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Frameworks and instruments reviewed (ECML)

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Frameworks and instruments reviewed (ECML)

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Conclusions of the project

This document proposes a taxonomy of categories and examples of teacher competences for languages in education. Its principal aim is to describe and illustrate competence dimensions for the role of languages in education that are relevant for any teacher, whether they teach languages or other subjects. The rationale of the document is to consider the commonalities of relevant teacher competences across different disciplines, including foreign language teaching, teaching the language of schooling as a subject, and the language dimension involved in teaching other subjects. .
Download publication

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european centre for modern languages (ecml)

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centre européen pour les langues vivantes (celv)

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ECML/CELV > ECML-Programme > Programme 2016-2019 > Guide to teacher competences > Inventory

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This document proposes a taxonomy of categories and examples of teacher competences for languages in education. Its principal aim is to describe and illustrate competence dimensions for the role of languages in education that are relevant for any teacher, whether they teach languages or other subjects.

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APU CLAVES PARA LOGRAR EL EXIT O EN LA DOCENCIA COMPARTIDA

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For many practising supervisors and teachers across the world, observation and feedback are key parts of the education and evaluation process. However, these important skills are not always given the recognition they deserve and relevant training often seems to be the exception rather than the rule. Additionally, for many participants, both supervisors and teachers, they are seen as being summative rather than formative or developmental.

This webinar provided the opportunity for those involved in observation and feedback to discuss the challenges they have faced during the process. The way in which the experience can become more formative for those involved was also discussed, as well as the importance of building links with continuing professional development.

About the speaker

Amanda Howard has been an English language teacher, teacher educator and university lecturer in TESOL and Education for many years, working mainly in the Arabian Gulf and the UK. Her research interests focus on teacher development and evaluation and she is currently a visiting researcher at the University of Leeds. Amanda is also the Founder of Corinium Academic Solutions, an educational consultancy based in the UK.

Watch a recording of the webinar below

Read Amanda's series of articles on observation and feedback here:

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Observation and feedback: why is it so important to do it well?

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For many practising supervisors and teachers across the world, observation and feedback are key parts of the education and evaluation process. However, these important skills are not always given the recognition they deserve and relevant training often seems to be the exception rather than the rule.

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Self assessment for participants - beginning of Project

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Self assessment for participants - beginning of Project

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CPD Framework for teachers 2025 - Guidance Booklet

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Observation grid for new teachers in Italy

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Observation grid for new teachers in Italy

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Interviews - Video Interviews with Teachers before and after

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Interviews - Video Interviews with Teachers before and after

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How structured observation improves quality of individual and team performances

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How structured observation improves quality of individual and team performances

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Thanks Aoife, great message!

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Want to get great at something? Get a coach

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How do we improve in the face of complexity? Atul Gawande has studied this question with a surgeon’s precision. He shares what he’s found to be the key: having a good coach to provide a more accurate picture of our reality, to instill positive habits of thinking, and to break our actions down and then help us build them back up again. “It’s not how good you are now; it’s how good you’re going to be that really matters,” Gawande says.

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Fiona Dunlop: organising classroom observation

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Fiona Dunlop: organising classroom observation

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'Evaluation alone will not improve practice. Productive feedback must be accompanied by opportunities to learn. Evaluations should trigger continuous goal-setting and [...] can be used to stimulate meaningful professional learning as teachers set goals and pursue them with the assistance of administrators and colleagues'. Darling-Hammond, 99:2013)

If you are a supervisor who has risen through the ranks of second language teachers to your current position, the chances are that if you have experienced regular evaluative observations, you will have a distinct memory of at least some the feedback you were given about your classroom teaching. As with observation, post-lesson feedback can be viewed by those who receive it with suspicion and distrust.

TASK 1:

Think back to your own experiences of receiving feedback from an observer when you were a teacher.

Did it make you feel positive or negative? What were the reasons for this?

If you are now the person responsible for providing evaluative feedback and positions have changed, the thought of reporting back to the teacher with your opinions of the lesson that they have just taught can be very daunting. As Willems writes:

Language institute in Southern Arabia. An observation today. Oh God. It's really a stressful time in a classroom. And to make it worse, the feedback session that follows is the most nerve-wracking part of the process. It doesn't matter if the observation is for an appraisal or professional development - the feeling is that there is judgment. 'You did something well, but you also did something badly.' No one likes to hear the second part. No one. So, there is tension in the air during feedback sessions. Sometimes they are cordial enough so that both parties leave amicably. Other times tension rises to the point that the two are squaring off as though it's a duel. One or both may go on the attack, go on the defensive or tip-toe around each other with nothing to say but polite words with a look in their eyes as though their weapons can be drawn at any given moment.

This is bad enough for me as the observer. I bet the teacher is feeling even worse. (2018:1)

Research (Howard, 2010) agrees that Willems has identified a common problem for supervisors in the Observation/Feedback Cycle. For many experienced teachers, the feedback conference is often much harder than the observation process itself, and frequently anticipated with dismay. However, the anticipation of the observer who will be providing that feedback can be even less positive.

TASK 2:

As an observer, how do you feel before teacher evaluation?

Which part of the experience do you prefer - the observation or the feedback?

What are the reasons for this?

During plenaries and presentations carried out internationally over past years on the topic of observation and feedback, I have divided workshop audiences into observers (supervisors) and observees (teachers) to discuss the teacher evaluation process. When asked how much they do not look forward to a forthcoming observation in terms of marks out of 10, teachers have provided an average figure of 6 or 7. However, supervisors (with a few exceptions!) tend to rate their negative feelings rather higher, with scores of 8 or 9, which suggests that they are aware that this experience is going to have implications if it is not addressed appropriately.

When looking at research into the way in which feedback is given and received (Kurtoglu Hooton, 2008), it seems that supervisors are right to be concerned. As discussed in the two previous papers, teachers will adopt a number of strategies to ensure that the feedback they are given is as positive as possible, including 'horse and pony shows' and tried and tested model lessons (Howard, 2008). They will also find out background information about the observer and teach to their perceived preferences. However, if all does not go well then supervisors can anticipate that the observed teacher will become defensive during the feedback session (Willems, 2018), which can be problematic for the parties involved. His research suggests that supervisors can favour the direct approach when giving feedback, telling the observed teacher what they could have done better and why, although personal experience from both sides of the evaluation cycle suggests that a strong relationship between participants is needed in order for this to succeed!

TASK 3:

Think of your own experiences of providing feedback to teachers.

How do they react to the feedback you provide?

What strategies do you use to ensure that the feedback is effective?

It seems that there is no 'one size fits all' in terms of providing feedback to practicing teachers. However, feedback inappropriately given or received can have a permanently damaging effect on a working relationship, so allowing time for reflection is a key part of the process. Most important of all, as Willems (2018) is the latest in a long stream of practitioners to identify, is supervisor training in observation and feedback, which is still a rarity rather than a recognised feature of organisational preparation to become an effective manager.

TASK 4:

Would you agree that training in observation and feedback is important?

What are your reasons for this?

In reality, it seems that many of those tasked with teacher evaluation in TESOL (Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages) do not have the necessary training in order to do this, and rely on their own classroom experience for guidance, focussing on what worked for them and what did not. This is not uncommon, but contexts are rarely the same, and what is effective for one teacher in the classroom may not necessarily be appropriate for another. However, at base level it is important for supervisors/observers to have a clear rationale for the actions they take and the decisions they make in order to evaluate teachers and their classroom teaching effectively.

Some of the literature about post-observation feedback relates to initial teacher training (Copland et al, 2009) , but is equally valid when referring to experienced teachers. However, feedback's status as an activity cannot be undervalued: Pollock (2012), in the title of her book about this, describes it as the hinge that joins teaching and learning, which stresses its overall importance!

Therefore, in order to provide effective feedback the following key points need to be considered:

1. Timing of feedback.

This is very important. For supervisors, there are benefits in providing evaluative feedback immediately after the lesson, as it means that they can provide a gut response to the teaching, the task can be signed off and the boxes ticked. However, the teacher may be rushing to another lesson or stressed after the observation, without the capacity to reflect on classroom events. Therefore there are advantages to arranging a meeting for the next day, while the lesson is still fresh in everyone's minds, but the meeting context may perhaps be more relaxed. Too much delay between lesson and meeting can suggest that there were issues with the lesson and invoke mistrust, but it is important that it is taken seriously by both parties.

2. Collaborative or direct feedback?

There seems to be a tendency for supervisors to start by asking teachers how they feel the lesson went, which could be an introduction to a collaborative discussion (Copland et al, 2009). However, the observee can often respond in a very self-critical manner, so it is important that the observer is able to develop the conversation into a developmental discussion, rather than an ongoing request for validation. Alternatively, if the feedback is direct, the teacher may not engage at all in the discussion, as they are not an active part of the discussion. The other side of this coin is that if a great deal of praise is provided by the observer, the teacher does not hear as he/she is awaiting instead the eventual 'but'!

Conclusion

There has not been enough space here to include everything and there are many other important considerations when providing observation feedback, so below are some useful books, articles and papers which can be used to explore this practice. They will help practitioners to move through the observation and feedback process in a way that is more effective for teacher, supervisor and learners.

For many supervisors (and teachers) the problem of providing observation and feedback tends to be one of a lack of knowledge of particular practices and their implications, so it is hoped that this series of articles has been helpful in raising awareness of the factors involved.

References

Copland, F., Ma, G., & Mann, S. (2009). Reflecting in and on post-observation feedback in initial teacher training on certificate courses. English Language Teacher Education and Development, 12(Winter), 14-23.
Darling-Hammond, L. (2013) Getting Teacher Evaluation Right: What really matters for effectiveness and improvement. New York: Teacher's College Press
Howard, A. (2008) Teachers being observed: coming to terms with classroom appraisal. In: Garton, S. and Richards, K. eds. Professional Encounters in TESOL. London: Palgrave: 87-104
Howard, A.J. (2010) Teacher appraisal: the impact of observation on teachers' classroom behaviour. PhD thesis, University of Warwick.
Kurtoglu Hooton, N. (2008) The Design of Post-Observational Feedback and Its Impact on Student Teachers. In Garton, S. and Richards, K. eds. Professional Encounters in TESOL. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan: 24-41
Pollock, J.E. (2012) Feedback: The Hinge that Joins Teaching and Learning. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin
Willems, P. (2018) Exploring experienced teachers' and supervisors' perspectives on post-observation feedback sessions. MA TESOL Dissertation, University of Leeds. Winner of the British Council Masters Dissertation Award, 2019.

Further reading

Borg, M. (2004) The apprenticeship of observation. ELT Journal 58:3. 274-276
Copland, F. (2009) Causes of tension in post-observation feedback in pre-service teacher training: An alternative view. Teaching and Teacher Education 26(3): 466-472
Copland, F. (2008) Deconstructing the Discourse: Understanding the Feedback Event. In: Garton, S. and Richards, K. eds. Professional Encounters in TESOL. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan: 5-23
Copland, F., & Mann, S. (2010). Dialogic talk in the post-observation conference; an investment for reflection. In: Park. G. Observation of Teaching: Bridging Theory and Practice through Research on Teaching. Munchen, Germany: Lincom Europa Publishing.
Farrell, T.S.C ((2008) Critical incidents in ELT initial teacher training. ELT Journal 62:1, 3-10
Handal, G. and Lauvas, P. (1987) Promoting reflective teaching: supervision in practice. Milton Keynes: Open University Press
Howard, A.J. (2010) Teacher appraisal : the impact of observation on teachers' classroom behaviour. PhD thesis, University of Warwick.Howard, A. (2010) Is there such a thing as a typical language lesson? Classroom Discourse 1(1): 82-100
Iyer-O'Sullivan, R. (2015) From bit to whole: Reframing feedback dialogue through critical incidents. In Howard, A., & Donaghue, H. Teacher evaluation in second language education, London: Bloomsbury, 69-84.
Peterson, K.D. (2000) Teacher Evaluation: A Comprehensive Guide to New Directions and Practices (2nd edn). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press Inc.
Wang, W. and Day, C. (2002) I ssues and Concerns about Classroom Observation: Teachers' Perspectives. Paper presented at TESOL Conference in St Louis, USA, 27th March 2001
Watson-Davies, R. (2009) Lesson Observation Pocketbook. Alresford, Hampshire: Teachers' Pocketbooks.

About the author

Amanda Howard has a PhD in English Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics from the University of Warwick and an MEd TESOL from the University of Leeds. She has been an English language teacher, manager, teacher trainer and subsequently a university lecturer for many years and has a wealth of experience in both TESOL and Education. She was based in the Arabian Gulf for thirty years, but also spent some of that time working for UK universities, predominantly Russell Group, which she continues to do for Leeds and Birmingham on a freelance basis.

Read Amanda's other articles in this series:
Observation and feedback: why is it so important that we get them right? Observation: how important is this skill?

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Feedback: Why we need to think carefully about this process

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'Evaluation alone will not improve practice. Productive feedback must be accompanied by opportunities to learn. Evaluations should trigger continuous goal-setting and [...] can be used to stimulate meaningful professional learning as teachers set goals and pursue them with the assistance of administrators and colleagues'. Darling-Hammond, 99:2013)

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Do Self-Assessment at the end of the course

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Do Self-Assessment at the end of the course

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Dan Humm Soriano: organising classroom observation

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Dan Humm Soriano: organising classroom observation

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A discussion on ways to improve teaching through systematic inquiry.

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"La ricerca in ambito educativo ha dimostrato che esiste una relazione causale di discreta forza fra la qualità della preparazione degli insegnanti e gli esiti dell'apprendimento. Fra le tante variabili che concorrono a determinare la buona riuscita di un percorso formativo, l'operato dei docenti rendo conto del 35% della variabilità dei risultati." (Della Putta, Italiano a Stranieri, Edilingua, n.34).

A partire da questa riflessione, vorrei spostare il punto di vista su una conseguenza pratica, molto tangibile:

se non siamo preparati, se gli studenti non fanno progressi concreti, se le nostre competenze teoriche non si traducono in competenze pratiche - legate alla progettazione e alla gestione appropriate di una lezione -  le possibilità che i nostri studenti smettano di studiare - a prescindere dal nostro contesto di insegnamento -  sono molto alte.

Una riflessione costante sul nostro operato; un attento lavoro di analisi delle nostre azioni didattiche; una messa in dubbio delle nostre competenze, attraverso una visione onesta sulle nostre abilità di docenti, sono tutti aspetti fondamentali, specie per chi lavora in modo autonomo.

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'One serious shortcoming of teacher evaluation reforms is that they have often focussed on designing instruments for observing teachers, without developing the structural elements of a sound evaluation system' (Darling-Hammond, 2013:ix)

Observation and feedback is a process that is vitally important to the educational environment, whether in TESOL (Teaching English to Speakers of other Languages) or mainstream education, and it is essential that there is a symbiotic relationship between the two. Teachers observe their students on an ongoing basis and provide feedback according to the success, or otherwise, of learning activities in the classroom. Students observe their teachers on an ongoing basis, while feedback is provided in terms of their response to instructions and effective completion of tasks. Teachers, in turn, are observed by organisational stakeholders, whose job it is to evaluate their effectiveness, both for reasons of accountability, and provide recorded feedback on pedagogic practice in the classroom for either summative or formative purposes. If applied well, observation and feedback can encourage continuing professional development (CPD) and provide support and training, however, if the reverse is true they can lead to careers lost and significant issues with self-belief.

TASK 1:

Think of your own role as a supervisor/observer.

What proportion of your time is spent observing and/or providing feedback to your teachers? How do you do this?

Is any of your time spent being observed by others? Do they provide you with feedback, and, if so, what form does this take?

The focus of these articles is the observation of, and feedback to, teachers as part of their professional evaluation process. As the need for English teachers worldwide increases, the profession grows exponentially and maintaining the quality of language teaching provision becomes increasingly important for stakeholders. For these headteachers, inspectors and supervisors, it certainly makes sense that, because what teachers do is teach, the obvious way to establish their effectiveness in the classroom is to observe them doing this (Wragg, 1999), subsequently providing feedback as to the success, or otherwise, of the lesson that has taken place. For many teachers, regular appraisal observations are a common component of their working lives, as is the subsequent feedback. Research suggests that they are viewed by many as a necessary evil, but by some as an opportunity to spend quality time with their supervisor, which sounds much more positive!

TASK 2:

What are the advantages and disadvantages of an appraisal observation process that relies on a 'snapshot' of teaching?

Do you feel that there are ways that this process could be made more user-friendly? How?

However, for many teachers who have an evaluation that does not go well, the outcome can be catastrophic, resulting, in a best case scenario, in a repeat of the observation, and in the worse cases, loss of employment and/or references. This makes such teacher evaluation a very 'high stakes' process, but, interestingly, there is a shortage of research into the impact of observation and feedback for teacher appraisal.

Although not all teachers are observed in the classroom, it does seem to be common practice in places where there is an active teacher evaluation procedure taking place, and research suggests that the observation instrument of choice is often an organisationally created checklist. The parties involved (observer and observe) tend to agree, whether consciously or unconsciously, that the observation itself is a typical representation of the normal pedagogic practice of the teacher, so the evaluation proceeds on this basis.

However, there are several flaws in this belief, as outlined below:
1) The Observer's Paradox
This is attributed to William Labov (1972), a Russian, whose main interest was sociocultural relationships. While researching these he noted that although observers wanted to see what happened in normal situations, their presence had a considerable impact on the behaviour of those involved in an interaction, which meant that the situation became atypical. This is something that most teachers seem to be aware of on an ongoing basis, but is not publicly acknowledged as often as might be anticipated.

Result: When people who are not normally in a classroom spend time with the teacher and learners observing a lesson, their presence will have an impact on the behaviour of both teachers and learners.
2) Observer and Teacher Behaviour
Research suggests (Howard, 2008) that observers tend to focus on methodology in the classroom that is similar to their own practice, favouring teaching that is effective in terms of their experience. Research also suggests that many teachers who are about to be observed in the classroom anticipate observer requirements by contacting previous observees and establishing what type of pedagogic practice a particular observer is likely to focus on.

Result: The teacher teaches to the observer's perceived preferences and the observer is able to review familiar practice.
3) The Learners
The behaviour of the learners in the classroom during an observation is usually atypical, as also suggested by research into classroom interaction during the appraisal process (Howard, 2010). Whether or not an observation has been pre-announced by the teacher, learners will tend to think that the observer is there to evaluate them and their abilities, rather than the teacher and the classroom interaction taking place. This is a factor that seems to increase in significance with the age of the learners, but does have a demonstrated impact on their willingness to speak during an observed lesson.

Result: The learners tend to behave in a circumspect manner, with much-reduced background noise in comparison to a normal lesson. Additionally, their need for guidance and positive affirmation during lesson tasks seems to be more evident.
4) Post-Observation Feedback
So far the focus of this discussion has been the observation itself, but the post-observation feedback is equally important.

TASK 3:

Think of the feedback that you have provided after a classroom observation.

Did it make the teachers you had observed feel that they had achieved their goals and were good teachers?

If so, why was this? If not, how did they feel? Did this have an impact on their future practice?

This is a key part of the process and research suggests (Willems, 2018) that there are significant challenges for the observer when providing feedback to the teacher: whether to be direct, collaborative, or a combination of the two. This process operates on a cline: at one end the person providing the feedback can be very encouraging, expressing the view that everything they saw was wonderful, but with questionable sincerity, while at the other the observer can take an authoritarian approach, insisting that activities should be carried out in a prescribed manner in order to demonstrate success. Not surprisingly, both observers and teachers can find this situation stressful, so there is a need for careful understanding of the interaction process to ensure that it enhances professional development, rather than providing a critical and summative evaluation of a single lesson.

Result: This is often the part of the process that both observers and teachers least look forward to!

Summary

Overall, there is a tendency for teacher evaluation to be seen as the 'elephant in the room': a frequently unpleasant experience for all those involved which neither teachers, or observers, are willing to talk about in a critical way. This could be because, generally speaking, few observers or teachers receive training in the observation and feedback process, so feel that they are not qualified to debate the topic, despite their extensive experience. One of the major elements missing, as suggested by the research, is structured observation and feedback training for participants, because the task of evaluating fellow teachers is often given to more senior colleagues, who use their own experience in the classroom as a basis for the judgments made.

However, the situation is improving for beleaguered teachers and observers, as some of the key research in observation and feedback is currently being carried out by TESOL teachers and academics, who have effectively engaged with the topic and are researching teaching and learning environments on an ongoing basis. This is therefore an excellent time to engage in debate about the way that this process is carried out, in order to ensure that future teacher evaluations are viewed by all participants in a much more positive light!
References:
Darling-Hammond, L. (2013) Getting Teacher Evaluation Right: What really matters for effectiveness and improvement. New York: Teacher's College Press

Howard, A. (2008) Teachers being observed: coming to terms with classroom appraisal. In Garton, S. and Richards, K. eds. Professional Encounters in TESOL. London: Palgrave: 87-104

Howard, A.J. (2010) Teacher appraisal: the impact of observation on teachers' classroom behaviour. PhD thesis, University of Warwick.

Labov, W. (1972) Sociolinguistic Patterns. Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press

Willems, P. (2018) Exploring experienced teachers' and supervisors' perspectives on post-observation feedback sessions. MA TESOL Dissertation, University of Leeds. Winner of the British Council Masters Dissertation Award, 2019.

Wragg, E.C. (1999) An introduction to classroom observation. 2nd edn. London: Routledge

About the author

Amanda Howard has a PhD in English Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics from the University of Warwick and an MEd TESOL from the University of Leeds. She has been an English language teacher, manager, teacher trainer and subsequently a university lecturer for many years and has a wealth of experience in both TESOL and Education. She was based in the Arabian Gulf for thirty years, but also spent some of that time working for UK universities, predominantly Russell Group, which she continues to do for Leeds and Birmingham on a freelance basis.

Read Amanda's other articles in this series:
Observation: how important is this skill? Feedback: why we need to think carefully about this process

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Observation and Feedback: Why is it so important that we get them right?

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'One serious shortcoming of teacher evaluation reforms is that they have often focussed on designing instruments for observing teachers, without developing the structural elements of a sound evaluation system' (Darling-Hammond, 2013:ix)

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Who is this webinar for?

Please note the content of this webinar is not aimed at teachers, and is specifically for teacher educators who have a role in supporting the professional development of English language teachers.

What is this webinar about?

Classroom observation is a useful tool for professional development. However, there are a number of challenges in ensuring that observations are effective for this purpose and not seen as solely a means to evaluate teacher performance. Observation can be done in a variety of ways, including by using technology in some innovative ways. This session will outline some approaches to observation recently used in Rwanda and Nepal, challenges that were faced and potential solutions. The webinar will enable reflection on whether similar methods could be used in your context.

By the end of the webinar, our audience of teacher educators will have:

shared their own experiences of observing / being observed

explored the different purposes of classroom observation, with a focus on observation for professional development

reviewed some of the different approaches to classroom observations with pros and cons

been introduced to the way that technology can be used for observations, considering the challenges and some solutions to these

When?

Recorded on Tuesday 10 October 2023 12.00 - 13.00 (UK time). See what time this is in your location.

About the speaker

Amy Lightfoot leads on strategy development for edtech initiatives and research for the British Council's global portfolio of English language programmes. She has worked in language education for over 20 years, with a particular focus on language policy and education in South Asia. She has special interest and has published in the areas of multilingual education, the use of digital platforms, alternative models for teacher professional development and the evaluation of teacher competence.

Supporting material for this webinar

Pre-webinar reading

Read these reports with further ideas on teacher observation and professional development:

Video observations

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Observing teachers to support their professional development

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Who is this webinar for? Please note the content of this webinar is not aimed at teachers, and is specifically for teacher educators who have a role in supporting the professional development of English language teachers.

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Ste Sharpe has been observing teachers of English for seven years. These are the top five issues that he sees in the classroom, with practical tips for teachers who want to fix them.
Teachers might become tense and worried when an observation is coming up. As a teacher trainer, I always tell teachers that they do not need to panic. Being observed is part of developing as a teacher, and you can learn from your observer.
1- Classroom Management What is classroom management?
These five tips may help you to prepare for your observation, and to be a better teacher in every lesson.
What is the most common classroom management problem?
This is 'the way a teacher manages learning by organising and controlling what happens in the classroom,' according to Jim Scrivener in Learning Teaching (1994) Macmillan Heinemann. Examples of classroom management are interaction patterns (e.g individual/group/pair work); giving instructions for an activity; timing and pace; using the board and other resources.

Teachers sometimes judge the group's understanding of an activity based on answers from learners who are more able to speak the language. They might also interact with and receive answers mainly from them.
How do I solve this classroom management problem when I'm teaching?
When the teacher wants an answer to a question, they ask the whole class and everyone shouts out the answer. The more able or confident learners answer, leaving the rest of the class quiet and not able to participate in the lesson. In large classes, some learners sit at the back or in the corner, hiding from the action.

First, learn your learners' names. I know it sounds simple, but this is vital not only for building rapport, but also for the next tip.

Second, nominate learners to answer your questions. This will ensure that everyone has a chance to participate in the lesson. In some cultures, learners naturally give the answers in group settings. But you need to be firm and kind by saying, 'I'm sorry, Juan, I asked Reem to answer the question'. With practice, learners will become used to this.
2- Lesson Aims What are lesson aims?
Third, allow learners time to compare their answers with their partners' before doing any class feedback. This allows learners to pool their ideas and fill in any gaps they might have. It can also boost confidence and increase learner-learner interaction.
What is the most common problem with lesson aims in the English language classroom?
These are what we hope our learners will be able to do by the end of the lesson.
How do I solve this problem with lesson aims in my classroom?
Teachers tend not to make learners aware of the lesson aims at the beginning of the lesson. That can cause learners to feel confused or overwhelmed by what's going to happen in the next 60, 90 or 120 minutes.

At the beginning of the class, write the lesson aims on the board for everyone to see. I like to break the lesson into stages by making them aware of how they're going to achieve the aim.

For example, if the main aim is 'talk about our last holiday using past simple verbs', I would write:

Vocabulary - holiday activities

Grammar - forming past simple verbs

Speaking - talking about your last holiday.
3- Pronunciation What is pronunciation?
Refer back to these during the lesson to show that learners have finished one stage and are now going on to the next.

Gerald Kelly divided features of pronunciation into two main areas, in How to Teach Pronunciation (2000) Longman:
What is the most common problem with teaching pronunciation in the English language classroom?

1. phonemes (sounds), which include consonants (voiced or unvoiced), vowels (single- short or long) and diphthongs (the combination of two vowel sounds)

2. suprasegmental, which include intonation and stress (word and sentence).

Teachers I've observed have given me different reasons for not practising pronunciation in the classroom. Some think it's too difficult for learners to understand, or don't feel confident enough to deal with it in class. Some teachers think their own accent isn't appropriate to use as a model, or they lack knowledge of this area of teaching.
How do I solve this problem when teaching pronunciation?
Regardless of the reason, if teachers avoid it, learners' pronunciation errors become fossilised. I often use this resource from BBC Learning English.
'choral (x2) - individual (x2) - choral' pattern
Drilling is an effective way help learners with their pronunciation, but never drill words from the board. Learners need to hear how the word is said first, before they see how it's written. Below are some drilling techniques:

'Choral' means 'as a whole class' and 'individual' means 'a single learner'.
'sound - word - sentence' pattern
First, learners listen to you say the word / sentence / question two times. Then, you say it and the whole class repeats twice (choral x2), then you nominate two learners (individual x2), and finally you say it and the whole class repeats for a final time (choral x2).

Using the same principles as above, first drill the individual sound, then a word containing that sound, then a sentence with that word. For example:

/ɔɪ/ (x2) - lawyer (x2) - My mum's a lawyer.

Learners will practise the specific sound in each part of the drill, as well as a context for them to remember the sound in a word, and in a sentence.

Drill with a lot of energy and enthusiasm, even if it means going over the top. Learners will probably laugh at your over-excitement, but they'll remember.

Show learners 'how' to say each sound. The movement of the lips, tongue and jaw, as well as whether the sound is voiced or unvoiced, is very important. For example, when saying /aʊ/ (as in 'now'), we drop our jaw and open our mouths, then push our lips together towards the end. In some languages, there isn't much movement of the jaw, so it will often be helpful to demonstrate and practise.

To teach word stress, elicit from the learners how many syllables a word has. If they struggle, repeat the word a few times to help them. Then, ask them which syllable is stressed (or sounds louder than the others).

Once they have understood, drill the words using one of the patterns above, then write it on the board highlighting the stressed syllable. You can do this by drawing a bubble above the stressed part, underlining it or putting a square around it.

I always use a red board pen to record any features of pronunciation; that way, learners can instantly recognise that the mark refers to pronunciation.
this morning? have for breakfast this morning? did you have for breakfast this morning? What did you have for breakfast this morning? 4- Timing What is timing?
For stress in sentences or questions, have learners listen to you say it a few times and ask them to identify which words are stressed. Once they've understood, you can drill the sentence / question using one of the patterns above, or you can use 'backchaining'. This is where you start at the end of the sentence and build it up by going 'back' to the beginning. For example:
What is the most common problem with timing in the English language classroom?
This refers to the time you allocate for each stage of the lesson and what the learners and yourself do in each one. That could be giving instructions for an activity, learners completing a handout, going through the answers or giving feedback, or any other part of a lesson.
How do I solve this problem with timing in my classroom?
When correcting answers from an activity, some teachers go through them one-by-one. That can be boring for learners, and can slow down the pace of the class. It can also eat into precious lesson time allocated for speaking practice, for example.

When correcting answers to a reading or listening comprehension, controlled grammar practice or gap fill, allow learners to time to compare their answers with each other before showing the answers on the board.

If you don't have a projector or interactive whiteboard, you can put the answers onto a piece of paper and place it either on the table or on the walls around the room. This technique allows students to be more responsible for their learning. If learners have questions or have got a common answer wrong, you can focus solely on those, making better use of the class time.
5- Demonstrating and setting up activities What is demonstrating and setting up an activity?
Some learners want their teacher to go through the answers one-by-one, but this is not effective use of lesson time, nor does it have any pedagogical value. Some teachers also think that this provides learners with extra speaking practice as they read out the answers, but again this doesn't have any pedagogical value. The real speaking practice will happen when learners have to engage with others to complete a specific task.
What is the most common problem with demonstrating and setting up an activity in the English language classroom?
When giving instructions, demonstrate how the learners need to do the activity. For example, how to complete the gaps, how to complete the table for a listening activity, or how to form the questions for a speaking task.
How do I solve this problem with demonstrating and setting up an activity in my classroom?
Teachers sometimes expect learners to understand an activity through verbal instructions alone. This not only confuses learners, but also takes up precious lesson time, as the teacher then has to repeat the instructions to the whole class or to individual tables.

Jim Scrivener's rules for giving instructions, in Classroom Management Techniques (2012) Cambridge University Press, are:

use language that is at or just below the learners' level, and speak at a steady speed

use short sentences and be concise

pause after each instruction to allow processing time

give instructions for the task that you want learners to do at that time, not all at once

give a time limit

ask ICQs (instruction check questions). For example, 'What do you do first? How long do you have?'

Teachers, visit our TeachingEnglish website for more lesson plans and activities, and find out how you can become a TeachingEnglish blogger.
When you demonstrate the task, make sure that everyone can see what you're doing and how. For example, demonstrate how to write the questions by using the prompt words, or how to use some of the useful phrases for a speaking task by saying an example sentence. Doing a couple of worked examples of an exercise not only reinforces your instructions, but provides a clear visual of how to do an activity.

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English language lesson observations - five common problems and how

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Ste Sharpe has been observing teachers of English for seven years. These are the top five issues that he sees in the classroom, with practical tips for teachers who want to fix them. Teachers might become tense and worried when an observation is coming up.

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Listening to Learners - Marking and Feedback