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1.) There are two major ways to observe nature- as non-existent, or existent
2.) Viewing nature as existent, there are a numerous amount of ways to view it differently, each changing the way we approach it.

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The nature grows out, not really caring about what's in its way. The only way to survive in the wild is to grow (normally to overcome herbivores ) and the nature clearly does that here.

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The rabbit provides food to humans albeit, not directly. A higher predator will eat the bunny, which we will eat, which provides food to humans.

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1.) My data is alwasy being used no matter what app or device I'm using.
2.) Akin to the paradox of development, with advances in technology of the digital world, come dangers with facial recognition.

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Humans affect more of the environment than I previously realized
Humans can impact the environment by just being around areas where nature lives.

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1.) Redlining causes environmental harm disproportionally to minorities.
2.) Small particles in the air are more dangerous because they can damage our respiratory system.

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This textbook is a perfect example of a benefit monopoly on a resource from nature. Trees are a thing that help provide oxygen to 7 billion people, but now after the processing the benefit is given solely to me.

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We maintain these flowers because they are ‘pretty’. They look nice so we put all this time and effort to maintain them.

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Woody’s isn’t a place for pizza. I mean c’mon, have you ever seen anyone just go in for pizza alone? No, because they go with people to connect with. Woody’s is a meeting place that people just happen to eat pizza at. That's where the meaning of Woody’s comes from.

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1.) Consequentialism is caring about all thpse around you, not just caring about the people you want to care about
2.) You have to treat everyone equal and there's an emphisis on not harming anyonw emotionally, physically, or mentally.

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1.) the biological old regime was a time which food was hard to come by becuase humans had not yet conqured the enviornment yet
2.) humans eventually did conquer the enviornment and it left the enviornment to slowly and eventually suffer.

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1.) The more we advance as a society, the more problems we cause for ourselves.
2.) We may never be free of problems, just like how there are no true utopian stories, only dystopian ones.

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1.) Great for energy production. It surpasses most other ways of producing energy
2.) 10% of the world's power is produced by nuclear technology.

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Nature is a complex cycle that we have to respect and observe to understand.

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Einstein said, "Look deeply into nature and you will understand everything better."

But what does this really mean? And how is it done on a practical level?

Like many people who care about the earth, I've often wondered about the role that nature might play in my personal journey to find meaning & satisfaction in life.

Throughout history, humans have lived closely to nature, yet modern people are so incredibly disconnected from nature. How does this affect us physically, mentally, emotionally & spiritually?

Sure, we've gained some nice comforts. But what have we lost from depriving ourselves of living so close to the natural world?

These questions led me to practice a variety of nature awareness techniques for understanding nature more deeply.

The result was a profound shift in my ability to understand what's happening ecologically in my physical surroundings as well as my own personal worldview & connection to inner peace.

In order to understand nature we first need to know what it is, so let's start there...

What is Nature? (3 universal understandings)

There are 3 universal understandings about nature that have appeared across multiple cultures around the world at all different sizes & social complexities.

These are simple concepts & ideas that really get to the heart of what nature truly is at it's core.

1. Nature is a circle

The circle of life is this idea that everything is constantly cycling and recycling like an endless exchange of energy.

Day turns into night

Spring turns to summer, fall & winter

Life becomes death, which feeds more life

We breathe in, and breathe out

Things arise and then fall away

This makes pretty good sense when you think about it, and it represents a natural balance and harmony between all things, regardless of we perceive them to be good or bad.

Yet for a long time, the circle of life was mostly just a concept to me. It seemed like a good idea, but I couldn't actually see it with my own eyes.

It was only after I began studying nature awareness skills like tracking & pattern observation with natural cycles that I began to see the reality of this circle of life for myself.

Having a personal relationship with nature helps you see the circle of life with your own eyes and ears. Spend enough time observing nature, and you will see the realities of life and death.

You empathize with the awe & innocence of baby birds born before your eyes. Then you also see them killed by the hawk.

It sounds harsh, but this is actually the first key to truly understanding nature. It's having a personal experience of seeing the circle in action (More on this in the practical skills below).

2. Nature is Interconnected

The interconnectedness of nature shows us that not only is nature a circle, but each part of that circle is also connected to every other part like a web.

Nothing in nature happens in isolation. Everything affects everything else.

This is quite plain to see for anyone with the patience to sit quietly and observe nature with open senses.

Consider the interconnectedness of a black bear...

When a bear moves in the forest, it sends out a wave of direct & indirect effects:

Over time, the presence of black bears in the forest will actually change how that forest grows, affecting overall biodiversity and leaving a mark that continues for many generations.

In this way, the bear is a living part of the forest and has an essential role to play in how that forest evolves. It is connected to everything in that forest.

This effect is significant and observable by anyone who learns to track bears...
...But you need to have the trained senses of a tracker in order to perceive these connections.
Again - the important thing here is that interconnectedness can be SEEN for ourselves. It's not just a concept. It doesn't require technology or philosophy.

It simply requires awareness.

3. Nature Is A Fractal

A fractal is simply a pattern that repeats at multiple orders of magnitude.

Some common example of fractals in nature include snail shells, swirling hurricanes & our swirling galaxy.

Or the vascular patterns in leaf veins, compared with animal trails seen from above, and neural pathways inside the human brain.

This means whether you're looking through a microscope, or a telescope, or with the bare human eye, nature is a collection of universal patterns that repeat at many different levels.

This also means when you look at a snail shell, you're not just seeing a snail shell. You're actually seeing a fundamental pattern of nature that exists at multiple levels of reality.

Because nature is a fractal, it means all of nature is contained within every aspect of nature.

This can also explain why people in all cultures around the world have looked to nature for answers in everything from mathematics & scientific breakthroughs, to personal relationships & our entire philosophy of life.

Consider that all the knowledge of the universe could be contained within the flight pattern of a bird, or a single flower.

This is what Einstein meant when he said "Look deeply into nature and you will understand all things better."

We learn from the birds, plants & trees because the same patterns driving their existence also live inside us.

6 Ways To Understand Nature Deeply: A Recipe For Seeing Nature

The most important thing for understanding nature is that you really have to see it for yourself.

It's not enough to just philosophize about nature as an intellectual concept. You have to cultivate personal awareness that literally changes how you perceive the world around you.

This may sound complicated, but it really isn't.

This is exactly what humans have been doing for our entire evolution, which means your nervous system is designed to understand nature deeply. All you have to do is practice tuning in.

Don't just take my word for it. I want you to go out and learn to understand nature for yourself! And here's how...

1. Open Your Senses

Understanding nature begins with stepping outside and simply opening your senses to the world around you.

This can be as simple as choosing a favorite place to sit with the conscious intent of tuning in with your basic ability to see, hear, feel, smell & sense whatever is happening in your surroundings.

Sensory awareness is the most basic of all human skills and it's really the key to unlocking the natural world.

There are specific sensory awareness exercises you can practice outdoors to consciously extend the reach of your perception. Just practice and you will get better.

2. Observe Your Surroundings

Even after opening your senses, you still have to apply your awareness towards consciously observing the patterns of nature.

Consider the difference between having awareness of a bird, compared with taking the time to actually observe that bird as it moves through it's day.

Awareness can happen in an instant. All you have to do is focus your intent on the bird and suddenly you're aware.

But observation requires an ongoing presence of attention as we get to know how that bird lives through all different situations.

Observation requires that we ask good questions and direct our awareness towards understanding the deeper relationships & connections that bird has to the trees, plants, predators, insects, seasons, etc.

3. Slow Down

Possibly the biggest thing that prevents people from truly understanding nature is trying to move too fast.

Your ability to understand nature isn't marked by how much distance you cover on a hike, or how many different plants you can identify in 20 minutes.

It's about how deeply you can sink your awareness into whatever experience is taking place right here right now in your natural surroundings.

The best way to check whether you're moving slow enough is to gently test your memory after you come back home.

At the end of your day, see if you can mentally relive the memory of your time outside (like replaying a movie in your mind, or telling the story to a listener).

Where did you go?

What did you do?

What did you see, hear & feel?

What plants, birds, trees, or other natural features were nearby?

Can you describe them?

Most people doing this exercise will be shocked to realize their ability to remember natural experiences is extremely poor.

As you slow down and practice really absorbing nature more deeply into your senses, you'll develop an almost photographic memory for nature that helps you make connections you wouldn't otherwise perceive.

This is the whole idea behind my nature memory journal program, so go check that out if you're interested in really getting skilled at this.

4. Go Tracking

If there's one skill that really ties together everything required to understand nature deeply, it has to be tracking.

Tracking is perhaps the oldest of all human skills (even older than fire or tool-making).

And before you get the wrong idea, just know that tracking is so much more than just following footprints of animals.

It's really about being alert to what's happening and understanding what nature is telling us through all different sources of information:

Everything is tracking, and the more inclusive you can be of all sources of information, the more connections you'll find.

Through tracking, you'll really start to see how everything is interconnected.

5. Engage Yourself With Life And Death

A big part of understanding nature simply comes down to knowing our own relationship with life and death.

The simple fact of being human is that in order for us to live, we have to consume life.

This is true whether you're a hunter or if you buy your food at the grocery store, and even if you're vegetarian!

We simply cannot avoid having an impact on the world, but the important thing is being conscious of our impact.

Modern food production tends to disconnect people from the realities of what it really takes to keep ourselves alive. It's crucial to see this impact if we want to truly understand our place nature.

This understanding can be facilitated by pursuing opportunities to harvest things from nature in an intentional way that respects and honors the life you're taking.

Harvesting from nature for food, clothing, shelter, heat or medicine makes you grateful for the benefits and sacrifice of your harvest.

With repetition, we learn how to get our needs abundantly met with the least amount of negative impact, and even to improve the fertility & abundance of nature through our own life.

6. Appreciate The Beauty In All Things

Understanding nature depends on a delicate balance between scientific analysis, and plain old heart-focused appreciation.

Most people gravitate towards one side or the other depending on how they were brought up or personal strengths.

Some people are incredibly skilled with scientific analysis & critical observation skills, but lack that deeper awareness of the inherent beauty in nature.

Others can see a tremendous spiritual beauty behind every tree & bird, but they simply cannot appreciate the special evolutionary relationship that tree has with the bird when its seeds ripen for one week every year in spring.

I'm a firm believer that both sides are critically important to truly gain a deep understanding of nature.

People who have BOTH the sharpness of a scientist AND the heart of an artist are able to perform at a much higher level overall.

When you seek to understand nature, it's all about balance and finding the sweet spot between scientific inquiry, and getting lost in the appreciation of all the beauty life has to offer.

You want to spend some of your time investigating really good questions about all the little quirks & inner workings of plants, trees & animals in your local ecology.

But then you also want to spend some of your time just letting go of all that studying to just be present with how beautiful & amazing everything is.

Look Deeply Into Nature!

Follow these 6 steps and you'll be on your way to truly understanding nature.

The most important thing is taking simple actions every day.

With consistent practice opening your senses & observing the patterns of plants, birds, trees and connections to everything in your environment, you will learn to understand nature from a deeply embodied perspective.

If you want help getting started, try my audio learning program which will guide you to open your senses and understand nature with your own eyes & ears - Awaken Your Naturalist Intelligence.

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How To Understand Nature (What is nature? 6 ways to SEE it for yourself)

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Einstein said, "Look deeply into nature and you will understand everything better." But what does this really mean? And how is it done on a practical level? In order to understand nature we first need to know what nature is, so let's start there...

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1.) Not every company I encounter in the workforce will be ethically sound.
2.) Everything I do has a ripple effect on the world

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To what extent are engineers and scientists responsible for the long-term consequences of the technology that they create?

An engineer's job is to create. Part of that job, though, is to make sure their creation is a net positive for the world. While engineers aren't solely responsible for the creations they make, it is their job to prevent most malicious intent from using their invention that way. It's impossible to make anything full-proof, but they should at least put effort into making it foolproof.

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Early scientific progress was largely proportional with ethical advancements, because technology at that time was made to increase lifespan. Now however technology is much more complex and scientific advancements and ethics aren't so proportional.

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I believe the moral spheres chart is accurate because we have a more emotional attachment to those closest to us, like family and friends. People inherently care more about the people they are closer to.

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In all situations I would kill 1 stranger and save more than 1 person. I wouldn't however sacrifice my friend because they I know them and it would feel like personal murder.

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I don't care about intervention or protecting passengers
I care a lot about saving more lives
I slightly care about fitness level
I don't have a gender preference
I prefer my species
I always kill old people
Social value matters a lot
Upholding the law matters a lot

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a.) Morals are dependent on an individual or group. There is no true right or wrong.
b.) Strength: Everyone has freedom to choose their own morals
Weakness: No one completely agrees with everyone else

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a.) If the ends justify the means...
b.)
Strength: Big picture based, always looking for net positives
Weakness: Doesn't care about the individual.

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a.) Morals are determined upon a clear set of rules
b.) Rules are clear and communicated to everyone but no one can agree on said rules

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a.) Doesn't question how we act but instead studies how we are as people.
b.) Strengths: encourages people to be their best selves
Weakness: inauthenticity and can't agree

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a.) Based on the rights of the individual and equality before the law
b.) Strengths: collaboration and diversity
Weaknesses: condones hateful ideology

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What are some examples that Sandel provides of things that money CAN buy?

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What are some examples that Sandel provides of things that money CAN buy?

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Comfort
Apologies
Wedding Speeches

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What are some examples of things that money CAN’T buy?

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What are some examples of things that money CAN’T buy?

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Friendship

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What is the difference between “market economies” and “market societies”?

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What is the difference between “market economies” and “market societies”?

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A market economy is a tool for organizing productive activity.
A market society is a place where everything is for sale.

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Students and Sandel identify (at least) four objections to such a practice.

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Students and Sandel identify (at least) four objections to such a practice.

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cohersian
desperation
exploitation
inequality

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Connect these objections to the concepts from Chapter Two. Which concepts seem to be most in play here?

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Connect these objections to the concepts from Chapter Two. Which concepts seem to be most in play here?

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Exploiting people
Everything gives us reactions because of the biases we hold

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Our needs are not the same, so not everyone should not get the same treatment

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If you cannot get something for yourself, you are entitled to receive help to get it

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Adaptive:  go from "What is the problem" --> "how to solve the problem"
Technical: Clear problems with instructions

To solve an adaptive problem you need to be able to see the problem from all sides and think critically.

Knowledge about the field, problem solving skills, creativity, teamwork.

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If I am the last person on this planet, and I nuke everything at once, if nothing feels pain, I do it, if so, I don't

What grounds do you stand on to be able to make a call based on other's life.

But you are taking away conciseness so they don't suffer either.

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We should conserve nature to in the future allow nature to benefit us in the future, because of Darwinism.

Humans are apex predators, and we should be able to roam freely.

The national park's goal is to preserve nature and leave it unimpaired by humans.

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The national park's beliefs are that nature needs protection from humans

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National Park Service, Interior.

Charter renewal.

The Secretary of the Interior intends to renew the National Park System Advisory Board, in accordance with section 14(b) of the Federal Advisory Committee Act. This action is necessary and in the public interest in connection with the performance of statutory duties imposed upon the Department of the Interior and the National Park Service.

Joshua Winchell, Staff Director for the National Park System Advisory Board, Office of Policy, National Park Service, 202-513-7053.

The Board is authorized by 54 U.S.C. 102303 (part of the 1935 Historic Sites, Buildings and Antiquities Act) and has been in existence almost continuously since 1935. Pursuant to 54 U.S.C. 102303, the legislative authorization for the Board expired January 1, 2010. However, due to the importance of the issues on which the Board advises, the Secretary of the Interior exercised the authority contained in 54 U.S.C. 100906 to re-establish and continue the Board as a discretionary committee from January 1, 2010, until such time as it may be legislatively reauthorized.

The advice and recommendations provided by the Board and its subcommittees fulfill an important need within the Department of the Interior and the National Park Service, and it is necessary to re-establish the Board to ensure its work is not disrupted. The Board's members are balanced to represent a cross-section of disciplines and expertise relevant to the National Park Service mission. The renewal of the Board comports with the requirements of the Federal Advisory Committee Act, as amended.

Certification: I hereby certify that the renewal of the National Park System Advisory Board is necessary and in the public interest in connection with the performance of duties imposed on the Department of the Interior by the National Park Service Organic Act ( 54 U.S.C. 100101(a) et seq.), and other statutes relating to the administration of the National Park Service.

David L. Bernhardt,

Secretary of the Interior.

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government federal register executive rulings notices

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National Park System Advisory Board; Charter Renewal

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The Secretary of the Interior intends to renew the National Park System Advisory Board, in accordance with section 14(b) of the Federal Advisory Committee Act. This action is necessary and in the public interest in connection with the performance of statutory duties imposed upon the Department of...

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1.) Scientists have to be the ones with the morals and outwardly speak out about it, but if they do, they are viewed as taking a stance or advocating.
2.) If science and politics get intertwined, science will lose it's credibility.

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DOG SCINARIO-
Eating a dead dog is not inherently wrong, as long as the dog's body doesn't hold some immense value and it's being recourse efficient. I responded immediately like this, and justified it based on my intuition, but the more I thought about it, I now lean on the side of it being immoral.

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links science vs politics and the complex argument surrounding it.

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The bad news is that everybody does it. The good news is that social scientists are making progress in understanding why people ignore solid scientific evidence in deciding what they think about all manner of science-based issues-including how those topics should be taught in schools and addressed by policymakers.

The U.S. research community has long lamented how often the public disregards-or distorts-scientific findings. Many media pundits point the finger at partisan politics, although they offer contrasting explanations: Liberals often assert that Republicans are simply antiscience, whereas conservatives often insist that Democrats tout scientific findings to justify giving government a larger and more intrusive role.

A leading social science journal, The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, takes a deep dive into the debate by devoting its March issue (subscription required) to "The Politics of Science." The issue, edited by political scientists Elizabeth Suhay of American University in Washington, D.C., and James Druckman of Northwestern University, includes some 15 articles that explore "the production, communication, and reception of scientific knowledge." And nobody gets a free pass.

"It's an equal opportunity scold," says the journal's executive editor, Thomas Kecskemethy. "I was fascinated by how the knowledge elites are vulnerable to their own biases."

The researchers provide no simple answers. (In truth, some of the articles are nearly impenetrable, larded with jargon and political theory.) But the special issue does offer some useful take-home messages:

Scientists shouldn't beat themselves up for being poor communicators. Yes, they could do a better job. But most people aren't waiting for scientists to tell them what to think. So the solution is not simply to provide them with more facts and figures.

People are heavily influenced by their existing beliefs, often based on ideology and religion, when they evaluate any particular scientific result. And holding strong beliefs makes a person more likely to reject a "dissonant" message, or actively oppose it.

Liberals are just as likely as conservatives to disagree with the prevailing scientific evidence. But those disagreements occur over a different set of issues ( see this table). Many liberals object to nuclear power, hydraulic fracturing (fracking) for oil and gas, genetically modified organisms, and some aspects of genomic medicine. For conservatives, hot-button issues include climate change, evolution, and stem cell research, with vaccination a recent addition.

Ideology isn't the same thing as party affiliation, although the current gridlock in Congress and enmity between Republican legislators and the White House may suggest otherwise.

When it comes to teaching evolution, poorly trained biology teachers may be a major factor in explaining why large segments of the U.S. population remain unconvinced. Even those teachers who accept the concept are prone to give it short shrift in their classrooms because they lack confidence in their ability to defend evolution against its critics.

The public tends to hold scientists in high regard. People also generally welcome learning more about a controversial issue, such as geoengineering, in which their minds aren't already made up. So the situation is far from hopeless.

The rest of the piece takes a detailed look at three themes covered in the issue: how deference to scientific evidence relates to political ideology; how people cope with dissonant information; and what students training to become biology teachers think about evolution.

Deferring to science

Understanding the intersection of U.S. politics and science is more important than ever, believes Suhay, who has worked with Druckman to examine the political controversies surrounding genetics. "Political values are unavoidably wrapped up with scientific research, because science tells us what's possible," she says. "Science is inherently controversial because nobody wants to hear that their options are limited."

The recent surge in polarization in American politics, Suhay says, is forcing "political elites to make their arguments with greater passion. ... Part of the battle is marshaling scientific evidence in favor of your point of view. So facts become tied to a particular political view."

Given that polarization, Daron Shaw, a professor of government at the University of Texas, Austin, and his graduate student, Joshua Blank, wanted to know "the extent to which people would defer to science" on various controversial issues.

"There's a long history in this country of believing that 'the truth will set you free, and that science has the answers.' It binds U.S. politics together," says Shaw, who studies elections and voting behavior and who has done survey research for several political campaigns. But if that deference to scientific knowledge "is unraveling as a result of greater polarization," he says, "that's a consequential change."

To find out, Shaw and blank surveyed a nationally representative sample of 2000 registered U.S. voters. Each was asked to score 16 policy areas on a 10-point scale; a 10 meant policymakers should totally embrace the advice of scientists, and a zero meant that they should completely ignore scientific advice.

Overall, they found that deference to science remains quite high, regardless of political self-identification. The scores across all issues averaged to 6.4, suggesting voters generally want policymakers to listen to scientists. But there were differences: Self-identified Democrats averaged 7.46, versus 5.58 for Republicans and 5.84 for independents.

Looking at those findings, Shaw concludes that, yes, conservatives are less willing to defer to scientific recommendations. But no, it is not accurate to accuse Republicans of holding antiscience beliefs, or to single them out. For starters, their attitudes are nearly indistinguishable from independents. Second, the ratings showed that Republicans still defer to science in 14 of the 16 policy areas. The exceptions were mandatory health insurance and gay adoption, where "being a Republican correlates with a decreased willingness to defer to what science says," Shaw and Blank write.

In contrast, Democrats deferred to science in all 16 areas. And Shaw says the overall average score of 6.4 "is pretty positive ... at least it's more, rather than less, supportive" of tapping scientific expertise for policymaking.

The researchers also found that a person's deference to scientific evidence depends on the specific policy under consideration. There was little difference across the ideological spectrum on using animals in research, for example, whereas there was a huge disparity between conservatives and liberals on regulating carbon emissions to combat global warming. (The researchers identified the scientific consensus on those issues as being in favor of the use of animals in research, and supporting some type of regulatory mechanism to reduce emissions, respectively.)

None of this means that evidence necessarily trumps ideology, the researchers note. In fact, they found that ideology usually wins when the two are in direct conflict in a voter's mind.

To Shaw, the biggest mystery is why Democrats put so much more faith in science to inform policy than do Republicans or independents. No other factor, such as education, income, or race, appears to explain that difference, he says.

Even so, the researchers believe that their findings might be useful to campaign strategists. "If you want to get Democrats on your side, you may want to use scientific research to back up your policy positions," they write. "The self-expressed willingness of those on the Left to defer to scientists indicates that political arguments based on objective, scientific research might have a powerful influence on opinion. ... They are also important for key elements of the Democratic coalition, such as blacks and Latinos."

Reacting to dissonance

Another way to look at the interplay of politics and science is to examine how people react when faced with so-called dissonant scientific messages-information that doesn't fit with their worldview. A trio of researchers at Ohio State University, Columbus, found that the public's faith in science was weakened by such cognitive dissonance. The distrust occurred among both conservatives and liberals, but only on the most contentious topics.

The researchers-communications professors Erik Nisbet and R. Kelly Garrett and Kathryn Cooper, a graduate student-conducted an online survey of 1500 people. Participants thought they were evaluating the quality of a new science website. But that was a pretext for measuring their attitudes about information that would challenge their beliefs on certain issues. The survey included questions about climate change and evolution-red meat for self-identified conservatives-as well as fracking and nuclear power-topics expected to elicit opposition from liberals. They also read passages relating to the solar system and the earth sciences, two topics that the researchers deemed neutral.

As expected, the participants exhibited high levels of what social scientists call "motivated reasoning." That is when we rebut or ignore new information on a topic-say, the safety of genetically modified foods-to protect what we already believe. The researchers also found that people reacted more negatively to scientific information that was seen as a threat to their values. The effect applied across the political spectrum, although conservatives reacted four times more strongly than did liberals.

Like Shaw and Blank, Nisbet found that "liberals are also capable of processing scientific information in a biased manner," he noted in a press release. "They aren't inherently superior to conservatives." The Ohio State researchers also found that conflict, by itself, can cause people to lose trust in the scientific enterprise. "Just reading about these polarizing topics is having a negative effect on how people feel about science," Garrett said in the press release.

Teaching evolution poorly

A third paper in the special issue examines the attitudes of students being trained to teach one of those polarizing topics-evolution-in the nation's schools.

Previously, authors Eric Plutzer and Michael Berkman, political scientists at Pennsylvania State University (Penn State), University Park, had conducted research that found "a pervasive reluctance [among high school biology teachers] to forthrightly explain evolutionary biology." Only 28% used evolution as a unifying theme in their classes, they reported in a 2011 Science article. On the other end of the spectrum, 13% included creationism or intelligent design in their lessons.

In the current study, Plutzer and Berkman sought to learn more about the beliefs of what they call "the cautious 60%, [teachers] who are neither strong advocates for evolutionary biology nor explicit endorsers of nonscientific alternatives." So in 2013 they interviewed 35 students preparing to become high school biology teachers, hoping to find clues about how they would handle the subject once they entered the classroom. They selected the undergraduates from a diverse set of institutions in Pennsylvania-a large research university, a state university with a large teacher-training program, a Catholic college, and a historically black university.

What they heard troubled them. "We found that the depth of their scientific understanding is not what you'd think it would be," Berkman explains. "Yes, they were science majors in science education programs, but they weren't becoming science teachers because they loved science." And they were "not the ones who were taking apart washing machines or launching rockets when they were kids," Plutzer adds. "They are not driven to become scientists."

That's a concern, the authors say, because teachers who consider themselves educators first are likely to handle potentially hot topics like evolution very differently than those who consider themselves scientists, the researchers posit. "Rather than cite facts and discuss the content, most of the students felt they could rely on classroom management and pedagogical techniques if a problem arose," Berkman says. That approach masks a larger issue, he adds: "Not feeling confident about your knowledge of evolution leads to being less likely to teach it."

The researchers said they were initially surprised to find that students at the Catholic college were more comfortable discussing the topic than were their peers at secular institutions. Their explanation: Rather than shying away from the subject, the students "probably had been wrestling with the issue their entire lives," Berkman says. "They seemed to do a better job of reconciling their beliefs with what they had learned about evolution."

In contrast, they say, students at secular institutions are unlikely to have had the opportunity to explore their personal views in a science or education class. "You're not going to get a Penn State professor to talk about that with their students," Berkman surmises.

The researchers admit their sample is not representative of all science teacher-training programs. But they think the responses are still instructive-and highlight how much work needs to be done. "Young preservice teachers are already on a path that is likely to lead to evolution instruction that falls short of the expectations of leading scientific organizations," they conclude.

What should be done to change that direction? One paradoxical answer is breaking what the authors call "a cycle of ignorance" by improving biology teaching at the high school and undergraduate levels. "Many students lack good models for teaching evolution in public schools" because they didn't get good instruction on the topic, the researchers write.

Future teachers also need a better grounding in what the researchers call "the nature of scientific inquiry." Few ever work in a research lab, they note-both because their schedules are packed with courses on content and pedagogy, and because many shy away from such "hands-on" experiences.

Faculty members in the sciences also need to understand that teacher trainees, in general, are different than typical undergraduate science majors, Plutzer says. "Future science teachers are not junior versions of themselves," he says, "and getting them to understand evolution is not simply a matter of having them take more science courses."

Half-full or half-empty?

Although the papers in the special issue, taken together, highlight the many obstacles that stand in the way of clear and helpful science communication, Suhay doesn't think readers should conclude that the situation is hopeless. In fact, she sees rays of sun poking through the current political storms.

"I don't know that we need to be as alarmed as some people are," she says. Simply understanding that people all across the ideological spectrum sometimes have trouble incorporating scientific knowledge into their worldview could help reduce the finger-pointing, she says. "It allows us to see the world more clearly," she says. "If you blame only Republicans [for ignoring science], it reduces the chance of striking a compromise."

Such understanding is a necessary prelude to action, she adds. "It may help quell the anger on both sides. And understanding the motivations behind why people act in certain ways should also help us to be smarter in addressing the issue."

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Politics, science, and public attitudes: What we're learning, and why it matters

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The bad news is that everybody does it. The good news is that social scientists are making progress in understanding why people ignore solid scientific evidence in deciding what they think about all manner of science-based issues-including how those topics should be taught in schools and addressed by policymakers. The U.S.

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1.) The concept of fairness is something that's intuitive to humanity.
2.) Humans have a general idea of what is fair or not, which contributes to the idea of ethics

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1.) Justice: Being fair and reasonable
2.) Society is just in 90% of what they do, most laws put in place are to protect the innocent, but laws that unfairly punish the innocent are unjust.
3.) Justice is if someone gets what they deserve weather it be good or bad, and injustice is when the opposite happens, when someone gets something that they didn't deserve.

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lists some of the injustices in society

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Social injustice occurs whenever people are treated unfairly. Its effects can last a lifetime. It limits people's access to opportunities and can force them into poverty and even illness.
Injustices in society can manifest in many different areas of social life, including in the workplace, the education system, and the criminal justice system.

Examples of social injustice include employment discrimination, educational inequality, and police brutality. The people who are most susceptible to it are minorities and oppressed social groups, including people already suffering from poverty and ethnic minorities.

Social Injustice Examples

1. The Glass Ceiling

Real Life Fact: Of the 45 presidents of the United States, zero were women.

The term "glass ceiling" was first coined in the early 1980s and refers to the invisible barrier that prevents women from being promoted to senior leadership positions.

While women have made great strides in recent decades, they still face significant obstacles when it comes to career advancement. The higher women get in organizations, the more likely they are to face unofficial 'boys clubs' such as social golfing groups where a lot of business deals are done.

As a result of the social injustices in hiring practices, women make up just 19% of executive positions and 6% of S&P 500 CEO positions.

2. The Gender Pay Gap

Real Life Fact: Women earn 83 cents for every dollar men earn.

The gender pay gap is a complex problem in today's workforce. Women generally perform well compared to men in white-collar jobs up until their late 20s. However, in their late 20s, women looking for work experience discrimination because the employer expects that they will take time off to have a child soon.

Furthermore, because many women are out of work to have children, their career progression is delayed. As a result, by their mid-to-late 30s, men start earning more than women. This has a compounding effect, and women tend to have significantly less money saved up than men by the time they retire.

On top of this, feminized industries like childcare, healthcare, and education tend to earn less than other industries.

Ways to fix this include initiating government-funded maternity and paternity leave, gender quotas in workforces, and paying feminized industries fair wages.

3. Systemic Discrimination

Real Life Fact: Seven in ten black men have experienced police mistreatment.

Systemic discrimination occurs when entire social systems and bureaucracies are biased against certain groups of people.

This can take many forms, but some common examples include historically segregated housing and education, unconscious bias in the judiciary, and reluctance for police leadership to discipline their officers for acts of prejudice.

As a result, marginalized groups often suffer from a wide range of socio-economic disadvantages, which can be passed down from one generation to the next.

Real Life Fact: 64 percent of older workers say they have seen age discrimination in the workplace.

Ageism can be defined as prejudice or discrimination against a person or group of people based on their age. Ageism can manifest in the form of stereotypes, negative attitudes, or discriminatory behavior.

It can be directed at people of all ages, but is often most prevalent towards older adults.

Examples of ageism include mandatory retirement, age-based hiring and promotion practices, and jokes or negative comments about someone's age. Young people may be discriminated against because they're perceived as naive and old people face discrimination because they're seen as slowing down and becoming less productive.

It is a problem because it can lead to social exclusion and isolation, decreased opportunities, and poorer health outcomes.

Additionally, ageism is often used as a justification for abuse, both physical and verbal. If left unchecked, ageism can have a profound impact on individuals and society as a whole.

5. Homophobia

Real Life Fact: 23% of LGBT people in the UK have witnessed discriminatory remarks made by healthcare workers.

Homophobia is the fear, hatred, or dislike of homosexual people. It can also refer to a belief that homosexual activity is morally wrong.

Homophobia is often based on negative stereotypes about gay, lesbian, and bisexual people. These can include the belief that LGBT people are promiscuous, untrustworthy around children, or dangerous.

It can manifest itself in many ways. For example, someone might make derogatory comments about LGBT people or refuse to associate with them. In extreme cases, it can lead to violence.

6. Racism and Xenophobia

Real Life Fact: While blacks and whites use drugs at a similar rate, blacks are 6 times more likely to be arrested for it.

Racism is the belief that one race is superior to another, and that certain racial groups are innately predisposed to certain traits or behaviors.

Xenophobia, on the other hand, is the fear or hatred of foreigners or outsiders.

Both racism and xenophobia can lead to discrimination and violence against those who are perceived to be different. Racism often manifests as an institutionalized form of discrimination, whereby people of certain races are systematically disadvantaged in areas like education, employment, and housing.

Xenophobia, meanwhile, can manifest as an individual fear or hatred of foreigners, which can lead to prejudice and bigotry. In extreme cases, it can even lead to violence. Racism and xenophobia are both serious problems that need to be addressed.

7. Gerrymandering

Real Life Fact: The USA is ranked as a flawed democracy due to gerrymandering, below most other western nations.

Gerrymandering is the practice of manipulating the boundaries of an electoral district in order to favor one party or group over another.

The term is named after Elbridge Gerry, who as governor of Massachusetts signed a bill into law in 1812 that created an oddly shaped electoral district in an attempt to benefit his party. Gerrymandering can be used to create "safe" districts for incumbents or to dilute the votes of particular groups, such as racial minorities or political opponents.

In recent years, gerrymandering has become increasingly sophisticated, thanks in part to advances in computer mapping. As a result, it has become easier for politicians to draw districts that give their party an unfair advantage in elections.

It is an example of social injustice because it is undemocratic and ant-competitive. There have been several lawsuits filed in an attempt to overturn gerrymandered districts in the USA. However, so far the Supreme Court has been unwilling to strike down these districts on constitutional grounds.

8. Climate Change

Real Life Fact: 216 million people could be displaced by climate change by 2050.

Some of the observed effects of climate change include expanding deserts, melting glaciers and ice sheets, dying trees, and larger numbers of extreme weather events such as floods, hurricanes and winter storms.

Scientists are confident that human activity is the main cause of climate change, as the burning of fossil fuels releases CO2 and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.

Climate change is unjust because it disproportionately impacts people in low-lying islands or extreme climate locations. In the 21st Century, it will cause a great deal of climate change refugees.

It will also burden future generations unfairly, simply so we can get cheap energy today.

9. Girls' Education

Real Life Fact: In the developing world, millions of girls are denied an education due to gender discrimination.

In many parts of the world, girls are simply not able to attend school due to cultural stigma. If a family cannot afford to send all of their children to school, they will often choose to send the boy because he will be more likely to get a highly-paid job in a patriarchal society.

Even when girls are able to attend school, they may face discrimination and exclusion. In some cultures, girls are not allowed to receive an education beyond a certain age, or they may be discouraged from pursuing certain subjects. Furthermore, some cultures will force girls to stay at home when they have their period.

However, when girls are educated, they have more personal agency, they're not confined to the domestic sphere, and they can contribute to increasing the wealth of their families and communities.

10. Child and Forced Marriage

Real Life Fact: There are over 15 million people forced to marry against their will around the world. 88% of the victims are women.

Child marriage is a violation of human rights. It exposes young girls to the risk of physical and sexual violence, limits their education and economic opportunities, and places them at a greater risk of health problems.

Girls who are married as children are also more likely to experience domestic violence and to be deprived of freedom in their adulthood.

In some cultures, child marriage is seen as a way to protect unmarried girls in violent societies. However, forced marriage puts girls at greater risk of harm in their own homes.

11. Religious Discrimination

Real Life Fact: Christians face government-sanctioned discrimination in 168 countries. Muslims face government-sanctioned discrimination in 121 countries.

Religious discrimination is treating a person or group differently because of their beliefs. This can include refusing to hire them because of their religion, or forcing them to follow certain religious practices.

It can also involve treating someone differently because they do not have any religious beliefs.

Unfortunately, prejudice, unjust stereotyping, and ethnocentrism mean that religious discrimination remains a pervasive issue in today's world.

Real Life Fact: Children from poor families in the USA perform 10% lower, on average, in tests scores, and face more mental health issues in childhood.

Poverty is a state of being unable to afford the basic necessities of life, including food, shelter, clothing, and healthcare.

According to the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), over 1.3 billion people worldwide live in poverty, making it one of the most pressing global issues of our time.

There are many causes of poverty, ranging from economic factors such as unemployment or low incomes, to political factors such as conflict or corruption.

Poverty deprives people of their fundamental rights and dignity as human beings. Poverty forces people to live in dangerous and unhealthy conditions, without access to basic services or opportunities for personal development.

It also creates a vicious cycle of deprivation that can be very difficult to break out of.

In order to end poverty, social policies need to be put in place that tackle poverty while not suppressing economic growth. This means creating more well-paid jobs and providing adequate social safety nets for those who cannot work. It also means tackling corruption and promoting good governance so that everyone has a fair chance to prosper.

13. Unequal Service Delivery

Real Life Fact: There are still 71 remote Indigenous communities in Canada without clean drinking water.

In the developed world, there remains unequal service delivery for marginalized people. This means that marginalized groups do not have equal opportunity in life.

The quintessential example of this is the water crisis in Flint, Michigan. The Flint water crisis began in April 2014 when the city switched its water supply from Lake Huron to the Flint River.

At this period, lead began leaching from the pipes and into the water. Despite repeated complaints from residents about the foul-smelling and discolored water, state officials denied that there was a problem. Even when tests showed elevated lead levels in children, officials insisted that the water was safe to drink. It wasn't until December 2015 that the state finally admitted there was a problem and took steps to correct it. The damage had been done, however, and thousands of people had been exposed to lead-contaminated water.

Similarly, in Canada, there are still 71 indigenous communities who have to boil their water because they do not have access to safe drinking water.

14. Slavery and Human Trafficking

Real Life Fact: There are over 20 million victims of human trafficking worldwide today.

Though it may seem like something that only happens in history books or movies, human trafficking is still a very real problem in the 21st century.

Every year, millions of people are trafficked for the purpose of forced labor or sexual exploitation.

This hidden form of slavery occurs all over the world, including in developed countries like the United States, which has close to 11,000 cases of human trafficking per year.

Victims of human trafficking often come from disadvantaged backgrounds or lack legal status in their country of residence, making them especially vulnerable to exploitation.

While there are many laws and international conventions designed to combat human trafficking, the problem persists, largely due to corruption, poverty, and lack of awareness.

15. Stereotyping

Real Life Fact: Stereotypical thinking can lead to employment, police, and healthcare discrimination.

Stereotyping is a cognitive shortcut that allows us to quickly process information about other people. When we encounter someone new, we often rely on stereotypes to make judgments about them.

This can lead to prejudice and discrimination, as we tend to treat people who belong to groups that we have negative stereotypes about in a negative way.

An example of a stereotype is the belief that all immigrants are criminals. This stereotype is often used to justify discriminatory policies, such as the Muslim Ban in the United States. Another example is the stereotype that women are not as competent as men in math and science. This can lead to women being underrepresented in these fields and experiencing discrimination in the workplace.

16. Forced Child Labor

Real Life Fact: There are 160 million victims of forced labor in the world today.

Every year, millions of children in the developing world are forced to work in dangerous and unhealthy conditions, often for little or no pay.

This exploitation robs children of their childhood, depriving them of an education and a chance to grow and develop into productive adults.

Forced child labor also creates a coercive and exploitative power dynamic that can last a lifetime. Victims of forced child labor are often trapped in a cycle of poverty and insecurity, making them more vulnerable to further exploitation.

17. Disability Discrimination

Real Life Fact: People with disabilities are more likely to face violence in their lives than people without disabilities. They are also less likely to be able to get the police to intervene.

Disability discrimination occurs when an individual is treated less favorably than others because of their disability.

It can also arise when people with disabilities are subjected to unequal terms or conditions in employment or housing, or when they are denied access to public services such as transportation or government buildings.

In today's world, we are increasingly making efforts to ensure people with disabilities can be equal participants in society. However, there is always work to be done to continue to ensure disabled people have equal opportunities to succeed and participate in the public sphere.

18. Rural Health Access

Real Life Fact: Rural people find it harder to access healthcare. While about 25% of people live in rural areas of the USA, only 10% of physicians practice in rural areas.

One of the most significant obstacles to rural people is the lack of healthcare facilities near their homes. This means that residents have to travel long distances to receive healthcare, which can be prohibitively expensive and time-consuming.

Often, it is hard to get doctors to move to rural areas, exacerbating the shortage of healthcare providers.

Another factor that contributes to the healthcare disparities between rural and urban areas is the socioeconomic status of residents. Rural residents are more likely to be poor and lack health insurance, which makes it difficult for them to afford quality care.

19. The Digital Divide

Real Life Fact: Only 39% of people in Africa have access to the internet, compared to 94% of people in the United States.

The digital divide refers to the disparity between those who have access to the internet and modern technology, and those who do not.

This divide can be seen in both developed and developing countries, and it often falls along economic lines.

In developed countries, the digital divide typically refers to the gap between those who can afford high-speed internet access and those who cannot.

In developing countries, the digital divide is often much more extreme, with large portions of the population having no access to electricity, let alone the internet.

The consequences of the digital divide can be severe.

Those without access to modern technology are at a disadvantage when it comes to education, employment, and even social interactions. The digital divide has been identified as a major contributor to poverty and inequality worldwide, and efforts are being made to close the gap.

20. Free Speech Prisoners

Real Life Fact: Alexei Navalny was imprisoned for 13 years in Russia for being a vocal critic of Vladamir Putin.

In some societies, free speech is not a taken-for-granted right. People who speak out against the powers-that-be can be imprisoned or harmed extrajudicially.

This is particularly a concern for journalists.

In some countries, journalists may face persecution simply for doing their jobs. This is often done in an effort to silence dissent and prevent the free flow of information.

In recent years, there have been many cases of journalists being killed simply because of their profession. One prominent example is Jamal Khashoggi who was murdered by the Saudi government for publishing articles critical of their regime.

21. Colonization

Real Life Fact: Indigenous people account for 5% of the global population but make up 15% of the world's people in extreme poverty.

The lasting effects of colonization are felt to this day in many parts of the world.

The most obvious effect is the physical presence of colonial powers in former colonies. This can be seen in the form of military bases, infrastructure, and natural resources that were extracted during the period of colonialism.

However, the legacy of colonialism goes beyond physical evidence.

Colonization also had a profound impact on the cultures and societies of colonized peoples. In some cases, this resulted in the suppression or outright eradication of indigenous cultures which as left them disempowered and impoverished today.

Conclusion

There are many examples of social injustice that exist in the world today. From healthcare disparities to the digital divide, these injustices perpetuate poverty and inequality. Free speech prisoners and indigenous peoples are particularly vulnerable to oppression.

While the problem of social injustice may seem insurmountable, there are many people and organizations working to address these issues. With awareness and action, it is possible to achieve a more just and equitable world for all.

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Social injustice occurs whenever people are treated unfairly. Its effects can last a lifetime. It limits people's access to opportunities and can force them into poverty and even illness. Injustices in society can manifest in many different areas of social life, including in the workplace, the education system, and the criminal justice system.

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Do you favor a conservationist or preservationist approach to human interactions with the environment?

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Do you favor a conservationist or preservationist approach to human interactions with the environment?

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I believe I lean toward the side of being a conservationist because I value the land's natural resources. We, as humans, can do a lot with natural resources, and human greed can lead to a shortage of natural resources. I also believe conservationism can help correct some of the damage humans have done to the enviornment

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Is human control over the environment likely to be a lasting feature of our existence or a brief exception?

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Is human control over the environment likely to be a lasting feature of our existence or a brief exception?

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Human control over the environment will be constant but will become less control and more conservation over time. Right now, humans have near complete control of the surrounding environment and use it to their advantage. I believe humanity will eventually realize how essential the environment is to humanity's survival. This will cause a shift in our control, and society will focus on preserving it instead of using it as much.

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When we used nukes, it had a effect on a global scale and changed the environment we have today

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Guest post: Did bombing during second world war cool global temperatures? - Carbon Brief

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Between 3 February and 9 August 1945 during the second world war, an area of 461 square kilometres in 69 Japanese cities was burned by US bombing raids. This included the nuclear bombs dropped on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

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What do deontology and consequentialism have in common in terms of how you treat yourself, those you love, and strangers?

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What do deontology and consequentialism have in common in terms of how you treat yourself, those you love, and strangers?

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I don't want to harm others. That is my #1. I, therefore, lean heavily toward consequentialism. However, I believe the law is flawed and will sometimes break it to fulfill the consequentialist way. I, for example, will run a stop sign if no one is around to save time. To me, the actions are the same because the consequences are the same.

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When you found out that your father took the sheep on the sly, what would you do? Report him to the authorities, or cover for him? Why?

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When you found out that your father took the sheep on the sly, what would you do? Report him to the authorities, or cover for him? Why?

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I would like to think I would follow my moral compass, but I don't think I could put my father in jail, so I would choose something neutral like doing nothing to help or hinder my father.

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Helped me better understand how the persuit of dao guides the ethical system.

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Abstract

This paper examines whether the modern bioethical principles of respect for autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, and justice proposed by Beauchamp and Childress are existent in, compatible with, or acceptable to the leading Chinese moral philosophy-the ethics of Confucius. The author concludes that the moral values which the four prima facie principles uphold are expressly identifiable in Confucius' teachings. However, Confucius' emphasis on the filial piety, family values, the "love of gradation", altruism of people, and the "role specified relation oriented ethics" will inevitably influence the "specification" and application of these bioethical principles and hence tend to grant "beneficence" a favourable position that diminishes the respect for individual rights and autonomy. In contrast, the centrality of respect for autonomy and its stance of "first among equals" are more and more stressed in Western liberal viewpoints. Nevertheless, if the Confucian "doctrine of Mean" (chung-yung) and a balanced "two dimensional personhood" approach are properly employed, this will require both theorists and clinicians, who are facing medical ethical dilemmas, of searching to attain due mean out of competing moral principles thus preventing "giving beneficence a priority" or "asserting autonomy must triumph".

THE FOUR PRINCIPLES APPROACH TO BIOETHICS: CROSS CULTURAL, GLOBAL BIOETHICS

Immediately after the presentation of the US National Commission's Belmont Report, which was the first to make three ethical principles-respect for people, beneficence, and justice-central to the safeguarding of human subjects in biomedical and behavioural research, Beauchamp and Childress published the Principles of Biomedical Ethics in 1979. Through revision of the five editions, they have developed a principles based, common morality theory-namely, the four principles approach to biomedical ethics, which has played an important role on the stage of contemporary medical ethics in the narrow sense and bioethics in the broad sense for two decades. This method professes that the principles of respect for autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, and justice not only cover most of the bioethics concerns but are also the commonly shared and accepted moral principles no matter what one's ethical, political, religious, or cultural stances are. Therefore they should be plausibly applied internationally and across cultures.

Nevertheless, does a universal morality exist? Can foundations of global bioethics be found? When a bioethics method has been developed based on certain Western mentality, can it be used or transferred to other societies whose ethos, religions, social and cultural backgrounds, as well as the characteristics, perceptions, and nature of bioethical problems, are entirely different? More specifically, can these prominent Western bioethical principles proposed by Beauchamp and Childress be applied transculturally to Chinese and even East Asian societies whose traditional ethos was essentially based on Confucian ethics?

ANCIENT CHINESE MEDICAL ETHICS AND CONFUCIUS' MORAL PHILOSOPHY

Confucius is one of the most influential thinkers of Eastern philosophy and a representative of Eastern culture. Confucius, together with Socrates, Gautama Buddha, and Jesus Christ were regarded by Jaspers as the four paradigmatic individuals, owing to their extended influence through two millennia and their extraordinary importance for all philosophy. Ancient Chinese medical ethics was established on the foundation of Confucian ethics whose central theme is humaneness ( jen) and whose distinctive features are deontology and virtue ethics. The traditional ethical standards require that Chinese physicians reach the moral standard of an ideal Confucian person or chun-tzu, the superior man. It will be interesting to compare the four principles approach to bioethics with the Confucius' ethics and investigate the intercultural applicability of the four principles method.

The key concepts of Confucius' moral philosophy can be concisely delineated as follows:

The merging of self cultivation and social-political reform. Confucius believed that political order must be established on social order, and social order must come from individual cultivation. Therefore he said, "From the Son of Heaven down to the mass of the people, the cultivation of the self is the foundation of everything besides." "Their hearts being rectified, their persons were cultivated. Their persons being cultivated, their families were regulated. Their families being regulated, their States were rightly governed. Their States being rightly governed, the whole kingdom was made tranquil and happy."

The pursuit of dao. Dao generally means road or path, method, way, doctrine, the truth, or moral teachings. It has been interpreted as the supreme metaphysical force that exists everywhere in everything and dominates the exercise and function of all things in the universe, as well as the universal moral order and the ideal status of moral achievement for man to define, pursue, and accomplish. According to Schwartz, it is "an all encompassing state of affairs embracing the 'outer' socio-political order and the 'inner' moral life of the individual". Humankind should seek the comprehension and pursuit of life in accordance with dao. Therefore Confucius said, "What Heaven imparts to man is called human nature. To follow our nature is called the dao. Cultivating the dao is called education". "If a man in the morning hears the dao; he may die in the evening without regret!" Mencius explained, "Humanity ( jen) is the distinguishing characteristic of man. When embodied in man's conduct, it is the dao."

The ethical system of jen(humaneness)-yi (righteousness)-li (rules of propriety). Confucius' teachings of jen, yi, and li comprise the most fundamental thought and principles in Confucius' ethics. Jen has been translated as love, benevolence, humanity, human heartedness, virtue, perfect virtue, true manhood, and humaneness; it also signifies the ideal relationship between people. Yi generally means righteousness, appropriateness, obligation, and justice, and is "the principle of setting things right and proper". Li indicates ceremony, rites, decorum, courtesy, etiquette, rules of propriety, and at first represents the ceremonial order, but in the full sense connotes the sociopolitical order. Jen (humaneness) and yi (righteousness) could be said to be the inner core of morality that motivates and guides man to pursue the dao, and li (rules of propriety) could be described as the outer form and standard of morality that is concrete for man to abide by in the context of human society.

The moral ideal of chun-tze (the superior man or gentlemen).Chun-tze is the man of high moral achievement who constantly tries to improve and cultivate himself to achieve various stages of perfection. The moral character of Chun-tze demonstrates both the qualities of "an autonomous person", which includes self activation, self determination, self reliance, and self cultivation, and "a relational person" who is committed to other-regarding morality and altruism. The ultimate concern and self realisation of a Confucian ideal person consists in giving security and peace to people, yet in order to achieve this goal one must become a chun-tze first, which requires incessant moral self cultivation.

The wu-lun (five basic human relationships). Confucius stresses family values and filial piety through articulating the five basic human relationships "which govern the relationship between ruler and minister, between father and son, between husband and wife, between elder and younger brothers, and those in the intercourse between friends". The wu-lun gave form to Chinese society and social institutions from government down to interpersonal transactions and has far reaching influence on the East Asian, Confucian ethics based cultures. Confucius believes good family breeding naturally leads to good social intercourse. Therefore: "A superior man is devoted to the root. When the root is firmly established, the moral law ( dao) will grow. Filial piety ( shaw) and brotherly respect ( ti) are the root of humanity ( jen)."

In addition to these fundamental concepts, it is important to recognise that Confucius' ethics were developed in an epoch of chaos aiming at restoring social order and promoting general welfare through everyone's moral self cultivation and fulfilling one's own responsibilities. Therefore, apart from the strong deontological and virtue ethics characteristics, Confucius inevitably adopted a consequentialist approach in many sociopolitical contexts in order to pursue public interest. Confucius' morality, with its cardinal claims of "cultivating oneself so as to bring peace and prosperity for people" and "sagely within and kingly without", professes a sense of solidarity and selflessness that communitarians advocate. It is then necessary to resort to the "principle of utility" because calculating what might contribute most to the public interest becomes a fundamental moral value. Based on this basic understanding of Confucian moral values, we now examine the four bioethical principles and their relevance to Confucian ethics.

RESPECT FOR AUTONOMY

As Confucius' ethics is compared to the Western theories of the principle of respect for autonomy, one may find that among the many virtues which Confucius requires of a chun-tze, the morally ideal person, the virtues of " hsin" (faithfulness, truthfulness), " gong" (respectfulness), and " jing" (reverence) are virtues which correspond to the principle of respect for autonomy and its derivative rules of veracity and fidelity. Confucius' teaching emphasises the importance of "free will" and "self legislation" in one's pursuit of humaneness ( jen), and questions the efficacy of using law and punishment in rectifying people's conduct. He said: "Lead the people with governmental measures and regulate them by law and punishment, and they will avoid wrong-doing but will have no sense of honour and shame. Lead them with virtue and regulate them by the rules of propriety ( li), and they will have a sense of shame and, moreover, set themselves right." Confucius' version of the golden rule, the principle of jen (humaneness), connotes the love and respect one should have towards fellow people. On the other hand, Confucius' concepts of chun-tze (the superior man), which illustrates the characteristics of self activation, self cultivation, self reflection, self reliance, and moral authenticity, not only fully expresses the qualities of an autonomous person but also displays the value and dignity of being an individual: "to be an end of oneself, not a means of others". In effect, the aim of Confucius' moral education is for the cultivating of an autonomous person.

Nevertheless, further investigation into the conceptions concerning "persons" reveals interesting but important differences. I have argued in another paper that the Western conceptions of personhood-to which modern bioethicists often refer-and on which the principle of respect for autonomy relies, basically emphasise the standards of rationality and self consciousness of the moral agent who is hence entitled to liberty and the right to choose for himself. The Confucian personhood might embrace such ideas with little difficulty but additionally advocates a strong relational perspective, the "horizontal dimension" of being persons. Specifically, personhood in the Confucian sense comprises not merely the moral faculties of rationality and self consciousness one is born with, but a moral accomplishment for one to achieve in a cultural-historical tradition stressing the individual's relationships with and altruistic responsibility towards others. "When a person exercises autonomy, he is not choosing in a context-free, conceptual vacuum manner but considers himself a person-in-relation with many roles to play and responsibilities to take in accordance with different relationships. A person cannot become fully human without fulfilling his role-specified relation-oriented responsibilities; the Confucius personhood is to be realised through interpersonal transactions in human society."

BENEFICENCE AND NON-MALEFICENCE

The principles of beneficence and non-maleficence are here considered as a conjoined moral obligation to be compared with Confucius' principle of jen (humaneness) and concept of chun-tze (the superior man). Confucius' principle of jen purports "love" and the "golden rule". It is also expounded through the idea of chung (conscientiousness): "establish one's own character" and shu (reciprocity): "also establish the character of others". This echoes a reciprocity based justification for beneficence (which includes non-maleficence): "I received benefits from others therefore in return I promoted their welfare." Confucius professed his principle of jen in both negative form: "not to do to others what you do not want them to do to you", and positive form: "wishing to establish one's own character, seeks also to establish others; wishing to be prominent oneself, also helps other to be prominent". These moral doctrines display a reciprocity based moral justification and expressly and respectively corresponded to the principle of non-maleficence and the principle of beneficence. Besides, Confucius made the "negative form" of the golden rule, shu (reciprocity), the minimal standard for moral agents, "the one word to serve as guiding principle for conduct throughout life", because non-maleficence is a perfect duty that everyone should not transgress, while beneficence is a moral ideal to which a chun-tze is committed.

However, in Confucius' theory when jen pronounces love, it has as its origin biological bond and starts from the intimate affection and respect learnt and shared in the family. This love then endeavours to extend towards other people, therefore it is neither "partial" nor "universal" but " gradational". The natural gradational pattern of love such as a mother's love and care for her own children before looking after others' children is of the most unexceptional human nature, a "partiality" that is "universally" valid. In considering doing good or being beneficent to others without ignoring the fact that everyone has but limited resources, paying "attention to the scope" and adapting a pragmatic, progressive, and stepwise approach based on "g radational love " is sensible. Confucius' formula professes "Treat with respect the elders in my family, and then extend that respect to include the elders in other families. Treat with tenderness the young in my own family, and then extend that tenderness to include the young in other families." This is to avoid aiming too high for the ethical idealism of universal love of "caring for strangers as dearly as we care for our parents", but eventually ending up "treating our dearly beloved as apathetically as we treat passers-by". After all, the Confucian utopia is the realisation of a universal philanthropy starting from intimate love and respect shared within family then progressing step by step toward clan, community, country, and the world. The approach of gradational love in effect gives the principle of beneficence a sensible, ethical, and practical strategy for realising it.

Furthermore, the Confucian viewpoints of beneficence and non-maleficence can be interpreted by his moral ideal of people: the concepts of chun-tze. Chun-tze, as a relational being, through his rational self consciousness and reflection, embraced a deep moral concern and altruistic commitment towards others and society. He values his relatedness, mutuality, and communion with others more than his own separateness, individuality, and distinctiveness. As Hansen has insightfully pointed out, "A Western theory might portray the world as made up of particulars, whereas Chinese philosophy regarded objects as parts carved out of a large, basic whole." In the Confucian view, the "selfhood" is the centre of relations but its boundary with others is not always clear. The realm of selfhood may include family, community, country, and the world; moreover, the self seeks in his lifetime to be in unity with the dao (the universal moral order) thus realises his true selfhood. A chun-tze 's missions in summation, "cultivating oneself so as to give all people security and peace", should therefore be understood not only as a process of broadening oneself to embody an ever expanding circle of human relatedness, but also a course of deepening in self transformation through genuine communion with others.

It becomes clear that, based on the unique sense of Confucian selfhood and the relational personhood, to describe the principles of beneficence and non-maleficence as an external moral duty added unto one or a utilitarian endeavour to create the best utility for all would be imprecise. Altruism is intrinsic, immanent, and constituent to what counts as a Confucian ideal person. It is through altruism one realises one's true manhood and achieves humanity ( jen).

JUSTICE

Justice in Confucius' ethics can be interpreted by the principle of yi (meaning righteousness, appropriateness, and justice). When yi purports "righteousness", it refers to the "substance" or "standard" of morality signifying "the right things to do and doing the things right". Confucius' theory of "rectification of names", which denotes that everyone should rightly fulfil one's role attached responsibilities and thus live up to their "names", is similar to Socrates' idea of state of justice: every class does its own job and minds its own business. Confucius' concept of the " dao of righteousness" emphasises a person's insistence upon "the righteous way" (morality) should never be compromised under any circumstances-poor or rich, honoured or humble, prosperous or adverse.

When yi indicates "appropriateness", it asserts the art of applying moral rules with flexibility ( chuan), searching to attain due Mean (chung-yung) out of competing or contradictory moral values, and respecting and abiding by the good social norms (li, the rules of propriety). Merely holding fast to moral rules without considering their appropriate implications could make moral life a burden or even a disaster, because moral rules frequently conflict with each other and exceptional circumstances are simply unavoidable. Confucius' notions of chuan (flexibility) and chung-yung (the doctrine of the Mean), when compared to Beauchamp and Childress' theories of "specifying" moral principles according to the particular contexts, "balancing and overriding" the conflicting moral principles, and using "reflective equilibrium" to reach a coherence between moral theories and practices, display a great resemblance and deserve further investigation.

When yi denotes "justice" in Confucius' ethics, it is concerned with regulating the selfish desires and limiting the endless pursuit of self profit. It represents the judging criterion when one is in the face of "gaining profit"-to take when it is just to do so, therefore it implies a fair acquisition and distribution of resources. When there are conflicts between public interest and self interest, individual benefits and moral principles, yi as justice maintains the prioritisation of: first, justice; second, profit (first, the public interest; second, the self interest) according to Confucius.

After examining the three meanings of yi, I believe that there is no definite material principle of justice in Confucius' ethics. When yi indicates righteousness and appropriateness, it advocates both the primacy of morality and the importance of applying moral rules with flexibility. When yi signifies justice, it purports vaguely the ideas of "desert" therefore referring to distributive justice. So it is necessary to examine from a broader basis what values in Confucius' ethics might influence the specification and application of the principle of justice.

I propose that the "five basic human relationships ( wu-lun)" in Confucius' theory were constructed in hierarchical patterns. The relative positions between father and son, husband and wife, old and young, and ruler and minister were graded as the higher, authoritative side and the lower, subordinate side; they were obviously unequal. This might have its cultural, historical background with the aim of restoring and maintaining social order. Yet if mutual respect and each party's fulfilling its role specified responsibility can not be established, the unequal status coming from the hierarchy might cause the rights and autonomy of the lower, subordinate sides to be coerced or exploited by the higher, authoritative sides therefore undermines justice.

On the other hand, the "gradational love" and the "role specified, relation oriented ethics" require the exhibition of unequal love and respect towards different subjects according to the psychological distance, blood ties, or relationships, which could be reckoned as an application of "unequals should be treated unequally". However, its misuse might lead to people treating their loved ones preferentially with public resources, being partial in distributing communal or collective assets to benefit their families or acquaintances regardless of the fair procedures, and consequently resulting in clanism and nepotism. Using "relation" or " renqing" (human affection or relation) to influence the communal resources allocation could also be problematic as it might lead to coercion, corruption, or partiality, thus jeopardising social justice. Therefore, the gradational love and relational based approach to justice should be modulated by the principle of yi, and its application should be limited within a non-public scope, so that justice will not be impaired by selfish reasons.

Justice in a sense is about adjudicating competing legitimate claims or conflicting moral values. However, filial piety seemed to have a special place-even a priority-in Confucius' ethics when it clashed with other moral duties or principles. Two stories from Confucian Classics reveal that legal justice or retributive justice had no absolute power in Confucius' and Mencius' ethical theories that social justice might sometimes have to be compromised with or even be overruled by filial piety and family values. Firstly, it is recorded in the Confucian Analects: The Duke of She told Confucius, "In my country there is an upright man named Kung. When his father stole a sheep, he bore witness against him". Confucius said, "The upright men in my community are different from this. The father conceals the misconduct of the son and the son conceals the misconduct of the father. Uprightness is to be found in this." Secondly, it is described in Mencius: Tao Ying asked, saying, "Shun being sovereign, and Kao-yao chief minister of justice, if Ku-sau [Shun's father] had murdered a man, what would have been done in the case?" Mencius said, "Kao-yao would simply have apprehended him". "But would not Shun have forbidden such a thing?" "Indeed, how could Shun have forbidden it? Kao-yao had received the law from a proper source." "In that case what would Shun have done?" "Shun would have regarded abandoning the kingdom as throwing away a worn-out sandal. He would privately have taken his father on his back, and retired into concealment, living somewhere along the seacoast. There he would have been all his life, cheerful and happy, forgetting the kingdom."

Confucius' ethics basically asserts that filial piety and fraternal love are the roots of humaneness, the foundation and origin of human morality; all social goods are extensions of family ethics. Therefore, although Confucius professes the non-negotiability of holding fast to justice, when filial piety and justice conflict, he is reluctant to harm the roots in order to preserve the branches. Trying both to comply with filial piety to one's parents and to discharge one's various moral duties toward others at the same time often incurs tension or ethical dilemmas for which no easy solutions are available. In Confucius' ethics as well as in a traditional Chinese society, reconciling justice in preserving the virtue of filial piety is a peculiar moral value that should not be neglected and should be examined.

CONCEPT, CONCEPTIONS, AND APPLICATION

From the foregoing review, the conclusions of this paper are clear. The concepts of respect for autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, and justice and the moral values of these four prima facie principles have been expressly identified in Confucius' ethics. It would be plausible to say that Confucius' moral philosophy, professing jen (humaneness), yi (righteousness, appropriateness, justice), li (rule of propriety), and chun-tze (the self cultivated, autonomous man committed to altruism), is compatible with and even perhaps asserts the bioethical principles of respect for autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, and justice. In other words, what Beauchamp and Childress have advanced as four prima facie moral obligations adopted from the "considered judgements" of "common morality" have literally been existent and discernible in Confucius' ethics for the past 2500 years. In this paper I have verified their presentations in Confucius' ethics, and reconstructed and interpreted Confucius' ethics in the light of the Western theories of the four bioethical principles. To say that people from the Confucian ethics based societies will find little difficulty in committing themselves to these four prima facie moral obligations is basically sustainable through this paper's examination.

Although Confucius' ethics share the same "concepts" of the four principles, their "conceptions" of the four principles are different in certain aspects. By Lindey's definition "a conception is a particular interpretation or analysis of a concept" and "an adequate conception must fall within the scope of the basic concept". Taking Herodotus' famous story of Darius, the ancient Persian king, who found that the Callatians (an Indian tribe) customarily ate the bodies of their dead fathers, while Greeks practised cremation and burned the bodies of their fathers when they died. Darius then summoned some Callatians and some Greeks and asked them to practice each other's customs-the Greeks to eat their dead fathers and the Callatians to burn theirs. Both of them were horrified by the idea and replied that not at any price could Darius make them do such a dreadful thing. Cultural relativists might use such a story to illustrate that different cultures have different moral codes and claimed "custom is king", but it appears perfectly clear to the author that although the rites or social practices-the conceptions of how to treat dead fathers with respect-might differ greatly, the concept of respecting the deceased fathers remains the same. Burning a national flag was considered an insult to the state and a crime forbidden in some countries years ago, but it was later interpreted as an expression of "freedom of speech" which is a protected right by the Constitution of the United State. Therefore, one "concept" may have many different "conceptions" as it is interpreted and modulated in various contexts; so similarly with the concepts of the four prima facie moral principles which may have many diverse but adequate conceptions.

Beauchamp and Childress' principles oriented framework has defined the four principles to be prima facie binding yet without a priori ranking. It must be through "specification", "balancing and overriding" of the principles that one arrives at coherent and justifiable answers to ethical dilemmas when the principles come into conflict. However, it is conceivable that cultural factors or social practices could hugely influence these processes. In other words, the conceptions of a certain concept, more than the concept itself, play the cardinal roles in influencing the actual application, whereas a concept without specification is merely an abstract guidance.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

I have argued that the two basic elements of a Confucian "person" encapsulated in the moral ideal of chun-tze are crucial in understanding the "conceptions" of respect for autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, and justice in both Confucius' ethics and their application in a Confucian culture based society. Firstly, chun-tze is an "autonomous person" who is rational, self conscious, and commits himself to moral self cultivation. Secondly, chun-tze is a "relational person" who appreciates filial piety, gradational love, and role specified, relation oriented ethics, and realises altruism in interpersonal transactions. This two dimensional concern, which includes the vertical dimension (the autonomous, self cultivating one) and the horizontal dimension (the relational, altruistic one), runs through the construction of a chun-tze 's moral life, and influences how these four principles will be put into practice. Moreover, taking into account many traditional cultural characterisations and existing social practices, "relational personhood" clearly might have a strong influence in a Chinese culture based context, and thus gives the "conceptions" or interpretation of the four principles a tendency towards "relational orientation".

Accordingly, the Confucian "conceptions" of the four prima facie principles can plausibly echo and buttress the communitarian and feminist theses which endorse the common good, duty to others and society, the person-in-relation, and the ethics of care. It also tends to grant beneficence a favourable position that at the same time might diminish the respect for individual rights and autonomy when moral principles clash. This is different from the Western liberal viewpoints, which have more and more argued for the centrality, priority, and the stance of "first among equals" of the principle of respect for autonomy, that constitutes an interesting contrast. As Callahan points out: "Autonomy is, then de facto given a place of honour because the thrust of individualism, whether from the egalitarian left or the market oriented right, is to give people maximum liberty in devising their own lives and values." Nevertheless, if the Confucian "doctrine of Mean ( chung-yung) and a balanced "two dimensional personhood" approach are properly employed, this would require both theorists and clinicians, who are facing medical ethical dilemmas, to attain due mean out of competing or contradictory moral principles, thus preventing either "giving beneficence a priority" or "asserting autonomy must triumph".

Although bioethical principles and methods have been developed for action guidance and problem solving, tough moral decisions in medical practice, that may have not simple or direct solutions, still challenge physicians, patients, and their families every day. This reminds us the complexity of medical ethical decisions and the risks healthcare professionals undertake in confronting them. Further effort from moral philosophers in articulating and constructing comprehensive and applicable theoretical frameworks for bioethics discourse is still much needed. In this process, philosophical heritage from non-Western, non-English speaking cultures might have an important contribution to make. Confucius' moral philosophy of antiquity provides unique ideas and insightful understanding of person, humanity, interpersonal relationships, and moral community, which under careful examination and critical transformation can become useful resources for further deliberation. On the other hand, the four modern bioethical principles, compared with and explicated through Confucius' moral teachings, have become compatible with and hence applicable in the Confucian cultured based, East Asian societies. Modern medical professionalism has adopted these principles and reasserted that medicine is a moral career, not a profit making business. This chimes with the ancient Confucian medical morality, which requires doctors of "the heart of humaneness and the arts of humaneness" and regards practicing medicine equal to realising humaneness.

Acknowledgments

The author would like to thank Professor John Harris, Professor Raanan Gillon, and Professor Søren Holm for their inspiring comments on the earlier drafts of this paper.

View Abstract

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The bioethical principles and Confucius' moral philosophy

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This paper examines whether the modern bioethical principles of respect for autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, and justice proposed by Beauchamp and Childress are existent in, compatible with, or acceptable to the leading Chinese moral philosophy-the ethics of Confucius. The author concludes that the moral values which the four prima facie principles uphold are expressly identifiable in Confucius' teachings.

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Take a moment to make a list of the benefits that you expect to see from exponential growth in the fields of:

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Take a moment to make a list of the benefits that you expect to see from exponential growth in the fields of:

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-Genetic Engineering
cures of diseases
GMO (more food)
-Nanotechnology
improves fuel and wind turbine efficency
-Robotics
prosthetics and fixing the problems of the human body

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Take a moment to make a list of the problems that might be caused by exponential growth in the fields of:

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Take a moment to make a list of the problems that might be caused by exponential growth in the fields of:

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-Genetic Engineering
"perfect human" (nazzi mentality)
-Nanotechnology
over reliance on nanotech for everything we do
-Robotics
robot betrayal with ai

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Explains how nanotechnology can both help and hinder society through weapons, rampant nanomachines, surveillance

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Imagine a world in which cars can be assembled molecule-by-molecule, garbage can be disassembled and turned into beef steaks, and people can be operated on and healed by cell-sized robots. Sound like science fiction? Well, with current semiconductor chip manufacturing encroaching upon the nanometer scale and the ability to move individual atoms at the IBM Almaden laboratory, we are fast approaching the technological ability to fabricate productive machines and devices that can manipulate things at the atomic level. From this ability we will be able to develop molecular-sized computers and robots, which would give us unprecedented control over matter and the ability to shape the physical world as we see fit. Some may see it as pure fantasy, but others speculate that it is an inevitability that will be the beginning of the next technological revolution.

Laboratories, such as the Stanford Nanofabrication Facility (SNF), have already been researching nanofabrication techniques with applications in fiber optics, biotechnology, microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), and wide variety of other research fields relevant to today's technology. MEMS, "tiny mechanical devices such as sensors, valves, gears, mirrors, and actuators embedded in semiconductor chips", are particularly interesting because they are but a mere step away from the molecular machines envisioned by nanotechnology. MEMS are already being used in automobile airbag systems as accelerometers to detect collisions and will become an increasing part of our everyday technology.

In 1986, a researcher from MIT named K. Eric Drexler already foresaw the advent of molecular machines and published a book, Engines of Creation, in which he outlined the possibilities and consequences of this emerging field, which he called nanotechnology. He was inspired by Nobel laureate Richard Feynman's 1959 lecture, There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom, about miniaturization down to the atomic scale. Since then, Drexler has written numerous other books on the subject, such as Unbounding the Future, and has founded the Foresight Institute, which is a nonprofit organization dedicated to the responsible development of nanotechnology. It hosts conferences and competitions to raise the awareness of nanotechnology and the ethical issues involved in its development.

Today, nanotechnology research and development is quite wide spread, although not high profile yet. Numerous universities, such as Univ. of Washington and Northwestern Univ., have established centers and institutes to study nanotechnology, and the U.S. government has created an organization, the National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI), to monitor and guide research and development in this field. In fact, as noted in an April 2001 Computerworld article, the Bush administration increased funding to nanoscale science research by 16% through its National Science Foundation (NSF) budget increase. DARPA (Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency) and the NSF are currently the two largest sources of funding for nanotechnology research and have an enormous influence on the direction of scientific research done in the United States. With so many resources dedicated to its development, nanotechnology will surely have an impact within our lifetime, so it is important to examine its ethical implications while it is still in its infancy.
What is Nanotechnology?
Nanotechnology, also called molecular manufacturing, is "a branch of engineering that deals with the design and manufacture of extremely small electronic circuits and mechanical devices built at the molecular level of matter." [ Whatis.com] The goal of nanotechnology is to be able to manipulate materials at the atomic level to build the smallest possible electromechanical devices, given the physical limitations of matter. Much of the mechanical systems we know how to build will be transferred to the molecular level as some atomic analogy. ( see nanogear animation on the right)

As envisioned by Drexler, as well as many others, this would lead to nanocomputers no bigger than bacteria and nanomachines, also known as nanites (from Star Trek: The Next Generation), which could be used as a molecular assemblers and disassemblers to build, repair, or tear down any physical or biological objects.

In essence, the purpose of developing nanotechnology is to have tools to work on the molecular level analogous to the tools we have at the macroworld level. Like the robots we use to build cars and the construction equipment we use to build skyscrapers, nanomachines will enable us to create a plethora of goods and increase our engineering abilities to the limits of the physical world.
Potential Benefits...
It would not take much of a leap, then, to imagine disassemblers dismantling garbage to be recycled at the molecular level, and then given to assemblers for them to build atomically perfect engines. Stretching this vision a bit, you can imagine a Star Trek type replicator which could reassemble matter in the form of a juicy steak, given the correct blueprints and organization of these nanomachines.

Just given the basic premises of nanotechnology, you can imagine the vast potential of this technology. Some of it's more prominent benefits would be:

Manufacturing

Precision Manufacturing

Material Reuse

Miniaturization

Medicine

Pharmaceutical Creation

Disease Treatment

Nanomachine-assisted Surgery

Environment

Toxin Cleanup

Recycling

Resource Consumption Reduction

Along with all the obvious manufacturing benefits, there are also many potential medical and environmental benefits. With nanomachines, we could better design and synthesize pharmaceuticals; we could directly treat diseased cells like cancer; we could better monitor the life signs of a patient; or we could use nanomachines to make microscopic repairs in hard-to-operate-on areas of the body. With regard to the environment, we could use nanomachines to clean up toxins or oil spills, recycle all garbage, and eliminate landfills, thus reducing our natural resource consumption.
Potential Dangers...
The flip side to these benefits is the possibility of assemblers and disassemblers being used to create weapons, be used as weapons themselves, or for them to run wild and wreak havoc. Other, less invasive, but equally perilous uses of nanotechnology would be in electronic surveillance.

Weapons

Miniature Weapons and Explosives

Disassemblers for Military Use

Rampant Nanomachines

The Gray Goo Scenario

Self Replicating Nanomachines

Surveillance

Weapons are an obvious negative use of nanotechnology. Simply extending today's weapon capabilities by miniaturizing guns, explosives, and electronic components of missiles would be deadly enough. However, with nanotechnology, armies could also develop disassemblers to attack physical structures or even biological organism at the molecular level. A similar hazard would be if general purpose disassemblers got loose in the environment and started disassembling every molecule they encountered. This is known as "The Gray Goo Scenario." Furthermore, if nanomachines were created to be self replicating and there were a problem with their limiting mechanism, they would multiply endlessly like viruses. Even without considering the extreme disaster scenarios of nanotechnology, we can find plenty of potentially harmful uses for it. It could be used to erode our freedom and privacy; people could use molecular sized microphones, cameras, and homing beacons to monitor and track others.
Ethical Issues & Analysis
With such awesome potential dangers inherent in nanotechnology, we must seriously examine its potential consequences. Granted, nanotechnology may never become as powerful and prolific as envisioned by its evangelists, but as with any potential, near-horizon technology, we should go through the exercise of formulating solutions to potential ethical issues before the technology is irreversibly adopted by society. We must examine the ethics of developing nanotechnology and create policies that will aid in its development so as to eliminate or at least minimize its damaging effects on society.
Ethical Decision Making Worksheet

Most relevant facts

We are reaching a critical point where technology will enable us to build complex molecular machines. Molecular assemblers and disassemblers could be developed from this technology, which would have great potential for both good and bad. The two greatest threats from development of nanotechnology are catastrophic accidents and misuse.

Professional Issues

Currently, nanotechnology research is primarily funded by DARPA and the NSF so the research agenda is primarily controlled by the government.

Since nanotechnology is being developed in many different fields, how can everyone's principles be synchronized?

Legal/Policy Issues

Since nanotechnology concerns many different fields, who should create and enforce policies regarding its R&D?

What international laws should be made regarding the safe development of nanotechnology? And who can enforce them?

Ethical Issues

Nanotechnology will give us more "god-like" powers

It has to potential to eliminate other ethical issues (e.g. assembling beef instead of slaughtering cows, constructing cells rather than getting them from reproduction, etc...)

May lead to undetectable surveillance, Right to Privacy could be jeopardized

Do we have a duty to help and provide for others [countries] with this technology?

Stakeholders

NSF - [the government] since it funds much of the nanotechnology research

DARPA - enforcing ethical guidelines may conflict with military research

Researchers - their freedom of how to conduct their research and what to conduct their research on

Explicit users of nanotechnology - may slow down development of the technology

Potentially Everyone - nanotechnology may eventually be so far reaching, it could affect everyone

Possible Actions

1. Nanotechnology R&D should be banned

2. A non-government regulatory or advisory commission should be setup

3. Adopt design guidelines:

Nanomachines should only be specialized, not general purpose

Nanomachines should not be self replicating

Nanomachines should not be made to use an abundant natural compound as fuel

Nanomachines should be tagged so that they can be tracked

Consequences

1. With the first possible action, it may stop general development of nanotechnology and prevent its wide spread potential harms, but it will retard current day technological advances and may not prevent rogue researchers, companies, countries, or armies from developing it anyway.

2. The second possible action could unify R&D policies and procedures and force the research community to seriously consider the potential consequences of nanotechnology

3. The third possible action would minimize "accidents" with nanotechnology by preventing potentially deadly behavior from nanomachines.

Individual Rights/Fairness

The second and third options seem to be the most prudent course of action since the second option is commonly done now for emerging technologies and the third option consciously prevents designs that could lead to the catastrophic scenarios.

Common Good

The second and third options also seem to advance the most common good since the second option involves promoting ethics within the research community and the third option is a set of design principles to discourage unethical or accidental uses of nanotechnology.

Final Decision

Nanotechnology research should be allowed to continue but with a non-government advisory council to monitor the research and help formulate ethical guidelines and policies. Generally, nanomachines should NOT be designed to be general purpose, self replicating, or to be able to use an abundant natural compound as fuel. Furthermore, complex nanomachines should be tagged with a radioactive isotope so as to allow them to be tracked in case they are lost.

Conclusion
It would be difficult to deny the potential benefits of nanotechnology and stop development of research related to it since it has already begun to penetrate many different fields of research. However, nanotechnology can be developed using guidelines to insure that the technology does not become too potentially harmful. As with any new technology, it is impossible to stop every well funded organization who may seek to develop the technology for harmful purposes. However, if the researchers in this field put together an ethical set of guidelines (e.g. Molecular Nanotechnology Guidelines) and follow them, then we should be able to develop nanotechnology safely while still reaping its promised benefits.
References
Drexler, K. Eric Engines of Creation.
New York: Anchor Books, 1986.

Drexler, K. Eric Unbounding the Future.
New York: Quill, 1991.

Feynman, Richard P. There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom.
03 March 2002.
http://www.zyvex.com/nanotech/feynman.html

The Foresight Institute.
03 March 2002.
http://www.foresight.org/

Institute for Molecular Manufacturing.
03 March 2002.
IMM.org

National Nanotechnology Initiative.
03 March 2002.
http://www.nano.gov/

Thibodeau, Patrick. "Nanotech, IT research given boost in Bush budget".
03 March 2002. (April 11, 2001)
CNN.com

[Definitions].
03 March 2002.
Whatis.com

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It would be difficult to deny the potential benefits of nanotechnology and stop development of research related to it since it has already begun to penetrate many different fields of research. However, nanotechnology can be developed using guidelines to insure that the technology does not become too potentially harmful.

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What concerns you the most about nuclear technology in the world today?

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What concerns you the most about nuclear technology in the world today?

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NUCLEAR energy is evolving quickly, when things evolve quickly, they cause problems (PARADOX OF DEVELOPMENT). Nuclear energy can be a great asset for humanity, but it can also be our downfall. Mistakes like the ones made with Rocky Flats could happen again and that is dangerous.

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What are some other examples of the concept of dual use?

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What are some other examples of the concept of dual use?

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Computers are a great exapmle of dual use. They automate tasks and allow componioes to be more productive. They also allow for the use of lethal autonomas weapons, which allow them to kill and be destructive.

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What are your thoughts about the costs of giving up your image or your data?

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What are your thoughts about the costs of giving up your image or your data?

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I don't care about my data as long as it's mostly for advertising or government/research. Anything more extreme is where I draw the line. When my data is used for malicious intent is where I'm not okay with my data being used.

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Why can’t an algorithm/a machine be neutral?

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Why can’t an algorithm/a machine be neutral?

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People who code them aren't. There are so many little changes you could make in the code that runs the artificial intelligence that affect how the machine learns that programmers could never predict. It is such a complicated thing that can't be understood without expericance coding artificial intelligence

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Displays the problems with how Rocky Flats was run and its potential damage.

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Whilst Rocky Flats National Wildlife Refuge near Denver, Colorado, is today a spectacular nature reserve, its history is inextricably entwined with the US military industrial complex. Dig beneath the rolling prairie grasslands and a complex socioenvironmental history is made evident by the traces of contamination that are hidden beneath the soil and in the health challenges that have been experienced by the local community.

This legacy began at the moment of inception of the Rocky Flats plutonium pit manufacturing plant in 1952. Plutonium pits or triggers provide a catalyst for the detonation of nuclear weapons, and include a beryllium starter mechanism. They are not a "clean" item to manufacture, but rather a toxic product that creates toxic by-products. Current US legislation protects the public from harm through on-site and off-site environmental regulation. However, 1950s environmental concerns were less pressing, as Cold War patriotism took precedence and public awareness of the socioenvironmental effects of nuclear weapons was limited. The Cold War precipitated an arms race that the Rocky Flats facility was designed to bolster by rapid production of this essential item for nuclear warfare.

Rocky Flats underwent a gradual transformation from a central component of the US military-industrial complex to the ordered parkland of the National Wildlife Refuge over the course of the 1990s and 2000s. Parallel to this transition, the greater space surrounding the refuge began to be redeveloped into residential property by the Terra Causa Capital and GF Properties Group, a subsidiary of the Southern Ute Indian Tribe. The new residents of the freshly constructed village of Candelas are commuters to the nearby city of Denver, and are unaware of the legacy of contamination that surrounds Rocky Flats.

The first environmental challenges emerged five years after the plutonium pit manufacturing site became functional in 1952. Major fires occurred in 1957 and 1969, whilst on other occasions unsealed barrels of radioactive waste silently leached and dispersed across the surrounding hinterland. When traces of plutonium and elevated levels of radioactive tritium were discovered by researchers in local reservoirs in 1972, the US Congress purchased a buffer zone around the site to prevent public access. Plutonium was also discovered within topsoil beyond the original buffer by scientists, to which Congress responded by expanding existing buffer zones. The site used sociopolitical technologies of control to prevent public recognition of pollution, namely the limitation of public access and the creation of harsh consequences for on-site whistle-blowers. A climate of precarious national security and the threat of Soviet repercussions meant that this seemed like appropriate action at the time, and so Rocky Flats remained clandestine.

However, the local community became perturbed by this lack of transparency from Rocky Flats. Local community activism gradually began to occur at Rocky Flats as concerns emerged surrounding on-site safety in the 1980s. Large-scale organized protests and sit-ins were undertaken, and the abundance of unanswered and unanswerable questions reached an apogee that culminated in a large-scale protest by thousands, with 320 arrests, in August 1989. This protest was dismissed by the establishment as unnecessarily subversive and damaging to the nuclear defense sector. However, it is difficult to stifle the truth permanently, and information about the environmental impacts of Rocky Flats was leaked to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). This precipitated an investigation and a case was developed by FBI agent Jon Lipsky with the help of anonymous on-site informants. Operation Desert Glow in 1989 was the final outcome of this investigation, and the site was secretly infiltrated by FBI agents who discovered extensive contamination of water and land. The US justice department charged Rocky Flats' proprietors, Rockwell International, with violations of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act and the Clean Water Act in 1992. Rockwell International had allowed polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), chromic acid, beryllium, and radionuclide emissions-all chemicals with serious compound implications for human and environmental health-to be released into the environment.

The location became a Superfund site as part of a national program where contaminated places are selected for investment. Billions of dollars were pumped into the deconstruction and remediation of the landscape, a process completed in 2006. Yet, information about the site remains elusive for the lay public. The Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment has site records available on their website (see, for example, here or here); other records can be accessed by the public through mechanisms such as the Freedom of Information Act request or the Colorado Open Records Act (those not permanently sealed from the Grand Jury investigation, that is).

Our study respondents report that the hundreds of pages of technical and scientific information provided by organizations like the Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment (CDPHE)-but not translated by them for the lay public-are ultimately inaccessible to people without a significant background in fields like chemistry or toxicology. The information is not useful in terms of accessing transparent data about the site, its history, or any residual contamination that may present risks. This information could be made more accessible if, for example, the CDPHE organized events, such as community meetings, to translate data for citizens and answer their questions.

This is an issue of procedural inequity that environmental justice scholars have noted in many other cases of contested illness. In cases of contested illness, affected members of the public perceive connections between their illnesses and exposure to environmental toxicants such as plutonium, but medical professionals and/or state or federal agencies deny either the existence of their disease (as with Gulf War Syndrome) or deny an environmental health component to the disease (such as asthma rates increasing in relation to air pollution).

Therefore unresolved concerns about health and wellbeing within the local community are still undeniably present. Community campaign leader, Tiffany Hansen, has voiced the challenges associated with developing a good study. She said:

It was a challenge to connect with former residents, there was no support, the research available was limited and difficult to find, and there was no organized advocacy... Since launching our [Rocky Flats Downwinders awareness] website in 2015, I have heard from thousands of people, many like myself, who felt there was a strong connection between our health problems and the close proximity to the facility... I hear from people whose entire families are sickened, many lost loved ones, others are fighting or lost the fight for their lives.

Her observations echo the contested yet compelling evidence of rare cancers associated with radiation exposure that are clustered within the communities surrounding the site, and that embody their experiences of exposure. Somehow, the internationally significant socioenvironmental legacy of Rocky Flats has been redacted. Whilst the wildlife flourishes across Rocky Flats, the local communities continue to suffer from its hidden toxic past.

Postscript: This article has been edited and re-posted on 2 November 2017 to clarify the authors' reporting on procedural equity and the nature of health-related information publicly available to concerned citizens. This clarification was made after the Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment requested the article be retracted due to the authors' critiques of the availability of information that citizens find transparent, useful, and applicable to their health and daily lives.

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An Unnatural History of Rocky Flats National Wildlife Refuge, Colorado

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Whilst Rocky Flats National Wildlife Refuge near Denver, Colorado, is today a spectacular nature reserve, its history is inextricably entwined with the US military industrial complex. Dig beneath the rolling prairie grasslands and a complex socioenvironmental history is made evident by the traces of contamination that are hidden beneath the soil and in the health challenges that have been experienced by the local community.

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An example of how we don't know what is stealing our data until it's too late.

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Highlights

Meta has alerted media giants Apple and Google to more than 400 apps that have been designed to steal personal data.

Here are some of the types of apps Meta has detected that you should be wary of, and how to beat them at their game.

"We're encouraging people to be cautious when downloading a new app that asks for social media credentials and providing practical steps to help people stay safe," Meta's David Agranovish and Ryan Victory wrote in a statement.

The announcement from Meta, formerly known as Facebook, has come just a week after

Meta has warned that once a hacker has someone's Facebook login details, they could gain full access to their account, including messaging their friends and receiving their private information.

What kind of apps should you look out for?

Here are just some of the apps Meta has detected that you should be wary of:

Photo editing apps that invite users to "turn themselves into cartoons"

Virtual Private Networks that are advertised to bolster browsing speed or gain access to blocked websites

Phone utility services, such as apps to brighten the smartphone's existing flashlight

Games that promote hi-resolution graphics

Horoscope or fitness tracker apps

Business or ad management apps that claim to provide features not yet found in official apps by other tech platforms.

What else can you do?

Meta also advises users to look out for apps that require social media credentials to access the app, to check out the negative reviews of an app before you download it, and assess whether the app has lived up to the features it has promised at the app store.

Have you been affected?

You can find the list of now-deleted

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Facebook has found more than 400 apps made to steal your data. Here's what you can do

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Highlights Meta has alerted media giants Apple and Google to more than 400 apps that have been designed to steal personal data. Here are some of the types of apps Meta has detected that you should be wary of, and how to beat them at their game.

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If you don’t know where your water comes from, why don’t you? 

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If you don’t know where your water comes from, why don’t you? 

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I don't know where my water comes from because I don't need to know where my water comes from to use it. Using water is very easy so I don't have to know why it is being used, just that it is.

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And would you call that an engineering success, an engineering failure, or something else entirely?

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And would you call that an engineering success, an engineering failure, or something else entirely?

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It is a complete success, because something is done so well that I don't need to know how it works in order to use it.

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1.) The Colorado River supplies our water and 6 other states.
2.) It supplies 36 million people with water.

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Displays a map of the current and old Colorado River, explaining how we used it to the near breaking point

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What is redlining? How has it impacted environmental justice issues?

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What is redlining? How has it impacted environmental justice issues?

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Redlining is the systematic denial of services to locals of specific neighborhoods or communities, either directly or through the selective raising of prices. It increases exposure to air pollution and heat.

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Additionally, are the problems described in these articles engineering problems?

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Additionally, are the problems described in these articles engineering problems?

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As engineers it is our duty to solve problems, so it is an "engineering problem." We want to mske the world a better place so it is an "engineering problem."

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An in depth look at how climate racism (redlining) affects the day to day of those affected.

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‘Climate racism’ hurting minorities, taxpayer-funded outlet claims: ‘So important to hear that’

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PBS Newshour devoted a segment to “climate justice” activists speaking about how “environmental racism” devastates Black and indigenous communities.