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Operant conditioning occurs when an association is made between a particular behavior and a consequence for that behavior. This association is built upon the use of reinforcement and/or punishment to encourage or discourage behavior. Operant conditioning was first defined and studied by behavioral psychologist B.F. Skinner, who conducted several well-known operant conditioning experiments with animal subjects.

Key Takeaways: Operant Conditioning

B.F. Skinner was a behaviorist, which means he believed that psychology should be limited to the study of observable behaviors. While other behaviorists, like John B. Watson, focused on classical conditioning, Skinner was more interested in the learning that happened through operant conditioning.

He observed that in classical conditioning responses tend to be triggered by innate reflexes that occur automatically. He called this kind of behavior respondent. He distinguished respondent behavior from operant behavior. Operant behavior was the term Skinner used to describe a behavior that is reinforced by the consequences that follow it. Those consequences play an important role in whether or not a behavior is performed again.

Skinner's ideas were based on Edward Thorndike's law of effect, which stated that behavior that elicits positive consequences will probably be repeated, while behavior that elicits negative consequences will probably not be repeated. Skinner introduced the concept of reinforcement into Thorndike's ideas, specifying that behavior that is reinforced will probably be repeated (or strengthened).

To study operant conditioning, Skinner conducted experiments using a "Skinner Box," a small box that had a lever at one end that would provide food or water when pressed. An animal, like a pigeon or rat, was placed in the box where it was free to move around. Eventually the animal would press the lever and be rewarded. Skinner found that this process resulted in the animal pressing the lever more frequently. Skinner would measure learning by tracking the rate of the animal's responses when those responses were reinforced.

Reinforcement and Punishment

Through his experiments, Skinner identified the different kinds of reinforcement and punishment that encourage or discourage behavior.

Reinforcement

Reinforcement that closely follows a behavior will encourage and strengthen that behavior. There are two types of reinforcement:

Positive reinforcement occurs when a behavior results in a favorable outcome, e.g. a dog receiving a treat after obeying a command, or a student receiving a compliment from the teacher after behaving well in class. These techniques increase the likelihood that the individual will repeat the desired behavior in order to receive the reward again.

Negative reinforcement occurs when a behavior results in the removal of an unfavorable experience, e.g. an experimenter ceasing to give a monkey electric shocks when the monkey presses a certain lever. In this case, the lever-pressing behavior is reinforced because the monkey will want to remove the unfavorable electric shocks again.

In addition, Skinner identified two different kinds of reinforcers.

Primary reinforcers naturally reinforce behavior because they are innately desirable, e.g. food.

Conditioned reinforcers reinforce behavior not because they are innately desirable, but because we learn to associate them with primary reinforcers. For example, Paper money is not innately desirable, but it can be used to acquire innately desirable goods, such as food and shelter.

Punishment

Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement. When punishment follows a behavior, it discourages and weakens that behavior. There are two kinds of punishment.

Positive punishment (or punishment by application) occurs when a behavior is followed by an unfavorable outcome, e.g. a parent spanking a child after the child uses a curse word.

Negative punishment (or punishment by removal) occurs when a behavior leads to the removal of something favorable, e.g. a parent who denies a child their weekly allowance because the child has misbehaved.

Although punishment is still widely used, Skinner and many other researchers found that punishment is not always effective. Punishment can suppress a behavior for a time, but the undesired behavior tends to come back in the long run. Punishment can also have unwanted side effects. For example, a child who is punished by a teacher may become uncertain and fearful because they don't know exactly what to do to avoid future punishments.

Instead of punishment, Skinner and others suggested reinforcing desired behaviors and ignoring unwanted behaviors. Reinforcement tells an individual what behavior is desired, while punishment only tells the individual what behavior isn't desired.

Behavior Shaping

Operant conditioning can lead to increasingly complex behaviors through shaping, also referred to as the "method of approximations." Shaping happens in a step-by-step fashion as each part of a more intricate behavior is reinforced. Shaping starts by reinforcing the first part of the behavior. Once that piece of the behavior is mastered, reinforcement only happens when the second part of the behavior occurs. This pattern of reinforcement is continued until the entire behavior is mastered.

For example, when a child is taught to swim, she may initially be praised just for getting in the water. She is praised again when she learns to kick, and again when she learns specific arm strokes. Finally, she is praised for propelling herself through the water by performing a specific stroke and kicking at the same time. Through this process, an entire behavior has been shaped.

Schedules of Reinforcement

In the real world, behavior is not constantly reinforced. Skinner found that the frequency of reinforcement can impact how quickly and how successfully one learns a new behavior. He specified several reinforcement schedules, each with different timing and frequencies.

Continuous reinforcement occurs when a particular response follows each and every performance of a given behavior. Learning happens rapidly with continuous reinforcement. However, if reinforcement is stopped, the behavior will quickly decline and ultimately stop altogether, which is referred to as extinction.

Fixed-ratio schedules reward behavior after a specified number of responses. For example, a child may get a star after every fifth chore they complete. On this schedule, the response rate slows right after the reward is delivered.

Variable-ratio schedules vary the number of behaviors required to get a reward. This schedule leads to a high rate of responses and is also hard to extinguish because its variability maintains the behavior. Slot machines use this kind of reinforcement schedule.

Fixed-interval schedules provide a reward after a specific amount of time passes. Getting paid by the hour is one example of this kind of reinforcement schedule. Much like the fixed-ratio schedule, the response rate increases as the reward approaches but slows down right after the reward is received.

Variable-interval schedules vary the amount of time between rewards. For example, a child who receives an allowance at various times during the week as long as they've exhibited some positive behaviors is on a variable-interval schedule. The child will continue to exhibit positive behavior in anticipation of eventually receiving their allowance.

Examples of Operant Conditioning

If you've ever trained a pet or taught a child, you have likely used operant conditioning in your own life. Operant conditioning is still frequently used in various real-world circumstances, including in the classroom and in therapeutic settings.

For example, a teacher might reinforce students doing their homework regularly by periodically giving pop quizzes that ask questions similar to recent homework assignments. Also, if a child throws a temper tantrum to get attention, the parent can ignore the behavior and then acknowledge the child again once the tantrum has ended.

Operant conditioning is also used in behavior modification, an approach to the treatment of numerous issues in adults and children, including phobias, anxiety, bedwetting, and many others. One way behavior modification can be implemented is through a token economy, in which desired behaviors are reinforced by tokens in the form of digital badges, buttons, chips, stickers, or other objects. Eventually these tokens can be exchanged for real rewards.

While operant conditioning can explain many behaviors and is still widely used, there are several criticisms of the process. First, operant conditioning is accused of being an incomplete explanation for learning because it neglects the role of biological and cognitive elements.

In addition, operant conditioning is reliant upon an authority figure to reinforce behavior and ignores the role of curiosity and an individual's ability to make his or her own discoveries. Critics object to operant conditioning's emphasis on controlling and manipulating behavior, arguing that they can lead to authoritarian practices. Skinner believed that environments naturally control behavior, however, and that people can choose to use that knowledge for good or ill.

Finally, because Skinner's observations about operant conditioning relied on experiments with animals, he is criticized for extrapolating from his animal studies to make predictions about human behavior. Some psychologists believe this kind of generalization is flawed because humans and non-human animals are physically and cognitively different.

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What Is Operant Conditioning? Definition and Examples

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Operant conditioning occurs when an association is made between a particular behavior and a consequence for that behavior. This association is built upon the use of reinforcement and/or punishment to encourage or discourage behavior. Operant conditioning was first defined and studied by behavioral psychologist B.F.

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Cognition - How Your Mind Can Amaze and Betray You: Crash Course Psychology #15

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How to Train a Brain: Crash Course Psychology #11

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In modern medicine, the best medicine is often targeted to a specific condition or audience. So, too, is the best therapy. Each type of psychological therapy also has a list of necessary skills .

There is not a single "psychotherapy," but several subtypes. There is one-on-one therapy, group therapy, couples therapy, and a variety of theory-based approaches that all culminate in this larger umbrella term.

As a patient, what that means is your therapy will depend on your observed behaviors, feelings, goals, and specific set of circumstances that lead to a diagnosis. As a practitioner or student? That means exploring where your strengths lay and what sparks interest in an ever-growing field that continues to learn more about the most effective way to treat people living with mental illness or experiencing stress.

But let's start with the basics and what sets each type of therapy apart from its peers.

What is Psychotherapy?

In Ancient Greece, psychotherapy-though, certainly referred to in other words at the time-was heralded as "care of the soul." Today, its perception is a bit more complicated.

Since the 18 th century, societies have discussed what psychotherapy really means. To some, it is a means to conceive the self. To others, it is a pseudo-religious practice. And more still, it is a tool to better self-regulate-which, perhaps, leans closer to how it is viewed in the 21 st century.

Which is to say, it is a healing practice initiated through talk and expression.

Psychotherapy, and specifically talk therapy, is one psychology-based way to treat behavioral problems, mental health disorders, and sorting through emotional stressors common to us all-life transitions, traumatic experiences, unwanted habits. Psychotherapists today are trained to treat clinical diagnoses like depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and schizophrenia. Patients or clients see their therapist regularly for at least 50 minutes, though this varies by need.

A psychotherapist is prepared for these situational interactions through in-depth education and residency programs. They are typically doctors-MD, Ph.D., or EdS-who are studied in the theories of psychology and biological basis of some conditions, allowing them flexibility whether they treat someone with an eating disorder, a substance abuse problem, chronic pain, or anxiety.

Different Types of Psychological Therapy

Because there is such a wide range of problems that patients bring to the chair, there is no singular approach to treatment. After all, one individual may show up with binge-eating struggles while the next is experiencing the ripple effects of a heated divorce. The result is a series of therapeutic approaches that can be applied to different situations. And, as such, therapists need to be equipped not so much with a scalpel or a knife, but a multitool.

A few of the different types of therapy in psychology:

1. Psychodynamic therapy. This is a common form of talk therapy employed to highlight patterns and hidden meanings. Patients are encouraged to discuss emotions and thoughts that might reveal unconscious meaning behind behaviors, determined over a course of time that can be short- or long-term. Long-term psychoanalysis traditionally spans a period of years but is less common in today's practice. This is considered a modified form of the theories of Sigmund Freud, who was active in the late-19 th and early-20 th centuries and is popularly credited with founding psychoanalysis.

2. Cognitive behavioral therapy. Commonly referred to as CBT, this therapeutic approach acknowledges learned behaviors. Further, cognitive behavioral therapy explores how creating new patterns can eliminate problematic behaviors, like smoking or phobias. Some of these actions involve alterations in thinking-recognizing and eliminating harmful thoughts like "It's my fault" or "I'm not good enough"-and targeted responses to their occurrence, like deep-breathing techniques to mitigate the symptoms of anxiety. It's also, notably, the form of therapy where "desensitizing" occurs, which is the repeated exposure of the source of a phobia to a client to lessen adverse effects during exposure and, ultimately, eliminate the phobia. Cognitive behavioral therapy, moreover, is another common therapy applied to anxiety, which affects 40 million American adults each year.

3. Interpersonal psychotherapy. This is concerned with how relationships with others allow illness to surface. Think: a bereavement, romantic relationship problems, or the role-transition effects of a physical illness. It is typically completed in a matter of months-like cognitive behavioral therapy, it is considered time-limited-and is used to treat mood disorders. It is especially useful in patients who suffer from a drug-resistant form of depression and has become increasingly understood as a form of interdisciplinary psychotherapy in recent years.

4. Cognitive analytical therapy. This is a hybrid approach to therapy-again, a multitool over a knife or scalpel-that encourages experimental interventions to a behavioral problem while also exploring its roots through psychodynamic therapy. But, like cognitive behavioral therapy, the primary exploration is how problematic thoughts lead to the undesired behavior. This is based on the foundation of work by Aaron Beck, a psychiatrist regarded as the father of cognitive therapy and cognitive behavioral therapy.

5. Humanistic therapies. These are empowering forms of therapy that highlight the power of choices. These are therapeutic approaches that were influenced by French philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre, Austrian Jewish philosopher Martin Buber, and Danish philosopher and theologian Soren Kierkegaard. Therapies based on their principles emphasize being present, personal responsibility, and free will. The role of the therapist in this dynamic is also considered less authoritative and the therapy is more holistic.

Underpinning many of these approaches are variants to talk therapy that incorporate music and art, meant to reveal subconscious thoughts through the process of making or, in the case of music, receptive listening. Psychological therapy has evolved over time, adapting to the many needs of people around the world.

Bachelor of Arts in Psychology at National University

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SOURCES:

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5 Types of Psychological Therapy | National University

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In modern medicine, the best medicine is often targeted to a specific condition or audience. So, too, is the best therapy. Each type of psychological therapy also has a list of necessary skills . There is not a single "psychotherapy," but several subtypes.

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Explained | Music | FULL EPISODE | Netflix

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What are the endocrine system organs?

Your endocrine system consists of three types of tissues:

Endocrine glands.

Organs.

Endocrine-related tissues.

Endocrine system glands

Glands are special tissues in your body that create and release substances. Endocrine glands make and release hormones directly into your bloodstream. The endocrine glands in your body from head to toe include:

Pineal gland: This is a tiny gland in your brain that's beneath the back part of your corpus callosum. It makes and releases the hormone melatonin.

Pituitary gland: This is a small, pea-sized gland at the base of your brain below your hypothalamus. It releases eight hormones, some of which trigger other endocrine glands to release hormones.

Thyroid gland: This is a small, butterfly-shaped gland at the front of your neck under your skin. It releases hormones that help control your metabolism.

Parathyroid glands: These are four pea-sized glands that are typically behind your thyroid. Sometimes they exist along your esophagus or in your chest (ectopic parathyroid glands). They release parathyroid hormone (PTH), which controls the level of calcium in your blood.

Adrenal glands: These are small, triangle-shaped glands on top of each of your two kidneys. They release several hormones that manage bodily processes, like metabolism, blood pressure and your stress response.

You have other glands in your body that aren't endocrine glands, such as sweat glands (a type of exocrine gland).

Endocrine system organs

Certain organs in your body also make and release hormones. An organ is a group of tissues that form a structure that performs specific important functions in your body. The organs that are part of your endocrine system include:

Hypothalamus: This is a structure deep within your brain (which is an organ). It's the main link between your endocrine system and your nervous system. It makes two hormones that your pituitary gland stores and releases (oxytocin and vasopressin) and makes and releases two hormones (dopamine and somatostatin).

Pancreas: This organ is in the back of your abdomen (belly). It's both an organ and a gland and is also part of your digestive system. It releases two hormones that are essential to maintaining healthy blood sugar levels: insulin and glucagon.

Adipose tissue (body fat): This is a connective tissue that extends throughout your body. It's found under your skin (subcutaneous fat), between your internal organs (visceral fat) and in the inner cavities of bones (bone marrow adipose tissue). Adipose tissue releases many different hormones, including leptin, angiotensin and adiponectin.

Ovaries: These are small, oval-shaped glands located on either side of your uterus. They produce and store your eggs (also called ova) and make sex hormones that control your menstrual cycle and pregnancy.

Testicles (testes): These are small, round organs underneath your penis in your scrotum. They make sperm and sex hormones, particularly testosterone.

Other tissues that release hormones

Other tissues in your body release hormones. But we don't typically think of them as endocrine system tissues because they have other, more significant functions or roles. They include:

Digestive tract (stomach and small intestine): Your digestive tract is the largest endocrine-related organ system. It makes and releases several hormones that play a role in your metabolism. Examples include gastrin and ghrelin.

Kidneys: Your kidneys are two bean-shaped organs that filter your blood. They're part of your urinary system, but they also produce hormones, like erythropoietin and renin.

Liver: Your liver is part of your digestive system, but it also produces hormones, including insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) and angiotensinogen.

Heart: When your blood pressure rises, your heart releases two hormones called A-type natriuretic peptide and B-type natriuretic peptide.

Placenta: The placenta is a temporary endocrine organ that forms during pregnancy. It produces hormones that are important for maintaining a healthy pregnancy and preparing your body for labor and breastfeeding (chestfeeding).

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Your endocrine system consists of the tissues (mainly glands) that create and release hormones. Endocrine tissues include your pituitary gland, thyroid and others.

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The endocrine system regulates vital processes in the body including growth, metabolism, and sexual development. This system is comprised of several major endocrine glands. These glands secrete hormones into the blood. Once in the blood, the hormones travel through the cardiovascular system until they reach their target cells. Only cells with specific receptors for a certain hormone will be influenced by that hormone.

Hormones control various cellular activities including growth; development; reproduction; energy use and storage; and water and electrolyte balance. Both the endocrine system and the nervous system are responsible for maintaining homeostasis in the body. These systems help to maintain a constant internal environment in response to environmental changes.

The major glands of the endocrine system are the pineal gland, pituitary gland, thyroid, and parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, thymus, ovaries, and testes. There are also other organs in the body that have secondary endocrine functions. These organs include the heart, liver, and kidneys.

Pineal Gland

The pineal gland is a pine cone shaped gland of the endocrine system. It is located deep inside the brain, situated between the cerebral hemispheres. This gland produces several important hormones including melatonin. Melatonin influences sexual development and sleep-wake cycles.

The pineal gland connects the endocrine system with the nervous system in that it converts nerve signals from the sympathetic system of the peripheral nervous system into hormone signals. Pineal gland dysfunction can lead to a number of disorders including insomnia, depressive disorder, and anxiety.

Pituitary Gland

The pituitary gland is a small endocrine organ located in the middle of the base of the brain. It controls a multitude of important functions in the body. The pituitary gland is termed the " Master Gland" because it directs other organs and endocrine glands to suppress or induce hormone production. The pituitary has an anterior lobe and a posterior lobe. The anterior lobe produces several hormones, while the posterior lobe stores hormones of the hypothalamus.

Hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary gland include adrenocorticotropin hormone (ACTH), growth hormone, luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), prolactin, and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). Hormones of the posterior pituitary include oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone (ADH).

Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands

The thyroid is a dual-lobed gland located in the neck region. It secretes hormones that control metabolism, growth, heart rate, body temperature, and regulate calcium levels. Hormones secreted by the thyroid gland include thyroxin, triiodothyronine, and calcitonin.

Parathyroid glands are found within thyroid tissue located in the posterior region of the thyroid. These tiny masses vary in number, with individuals typically having two or more parathyroid glands. These glands synthesize and secrete parathyroid hormone which regulates calcium levels in the blood.

The thymus gland is located in the center of the chest cavity between the lungs and behind the breastbone. Although it is considered an endocrine gland, the thymus gland is the main organ of the lymphatic system. Its primary function is to promote the development of specific white blood cells called T-lymphocytes.

The thymus produces several hormones including thymosin which increases immune responses by promoting the production of antibodies. In addition to immune function, the thymus also stimulates the production of certain pituitary gland hormones that promote growth and sexual maturation.

Adrenal Glands

There are two adrenal glands in the body. One located atop each kidney. The adrenal gland produces hormones in both the inner medulla region and the outer cortex region of the gland. Hormones produced within the adrenal cortex region are all steroid hormones.

Adrenal cortex hormones include aldosterone, cortisol, and sex hormones. Aldosterone causes the kidneys to secrete potassium and retain water and sodium. This causes blood pressure to rise. Cortisol acts as an anti-inflammatory and helps maintain blood sugar levels and blood pressure.

Hormones of the adrenal medulla include epinephrine and norepinephrine. These are secreted in response to stimulation from sympathetic nerves, typically in response to stress.

The pancreas is a soft organ located near the stomach and small intestines. It is both an exocrine gland and an endocrine gland. The exocrine portion of the pancreas secretes digestive enzymes that are carried by a duct to the small intestines.

The endocrine segment of the pancreas consists of small clusters of cells called islets of Langerhans. These cells produce the hormones glucagon and insulin. Glucagon raises blood sugar level while insulin lowers blood sugar levels and stimulates the metabolism of glucose, protein, and fat. Disorders of the pancreas include diabetes and pancreatitis.

Gonads (Ovaries and Testes)

The endocrine system includes certain organs of the reproductive system. Male and female primary reproductive organs, called gonads, are endocrine organs. Gonads produce sex cells and also secrete reproductive hormones.

Male gonads, or testes, produce hormones called androgens. Testosterone is the main androgen secreted by the testes. The female ovaries secrete the hormones estrogen and progesterone. Gonadal hormones are responsible for the development of male and female reproductive organs and sexual characteristics.

Hormone Regulation

Endocrine system hormones are regulated in several ways. They can be regulated by other hormones, by glands and organs, by peripheral nervous system neurons, and by negative feedback mechanisms. In negative feedback, an initial stimulus provokes a response that works to reduce the stimulus. Once the response eliminates the initial stimulus, the pathway is halted.

Negative feedback is demonstrated in the regulation of blood calcium. The parathyroid gland secretes parathyroid hormone in response to low blood calcium levels. As parathyroid hormone increases blood calcium levels, calcium levels eventually return to normal. Once this happens, the parathyroid gland detects the change and stops secreting parathyroid hormone.
Sources:

"Hormones." Ohio State Diabetes Endocrinology, medicalcenter.osu.edu/patientcare/healthcare_services/diabetes_endocrine/about_diabetes/endocrinology/hormones_and_endocrine_system/Pages/index.aspx.

"Introduction to the Endocrine System | SEER Training." SEER Training:Bone Development & Growth, training.seer.cancer.gov/anatomy/endocrine/.

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The endocrine system regulates vital processes in the body including growth, metabolism, and sexual development. This system is comprised of several major endocrine glands. These glands secrete hormones into the blood. Once in the blood, the hormones travel through the cardiovascular system until they reach their target cells.

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As covered briefly in previous units, psychology can be approached from many different perspectives. Each perspective has unique methodologies to treat psychological disorders by targeting different areas.

There are generally three different types of therapies though:

1. 💊 Biomedical Therapy -drugs can be used to relieve physical or physiological pain

2. 🛋️ Eclectic Approach -uses techniques from different types of therapies

3. 🗣️ Talk Therapy -different approaches that involve talking to the client or group/family therapy

Different Perspectives

Behavioral Psychology

The basis of behavioral psychology is identifying learned behaviors and using conditioning and or reinforcement for corrections. The past may be referenced in attempts to discover when the harmful behaviors were learned.

Behavior therapy uses counter conditioning, which is basically using classical conditioning to create new conditioned responses over the ones we are trying to get rid of.

Image Courtesy of Dog Training Excellence.

Systematic Desensitization

Using this idea, Mary Jones introduced exposure therapy and, specifically, systematic desensitization. Systematic desensitization includes pairing a stimulus of fear with relaxation techniques and conditioning the subject to associate this stimulus with relaxation rather than fear.

Systematic Desensitization uses hierarchies. An example would be if you were afraid of bees 🐝 First, the therapist would figure out what is so frightening about them. Then, she or he would begin showing pictures of bees and asking the client to relax 🖼️ Doing this over and over again, the client will start to feel relaxed when viewing pictures of bees.

Once that happens, the client may be asked to imagine an anxiety-arousing scene with bees involved. If there is anxiety still felt, they would go back to the relaxation technique until the client was completely relaxed. The hierarchy approach 🔺slowly allows the client to get used to their phobia and overcome it.

Image Courtesy of Psychology4A.

Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy

When an anxiety is too difficult to recreate with systematic desensitization, therapists would use virtual reality exposure therapy, which is exactly what it sounds like 🥽 Kinda cool right?

Aversive Conditioning

Aversive conditioning includes conditioning something unpleasant with one's addiction. For example, substance use disorders are very hard to beat. If one uses aversive conditioning and begins to condition nausea with alcohol, the client will, eventually, no longer drink alcohol 🤢

Behavior Modification

Using behavior modification, therapists encourage wanted behaviors with reinforcement and discourage negative behaviors. Some use a token economy, where clients earn a "token" for doing a desired behavior, and as the tokens accumulate, the client can exchange them for a reward💰 Whether or not this is ethical is debated, but behavior modification doesn't usually help with extreme psychological disorders.

Cognitive Psychology

Unlike behavioral psychology, cognitive psychology places emphasis on current thoughts, behaviors, and other parts of cognition. Cognitive therapists believe that thinking "colors" our feelings so we must think differently and then our feelings will be normalized and positive 🙃

Therapy may consist of working through problems in both real and hypothetical situations to develop problem-solving skills. An example of cognitive therapy is Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT), which challenges people to think otherwise and enable healthier behaviors. Think of REBT as reserving irrational beliefs.

Image Courtesy of Psychodynamic Techniques.

Humanistic Psychology

Humanistic psychology provides more individualism in treatment planning than other approaches. This non-deterministic approach popularized by Carl Rogers states that humans are innately good and capable of change. Client-centered talk therapy is the primary treatment method.

Carl Rogers tries to grow the self-awareness of his patients, which in turn, grows self-acceptance 🌠 Rather than focusing on one's disorder and curing it, he focuses on helping them reach self-actualization. Unlike Freud and his psychodynamic theory, Rogers focuses on the present and the future.

Client-centered talk therapy focuses on promoting active listening in an accepting, genuine, and empathic environment. Don't forget unconditional positive regard!

Active listening is where Rogers would simply listen, repeat, restate, and clarify what the patient said. This makes it so they don't change the client's thoughts or perspectives on anything.

Remember: Rogers paraphrased, confirmed, and allowed for reflection on the client's thoughts. The more they spoke about and clarified their feelings, the more the disorder slowly disappeared.

Psychodynamic Psychology

According to psychodynamic psychology, behavior is influenced by unconscious motives through the id, superego, and ego. Freud believed that these unconscious, uncontrollable urges and motivations lead to disorders and irrational thinking. A person's childhood may be analyzed to determine the root of current problems. This approach is one of the most important ones to know for the AP exam.

He focused on four main things:

1. Bringing unconscious thoughts into awareness, providing an insight of where the disorder may be coming from. This gets rid of the disorder from the inside 💭

2. Using free association, Freud would look for mental blocks (stopping mid-thought to prevent saying something or changing the subject) which show resistance ⚠️

3. Freud would see these mental blocks and how people tried to defend themselves, and he began to interpret why these blocks existed.

4. Eventually, patient would become more open and comfortable, expressing feelings with no problem (whether they be negative or positive). When the patient did this, Freud would think they are transferring thoughts experienced in the past into the present. This then again provides insight.

Insight → Resistance? → Interpretation → Transference
Psychodynamic Theories
Psychodynamic psychologists focus on fast therapy and providing immediate relief through understanding feelings and learning about yourself. Rather than thinking about the past, they focus on current relationships.

Cognitive-Behavioral Psychology

The cognitive-behavioral approach uses concepts and theories from both the cognitive and behavioral approaches. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) is the primary type of therapy used in this approach due to its combination of perspectives.

CBT

Cognitive-behavioral therapy is one of the most widely practiced therapies and most successful. It aims to change the way someone thinks and acts (hence its name).

Those that undergo CBT learn that their negative thoughts are irrational and begin to replace it with a positive way of thinking. CBT works with anxiety disorders, mood disorders, and anorexia.

Image Courtesy of Verywell Mind.

Rather than thinking negatively and extending their depression, people with mood disorders begin to replace their thinking and redirect their energy in ways that reward them and make them feel good.

Sociocultural Psychology

Sociocultural psychology contextualizes personal development within societal expectations and norms. The psychology of an individual is heavily shaped by those factors, as well as interactions between other people and cultures.

Effectiveness of Approaches by Disorder

any disorders that lead to abnormalities in behavioral patterns or patients with a history of trauma.

disorders where cognition behind thoughts and behaviors is affected or people who cannot rationally problem solve.

interpersonal problems, mood disorders, anxiety disorders, or personality disorders.

people with a history of unresolved trauma.

a broad range of disorders throughout a variety of different cultures.

Factors of Treatment

Treatment success is not only affected by the disorder and type of treatment, but also by many other variables. Cultural stigma of mental illness, socioeconomic status, life outlook, environment, and demographic information are all capable of impacting this.

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AP Psych Unit 8 Notes: Psychological Perspectives + Treatment of Disorders Review | Fiveable

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As covered briefly in previous units, psychology can be approached from many different perspectives. Each perspective has unique methodologies to treat psychological disorders by targeting different areas.

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Types of Treatment: Psychoanalytic, Humanistic, & Behavioral (Intro Psych Tutorial #240)

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Smiling, Janice left her office for the day. Her last client, a young man named Quinn, was overjoyed that he had been able to overcome his extreme fear of public speaking. "My presentation was awesome!" he'd said. "I bet I'll get a promotion!" Unfortunately, Janice's narrow focus on Quinn's phobia had her overlook his excessive use of alcohol, and his inability to have a successful romantic relationship.

The current state-of-the-art-and-science views mental health and most psychological and psychiatric problems as biopsychosocial phenomena.

In plain language, this means that the majority of emotional difficulties stem from three interrelated factors: biological components, such as genetic predispositions, medical illnesses and metabolic conditions; psychological components, such as thoughts, moods, sensations and actions; and social components, such as interpersonal relationships and other environmental circumstances.

This is very important from a clinical standpoint because unless a therapist has this three-part perspective on the landscape of therapy, he or she will be likely to miss crucial elements that are necessary for success or lasting improvement.

This doesn't mean that all therapists must be equal parts medical doctor, psychologist, and sociologist to be truly effective, but it does mean that they need a broad and fairly comprehensive knowledge base that includes at least some medical understanding, a healthy measure of social comprehension, and a great deal of psychological training.

This also doesn't mean that all clients will invariably have significant components of all three aspects to their problems. But unless the therapist makes it a point to explore at least the possibility of biological, psychological, and social factors, critical information or important therapeutic directions may never be discovered.

Unfortunately for the consumer, many therapists lack a broad-spectrum approach when evaluating and treating their client's problems. Instead of looking at their clients with a panoramic lens, many clinicians have tunnel vision and tend to reduce human difficulties to over-simplified labels and diagnostic categories.

The fact is that therapists don't treat mere illnesses or conditions-they treat people.

At least, that's what they are supposed to do. And people are all unique and complex and require a broad based, customized therapeutic approach that considers at the very least biological, psychological, and social/environmental factors.

Indeed, in many cases there is much to address in all three of these zones (i.e., a person can have a stressful medical condition like diabetes, subscribe to a host of dysfunctional and irrational beliefs, and be in a highly conflictual marriage). In other cases, however, there may be only one area that requires therapeutic attention (e.g., a specific social skills deficit like lacking assertiveness, or a specific phobia, to name only a couple). And sometimes a person might seek therapy simply to express and explore thoughts and feelings in a safe place with a person he/she trusts and respects.

Also, some people may have a straightforward metabolic problem that masquerades as a psychological problem. For example, a person with significant hypothyroidism might present as clinically depressed, or dysthymic, but needs only a course of thyroid replacement therapy and no psychological intervention, per se.

The point is, by looking at clients through the biopsychosocial prism, no important stone will be left unturned and results can therefore be more thorough and durable.

Remember: Think well, Act well, Feel well, Be well!

Copyright Clifford N. Lazarus, Ph.D.

Reference:

Lazarus, C.N. (1991). Conventional diagnostic nomenclature versus multimodal assessment. Psychological Reports 68, 1363-1367.

Dear reader,

The advertisements contained in this post do not necessarily reflect my opinions nor are they endorsed by me.

Clifford

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Why the Best Therapy Is a Biopsychosocial Process

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Smiling, Janice left her office for the day. Her last client, a young man named Quinn, was overjoyed that he had been able to overcome his extreme fear of public speaking. "My presentation was awesome!" he'd said. "I bet I'll get a promotion!"

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Key points

Listening to certain songs can elicit specific memories.

Music helps to write autobiographical memory.

People who suffer from memory loss still demonstrate lasting memories of music.

The relationship between music and memory is powerful. Music evokes powerful emotions that then bring back memories. When we listen to a piece of music from years ago, we seem to travel back to that moment. We can feel everything as if we were there.

Our long-term memory can be divided into two distinct types, namely implicit memory and explicit memory. Explicit memory is a deliberate, conscious remembering of the past. Explicit memory involves things like textbook learning or experiential memories, things that must be consciously brought into awareness.

Implicit memories are our unconscious and automatic memories. For example, playing a musical instrument, or recalling the words to a song when someone sings the first few words. A large part of memory takes place in the unconscious mind.

Explicit memory fades in the absence of recall, while implicit memory is more enduring and may last a lifetime even in the absence of further practice. The explicit memory systems become damaged by conditions such as Alzheimer's disease.

Implicit memory can be formed by passively listening to background music. We may even develop a preference for certain music pieces simply because they have been repeatedly played in the background. This psychological phenomenon is known as the mere exposure effect. People tend to like best what is most familiar. Major labels know that frequent airplay is the key to successful record sales.

Implicit memory is a form of classical conditioning. An event, an emotion, and a song get connected through implicit memory. When a piece of music is paired with a very emotional event, it can be an effective cue to bring back the strong emotion that was felt at that moment. For example, the song "Candle in the Wind" is often associated with Princess Diana because Elton John performed it at her funeral.

Memories stimulated by music often come from certain times in our lives. Most people tend to overly report memories from when they were around 10 to 30 years old (Jakubowski et al, 2021). Psychologists have called it the "reminiscence bump." Music from the reminiscence bump period can be associated with more memories than music from other periods in your life. Our teenage years and twenties are especially important and exciting times in our lives, as we experience things for the first time. Music preference is also formed around the middle teenage years.

Music is one of the few ways to penetrate Alzheimer's brain. Those suffering from dementia can retrieve vivid memories by listening to music they heard when they were young. Despite profound memory loss and even a loss of knowledge about who they are, individuals with dementia often show a remarkable memory for music. Research shows that self-selected music can trigger positive memories they might otherwise struggle to recall (Leggieri, 2019).

In sum, music can help to unlock non-musical memories and promote communication in older adults with Alzheimer's disease. Recalling a memory is not always easy. It doesn't simply come when you want to retrieve it. However, music helps to recall all the memories that you've connected with a song. Listening to a piece of music that was played a lot during a significant life event, such as a wedding or funeral, can trigger a deeply nostalgic emotional experience.

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Listening to certain songs can elicit specific memories. Music helps to write autobiographical memory. People who suffer from memory loss still demonstrate lasting memories of music. The relationship between music and memory is powerful. Music evokes powerful emotions that then bring back memories.

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Emotion, Stress, and Health: Crash Course Psychology #26

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