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"Father of Modern Philosophy"
- Descartes came up with the philosophy of "Cogito, ergo sum," or translated, “I think, therefore I am." (knowledge is rooted in intuition and self-evident truths)
- He created a new type of modern thinking that was rooted in observation and experimentation called deductive reasoning. He mainly used it in mathematics, but it can be applied to all sciences.
- He invented analytical geometry which applied algebra to geometrical principles, and geometry to algebraic problems. The principles could be inversely applied.
- Descartes explained how rainbows are created through his principle of refraction.
- He argued that all people had knowledge through and because of God.

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Aristarchus of Samos was a Greek astronomer and mathematician.

He was the first person to propose a heliocentric model, in which the sun and not the earth is the center of the universe.

Aristarchus’s theory was heavily rejected by other astronomers at the time because they widely believed in the geocentric model (the Earth is at the center of the universe.)

Aristarchus was able to discover that Earth rotates on its axis and revolves around the sun. He also placed the planets in the right order from the sun.

Aristarchus created a model of the universe that included stars rotating and the planets revolving around the Sun. He also calculated the relative sizes of the Sun, the Moon, and the Earth.

Aristarchus is so important because he discovered principles of space that are still in effect today. Without Aristarchus, we wouldn't know that the planets revolve around the Sun, what sizes the planets are, or how far they are from the Sun.

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Galileo di Vincenzo Bonaiuti de' Galilei (15 February 1564 – 8 January 1642) 

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- Galileo was an Italian astronomer, physicist, and engineer.

- His good friend, Cardinal Maffeo Barberini, was elected Pope

- Pope Urban VIII, launched an inquisition of Galileo and ordered him to the Holy Office to begin trial

- He is known as the "father of science", "father of modern astronomy" or the “father of modern physics”

- He is best known for his astronomical observations

- He was the first to report telescopic observations of the mountains on the moon

- He invented an early microscope and a predecessor to the thermometer.

- Discovered the phases of Venus and Jupiter's Moon

- When NASA sent a mission to Jupiter in the 1990s, it was called Galileo

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Johannes Kepler is a German astronomer who discovered the three major laws of planetary motion.
1. planets moving in an elliptical orbit with the sun as the center.
2. no matter where the planet is in motion they cover the same amount of space, in the same amount of time
3. a planet's orbital period is proportional to the size of its orbit

Kepler was Tycho Brahe's assistant however, Brahe mistrusted Kepler and feared he would overshadow him. Kepler, unlike Brahe, believed in a heliocentric solar system and was assigned to research the orbit of Mars. Mars' orbit was considered difficult during this time because the orbits of planets were thought to be circular. From this research, Kepler discovered planets orbit in an elliptical motion.

Ellipses have two points, called foci (plural for focus) The sum of the distance from a focus to any part of an ellipse is constant. The sun is one focus. The amount of flattening of an ellipse is called eccentricity, the flatter the more eccentric. Knowing that planets' orbits were elliptical Kepler was able to formulate the three laws above.

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-A polish cleric and astronomer born on February 19.
- Copernicus proposed the heliocentric theory, which was the idea that the solar system was centered around the sun.
Very important theory as it is the one we still follow in modern times.
- Studies liberal arts, astronomy, and astrology at the University of Bologna and the University of Crakow.
- Died May 24, 1543, holding the finished version of one of his works "On the revolutions"
- Wrote many works like "On the revolutions.", "commentarlius" and many more.

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Born- December 31, 1514, Brussels, Belgium
Died- October 15, 1564, Zakynthos, Greece

Vesalius was one of the first physicians to accurately record and illustrate human anatomy.
- dissections
- autopsies

Doing this helped him understand the human body and it enhanced surgery techniques.

Without Vesalius we wouldn't have founded modern anatomy, and the intellectual structure of medicine.

Author of one of the most influential books on human anatomy.

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*Edward Jenner was a British physician who began the research for vaccines and created the first vaccine which was the smallpox vaccine.
* His work is known as the foundation of immunology and he is remembered as the "father of immunology".
* Jenner was successful in creating this vaccine by injecting James Phipps with a cowpox vaccine in order to create immunity to smallpox.
*During his time, he was known to have "saved more lives than the work of any other human" because the small pox, at the time killed so many people.

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Evangelista Torricelli posing with his invention, the barometer.

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Came of a dutch descent
- born on October 24th, 1632, died august 26th 1723
- invented the first practical microscope
- the first man to see bacteria and protozoa and was able to depict and describe it
- He stayed in contact with the Royal Society sharing what he was finding, many of them were published to the public in the society's Philosophical Transactions
- The first name of the Protozoa was "very little animalcules"
-these observations helped to lay a foundations of biomedical researchers and many other types of sciences in today's world
- Some of the first things he viewed were from the human mouth, insects, pond water and dogs called spermatozoa, he looked at pretty much anything he could that would have bacteria. Also, rainwater, well water, and samples from the human intestines,
- Without the invention of Leiwenhoek science would not be where it is today, the microscope allows us to look at bacteria and many other things identifying problems in the medical world and for research. Many vaccines are created after using a microscope to get a closer look at how they reacted with different substances.

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Zacharias Janssen was a dutch spectacle maker. He was born between the years of 1580 and 1588 and he died in 1638. He is best known for his contributions to the creation of the early models of the telespcope and microscope.

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Sir Isaac Newton was a mathematician, scientist, and physicist. He was born in England on January 4, 1643, and died of natural causes on March 31, 1727. He is famous for discovering the laws of motion and universal gravitation. However, he also applied his findings of gravity to reinforce the findings of the laws of planetary motion and other astrology phenomena such as comets. Isaac Newton was an unorthodox Christian and was knighted in 1705 by Queen Anne. It is also commonly known that Newton Discovered gravity from an apple falling on his head, but there was no evidence supporting this myth so it is believed to be false. We should still learn about Newton today because his findings about gravity were the foundations for most of our modern-day understandings of motion or space.
Discoveries and Accomplishments:
-Founded the laws of motion
-Founded the laws of universal gravity
-Built the first particle-reflecting telescope
-Invented the theory of color
-Calculated the speed of sound
-Invented the empirical law of cooling
-Introduced the notion of Newtonian Fluid
-Generalised the binomial theory
-Developed a method for approximating the root of a function
-Classified most of the cubic plane curves
-Worked with Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz to make infinitesimal calculus
This is a youtube documentary about him: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s2YZN2L700Q

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Born: July 18, 1635
Died: March 3, 1703
-Robert Hooke was a polymath known for his advancements in science and architecture.
-Hooke created a version of the microscope and was the first scientist to use the word cell to describe the basic unit of all organisms.
-Robert Hooke founded the Law of Elasticity which is also known as Hooke's Law.
-He helped with the discovery of the diaphragm which is a muscle in the human body that helps humans breathe.
-Hooke contributed to the creation of the universal joint.

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- Born: January 25, 1627
- Died: December 31, 1691
- An Anglo-Irish natural philosopher, mainly in the field of chemistry, and a theological writer
- covered other areas such as physics, medicine, alchemy, etc
- prolific output included Christian devotional and ethical essays & theological tracts on biblical language, the limits of reason, and the role of a natural philosopher as a Christian
- sponsored religious missions and the translation of Scriptures into several languages
- played a key role in founding the Royal Society

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Born: April 1st, 1578
Died: June 3rd, 1657

William Harvey was an English physician, who wrote the famous work, "On the Motion of the Heart" which deduced that blood was pumped around the body by the heart in a one way circular motion flow.

Many theorists of his time rejected Harvey's ideas and instead followed Galen's theory that the liver produced and circulated blood.

However, Harvey's early on studies opened up the door for modern procedures like heart transplants and blood transfusions

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Video on William Harvey and his scientific findings

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Video on William Harvey and his scientific findings

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Born: 1548 in Nola, Italy
Died: February 17, 1600 in Rome, Italy

Giordano Bruno was a Italian philosopher, astronomer as well as mathematician.  His theories anticipated modern science. His most famous theory was that there was an infinite universe and there were many many worlds, and life beyond ours. Which we still wonder about today and are still uncertain of. When he was first starting out as an astronomer he did not support the idea that the Earth was the center of the universe. He reaffirmed the heliocentric theory, where the sun was the center of our solar system. He suggested that the universe is infinite and that there are numerous worlds similar to the planets in our solar system.
His death was unfortunate when he was burned at the stake because of his unorthodox beliefs when at the time the Roman Catholic Church was reaffirming their ideas back into Europe.

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Francis Bacon was a British philosopher who stole the scientific method from Rene Descartes.

Was born on January 22nd, 1561, and died on April 9th, 1626.

Was named the father of empiricism, which is the theory that all knowledge is derived from a sensual experience or observation.

Studied at Trinity College at Cambridge but never got a degree.

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- Born October 15, 1608 in Faenza Papal States in Italy
- Died October 25, 1647 (39) in Florence Italy
- Physicist and Mathematician
- Sent to a Jesuit College in 1624 where he first studied mathematics and philosophy for four years
- Sent to Rome by uncle to study science in 1627
- Evangelista Torricelli was heavily influenced by the findings of Ptolemy, Tycho Brahe, Kepler, and other major scientists; He even wrote to Galileo discussing the joy his findings had brought to him
- Was Galileo's successor as the grand-ducal (professor at Grand Duke college) mathematician
- Found cycloid area (a cycloid is a curve created by a circle rolling in a straight line)  and center of gravity (the average location of all weight in an object)
- Also contributed to the creation of microscopes and telescopes

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-Swedish physicist, astrosmist, and mathematician
-Born Nov. 1701 and died April 1774
-Invented the Celsius temp. scale
-The Celsius scale is used everywhere the metric system is and is used by scientists today
-Published collections on his observations of the Aurora Borealis
- Was a professor at the University of Uppsala

https://www.biography.com/scientist/anders-celsius

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Photo: Mondadori Portfolio via Getty Images

Quick Facts

Anders Celsius was a Swedish astronomer who built the Uppsala Observatory and invented the Celsius (or centigrade) thermometer scale.

Synopsis

Anders Celsius was born on November 27, 1701 in Uppsala, Sweden. He was a Swedish astronomer and physicist who taught at the University of Uppsala. He published a collection of observations of the aurora borealis and built the Uppsala Observatory. He also invented the Celsius (or centigrade) thermometer scale. Though he originally set the scale with a boiling point of 0° and a freezing point of 100°, the inverted form of the scale, setting the freezing point of water at 0° and the boiling point at 100° is considered the standard among scientific work today. Another scale, developed by Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit, is commonly used in the United States. Celsius died in 1744 at the age of 42.

Fact Check

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Quick Facts Anders Celsius was a Swedish astronomer who built the Uppsala Observatory and invented the Celsius (or centigrade) thermometer scale. Anders Celsius was born on November 27, 1701 in Uppsala, Sweden. He was a Swedish astronomer and physicist who taught at the University of Uppsala.

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"On the Motion of the Heart and Blood" in Latin published 1628

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- Born 1630, died in 1710
- Hennig Brand was a German alchemist that studied science in 1669 in Hamburg, Germany.
- With his experiments he accidentally discovered the element phosphorus, but kept the information a secret
- Brand was in search of a special stone known as the "philosopher's stone" that was supposed to be able to change base metals into gold.
- It's important to recognize his accomplishment because he was the first named person in history to find a new chemical element, which ultimately impacted the future of science greatly.

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Paracelsus or Theophrastus

born November 11 or December 17, 1493, Einsiedeln, Switzerland

died September 24, 1541, Salzburg, Archbishopric of Salzburg (now  Austria.)

was the son of a doctor and chemists

when he was young he learned about the metals that came from the earth and how lead turned to gold.

He made some important  discoveries of chemotherapy

He used minerals and chemicals to make medicine.

He commonly used Mercury, lead, arsenic and antimony for medicine.

given credit for the invention of tincture of opium and that it  was more soluble in alcohol.

But tincture of opium it was a common drug to abuse during the Victorian era

wrote many books about medicine

Antimony was used as a laxative and gained popularity after it was used to cure Louis XIV.

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https://www.britannica.com/video/213697/Overview-scientist-Robert-Hooke-cell-theory

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Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Transcript

Prior to 1665, most humans were unaware that the microscopic world existed.

But that year, Robert Hooke published his groundbreaking Micrographia-a book that revealed this previously unseen and unknown world. Hooke was one of a small handful of scientists to embrace the first microscopes, improve them, and use them to discover nature's hidden details. He designed his own light microscope, which used multiple glass lenses to light and magnify specimens. Under his microscope, Hooke examined a diverse collection of organisms.

A gifted illustrator, he drew and explained what he saw. This record of his observations became Micrographia.

Some of Hooke's images were so curious and extraordinary that people refused to believe they were real! While observing cork through his microscope, Hooke saw tiny boxlike cavities, which he illustrated and described as cells. He had discovered plant cells!

Hooke's discovery led to the understanding of cells as the smallest units of life-the foundation of cell theory.

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Robert Hooke and his Discovery of Cell Theory

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An overview of Robert Hooke and his discoveries.

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Rene Descartes - “I think, therefore I am”

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- The Barometer was a major contribution to physics
- Came about his invention due to the problem many pump-makers were facing, water could only travel up a certain distance in a vertical tube
- He utilized mercury which was 14 times heavier than water
- He dumped mercury out of a glass tube and noticed that a vacuum had been created inside of the tube (recognized that mercury was still left inside of the tube)
- Recognized that the vacuum itself wasn't holding the mercury in the tube, but air pressure.
- His discovery led to the barometer, a tool utilized to determine atmospheric pressure
- The unit Torr was named after him and it is used to quantify pressure

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Copernicus - Astronomer | Mini Bio | BIO

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- Torricelli was an outstanding physicist and mathematician that helped in the development of our knowledge of physics today. His invention, the barometer, is used daily today and helped develop the laws regarding the speed of liquids when flowing out of an opening (Torricelli's law). He developed many of the scientists' ideas that predated him. He was highly educated in mathematics, physics, and much more. Torricelli's discoveries during the scientific revolution had a large impact on our lives and the science we study today. His work in geometry and mathematics also paved the way for the formation of integral calculus.

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portrait of Marie-Anne Lavoisier and her husband 

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- Born on January 20, 1758 in Montbrison, France
- Died on February 10, 1836 in Paris, France
1) Marie Lavoisier was a well known French chemist who worked alongside her husband as his loyal companion.
2) She is known as the mother of modern chemistry.
3) She translated many of her husband's documents from English to french and spent most of her time with her husband in his laboratory.
4) One of her most significant accomplishments to modern chemistry is the discovery of oxygen gas and the studies of combustion. Her translations pointed out Antoine Lavoisier's errors that led to new discoveries in modern chemistry.
5) Lavoisier was the artist behind her husband's experimental drawings and diagrams. She was able to accurately record his findings and translate his works so that his work could be shared with fellow scientists.
6) In her records of her husband's experiments, there lied information regarding the conservation of mass, a list of elements, and a new system for chemical nomenclature.

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The history of the barometer (and how it works) - Asaf Bar-Yosef

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Background:
- first published scientific work concerning the physical nature of air
- conducted series of experiments where he used an air pump to create a vacuum
- later described the quantitative relationship Boyle derived from experimental values, which is known as Boyle's Law

Boyle's Law: the volume of a gas varies inversely with pressure (at a fixed temperature)
- P(1)V(1)=P(2)V(2)
- important because this law explains to us how gases behave

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- Was an advocate for Corpuscularism (ideology that discusses reality and change in terms of particles and their motion)
- Started slowly displacing Aristotelian and Paracelsian views of the world
- Boyle believed chemical experiments could demonstrate the truth of the corpuscularism philosophy
- experimented with many elements and defined them in his works
- Observations showed the weight gain by metals when heated to become calxes
- He interpreted this as caused by fiery particles that are able to pass through the walls of glass vessels

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Antonie van Leeuwenhoek Biography - YouTube

https://www.youtube.com › watch