on international relations by constructivists. They have played an important role in changing attitudes and behaviors toward poverty, humanitarianism, colonialism, slavery, and other issues. Although most constructivists have focused on positive outcomes such as decolonization, human rights norms, and poverty alleviation, others have reminded us that international organizations can be dysfunctional and act in ways that are detrimental to their constituents' interests. They may pursue narrow objectives, competing for territory, budgets, and personnel. Such dysfunctional behavior has the potential to foster a bureaucratic culture that tolerates inefficient practices, a lack of accountability, and mission-defeating behaviors.

Marxist and Neo-Marxist Theories:

Through the frameworks they provide for linking politics, economics, social forces, and order structures, Marxist and neo-Marxist critical theories contribute important perspectives to understanding IR and global governance. Marxism, like realism and liberalism, has a core set of ideas that unite its variants. These include a historical foundation, the primacy of economic forces in explaining political and social phenomena, the central role of the production process, capitalism's unique character as a global mode of production, and the importance of social or economic class in defining actors. The evolution of the production process can also be used to explain the relationship between production, social relationships, and power. Marxist perspectives on the global system's structure, and thus global governance, are rooted in these ideas about class, the capitalist mode of production, and power. The hierarchical structure is a byproduct of global capitalism's spread, which favors some states, organizations, groups, and individuals while imposing significant constraints on others. As a result, developed countries' economies have expanded, allowing them to sell goods and export surplus wealth that they could not absorb at home. Concurrently, developing countries have become more constrained and reliant on the actions of the developed. The origins of Marxists and neo-Marxists are almost uniformly normative. They consider capitalism to be "bad," and its structure and mode of production to be exploitative. They have strong opinions about what should be done to address inequities. As a result, they advocate for major structural changes in international relations.

Why John Mearsheimer is very pessimistic about the success of International Organizations?

John Mearsheimer is not only skeptical of international institutions, but also dismissive of them. Institutions, in his opinion, are simply arenas for pursuing power relationships. They have "minimal influence on state behavior and thus hold little promise for promoting stability in the post-Cold War world," according to the report. While not all neorealists agree with Mearsheimer, many believe that international institutions have no independent effects worth investigating. There are two variants of structural realism, one of which is offensive realism, a theory proposed by John Mearsheimer: when it comes to describing state behavior, he believes the international system compels states to maximize their relative power position. However, he goes on to say that there is no limit to this maximization; all states are constantly looking for ways to gain power at the expense of other states. According to him, the best path to peace is to amass more power than any other state, thereby establishing global hegemony. Nonetheless, Mearsheimer is skeptical of such an outcome. He concludes that the world is doomed to perpetual great power competition because he believes such hegemony is impossible.

Furthermore, Mearscheimer criticizes liberal institutionalism for largely ignoring security issues (where the fear of cheating is much more difficult to overcome and thus this theory does not really hold) in favor of focusing solely on economic issues. Furthermore, ignoring the other major impediment to cooperation: concerns about relative gain. And, if states are concerned with relative gains, the neat separation of economic and security issues cannot be maintained. According to Mearsheimer, there is no evidence that liberal institutionalists believe institutions facilitate cooperation when states care deeply about relative gains. He also criticizes for failing to demonstrate, empirically, that existing cooperation would not have occurred in the absence of institutions.

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The Challenges of Global Governance

What Is Global Governance?

As the book points out, the term "global governance" has been used interchangeably with "international organizations." However, it is more commonly used to capture the complexity and dynamism of the numerous collective efforts by states and an increasing variety of non-state actors to identify, comprehend, and address various issues and problems in today's turbulent world. According to the textbook, after the end of the Cold War, the world experienced several changes that necessitated new approaches to international cooperation. The Commission on Global Governance, an independent group of well-known people from around the world, wrote a report about these changes in 1995. Following the end of the Cold War, the world underwent several changes that necessitated new approaches to international cooperation, and in 1995, the Commission on Global Governance, an independent group of prominent international figures, released a report on these issues. Governance was defined by the commission as "the many ways in which individuals and institutions, public and private, manage the common affairs of their respective communities." It's an ongoing procedure that helps people whose interests are at odds with one another find common ground so they can work together. Governing was defined by the commission as "the many ways in which individuals and institutions, public and private, manage the common affairs of their respective communities." It's an ongoing procedure that helps people whose interests are at odds with one another find common ground so they can work together. Thus, global governance is not global government; it is not a single world order; there is no top-down, hierarchical structure of authority; rather, both power and authority are present in global governance in varying ways and to varying degrees. Global governance defines as the collection of formal and informal concepts, values, norms, procedures, and institutions that aid all actors (including states, IGOs, civil society organizations, and transnational corporations) in recognizing the existence of transboundary issues and devising effective strategies for dealing with them. Given that today's world is both more complex and less state-centric, with a wide variety of actors and governance mechanisms, it naturally encompasses international law and international organizations created by states but goes far beyond them.

What type of functions does Intergovernmental Organizations (IGOs) serve in global governance?

An IGO is a group of countries working together on a common goal. As a rule, this entails a set of multilateral agreements or treaties that the states sign onto and use as a constitution to hold each other accountable. In addition, the operators, structure, function, and agencies of the IGO are all determined by the agreements that establish it. The twentieth century saw an explosion in the number of international organizations (IGOs), especially after WWII. In international organizations, middle-power states have historically been pivotal players, often working in tandem with the United Nations and other IGOs to take the lead on arms control, human rights, and other issues. The textbook cited several countries as examples of those who are committed to multilateralism, capable of compromise, and supportive of reform within the international system. These countries include Argentina, Australia, Canada, the Netherlands, Nigeria, Norway, and Sweden. Countries like Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden, as well as the Netherlands, have long been dependable backers of United Nations peacekeeping operations, donors that have consistently met or surpassed their development assistance goals, and staffed roughly 10% of UN executive positions. Power and influence for many less developed, small, and weak states come only through coalitions that amplify their voices and provide opportunities to set global agendas and link issues of importance to them. The International Group of Organizations (IGO) is a great place to do this and gain credibility and respect from other countries. Many small and developing countries have worked together to try to influence the priorities, programs, and agendas of international organizations (IGOs), with varying degrees of success. For instance, the Group of 77 (G-77) has been a significant forum for developing countries to advocate for their needs since the 1960s. Similarly, the Alliance of the Small Island States, which consists of 39 countries, has been able to raise its voice in opposition to global warming. Cooper and Thakur (2014), cited in the textbook as the central core of formal multilateral machinery constituting the "architecture of global governance," make this case. There has been an increase in the number of IGOs established over the past century. In addition to the obvious roles of information gathering and trend analysis, service provision, aid distribution, dispute resolution, and intergovernmental bargaining (via the European Union), these organizations perform a wide range of other important tasks as well. Regular meetings, information gathering, analysis, dispute settlement, and operational activities have all helped states form stable habits of cooperation. They are beneficial to society as a whole and to individuals as well. A further function of IGOs, and particularly of the UN, has been the development of key ideas and concepts about security and economic and social development. The United Nations has served as a source of inspiration, a platform for discussion, an endorsement of ideas as policy, a provider of resources to put those ideas into action, and, on occasion, a graveyard for less successful concepts.

What is the relationship between global governance and the globalization process?

Due to the increased pressure brought on by globalization, the process of global governance at this time shifted, giving non-Western states greater influence in international affairs. Thus, it is clear that globalization does increase the pressures on global governance in a variety of ways. As a first step, it raises numerous and diverse issues of global governance in regard to the global commons, which need to be balanced with progress and development. New global commons have emerged as a result of globalization; examples include the internet and cyberspace, both of which lack clear and consistent global governance parameters. Because of this, cyberspace, the banking sector, and private firms have all seen an increase in demands on their part of the spectrum of global governance institutions. In addition to increasing the demands placed on the process of global governance to address these legitimately and effectively, the ambiguity of these governance spaces has also made it more open to political debate and pressure. Furthermore, the fragmentation of the western or centralized global governance system brought about by globalization has created a situation in which emerging economies can exert overt and direct pressure on specific parts of the process of global governance, drawing attention to the lack of legitimacy of the post-World War II global governance system and thereby enforcing change. As a result, globalization has and will continue to place increasing demands on the system of global governance.