# data[].attributes.body
1972 Munich Massacre and how it reflects the Palestine-Israel conflict

To what extent did partitioning of Israel-Palestine influence the 1972 Olympics through the Munich Massacre?

Legacy of the Munich Massacre during the 1972 Olympics and how it changed international relations and terrorism protocols.

How Munich Massacre changed how international events are protected

Legacy of Munich Massacre and other Olympic attacks.

# data[].attributes.body
Legacy of the Munich Massacre during the 1972 Olympics and how it changed international relations and terrorism protocols.

Body Paragraphs -

Intro

Background

Event

How it changed international relations

How it changed terrorism protocols + how it changed terrorism (media focus/theatre)

Economics?

How it changed the olympics?

Rebuttal/ Explanation/Modern-day parallels?/Conclusion 1

Conclusion

# data[].attributes.body
While the situation in Israel, Palestine, and the Middle Eastern region has been tragic for every country, nation, or territory involved, it is a reminder to the world to be grateful for what you have and for your safety. It is also a reminder that progress and equality comes through hard work and legal matters, rather than opression, violence, and terrorism.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The Olympic Games are a time when many nations come together to celebrate athleticism and mental strength. The International Olympic Committee (IOC) aims to promote sport competition and education free of any discrimination, "in a spirit of friendship, solidarity and fair play." The Olympics are a time when, supposedly, political feuds are set aside. The IOC even promotes the concept of the Olympic truce in its charter, a policy which was observed during the ancient Olympics. Despite the IOC's goals for international peace during the Games, politics have disrupted the Olympic Games throughout its history, whether through boycotts, propaganda, or protests. Here are seven instances of politics infiltrating the Olympic Games.

London 1948: Germany and Japan Banned

Germany and Japan were not invited to take part in the first Olympic Games after WWII, which took place in 1948 in London. (The Soviet Union was invited but refused to send a team.) London, like many European cities, was still recovering from the war. The city had limited time to prepare for the Games and ultimately used already-created sport and housing facilities for the competition. Wembley Stadium was the center of the events, hosting the opening ceremony, athletics events, and more. Allegedly, German prisoners of war retained in the U.K. constructed Wembley Way, a path from the London Underground to the stadium.

Melbourne 1956: Two Protests

Two protests led to fewer than 67 countries participating in the Melbourne 1956 Olympic Games. The Suez Crisis in the Middle East came to a head when Israeli brigades invaded the Sinai Peninsula in October of 1956. Egypt, Lebanon, and Iraq boycotted the Games to protest the invasion from Israel and the support of its allies. Meanwhile, the Soviet army invaded Budapest, Hungary, a few weeks before the opening ceremony. To protest this invasion, the Netherlands, Spain, and Switzerland pulled out of the Games. Hungary remained in the Games, and an intense water polo face-off ensued between its team and the U.S.S.R.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
7 Significant Political Events at the Olympic Games

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
This Encyclopedia Britannica Sports & Recreation list features seven political events at the Olympic Games.

# data[].attributes.body
September 5th

Munich(2005)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Munich 1972 Olympic Games, athletic festival held in Munich that took place August 26-September 11, 1972. The Munich Games were the 17th occurrence of the modern Olympic Games.

Tragedy struck the 1972 Olympics in Munich when eight Palestinian terrorists invaded the Olympic Village on September 5 and killed two members of the Israeli team. Nine other Israelis were held hostage as the terrorists bargained for the release of 200 Palestinian prisoners in Israel. All the hostages, five of their captors, and a West German policeman were slain in a failed rescue attempt. The tragedy brought the Games to a halt and cast a long shadow over what had been theretofore a memorably joyful Games. All competition was suspended for a day while a memorial service for the victims was conducted at the Olympic Stadium. International Olympic Committee president Avery Brundage's decision to continue the Games after the attack was widely criticized. In subsequent Olympics, increased security measures in the Olympic Villages and competition venues protected athletes but also diminished the festive and open atmosphere that is at the heart of Olympism.

More than 7,000 athletes from 122 countries participated. The track-and-field competition was marred by protests over equipment, scheduling problems, and incidents on the track. Soviet sprinter Valery Borzov won both the 100- and 200-metre runs when two of his chief competitors, using a schedule with out-of-date starting times, missed their heats. Lasse Virén of Finland captured the gold medal in the 5,000- and 10,000-metre runs.

The swimming competition starred American Mark Spitz, who won seven gold medals (three in relays), the most by any athlete in one Olympics to that time. Shane Gould of Australia won three gold medals, a silver, and a bronze in the women's swimming events.

Archery returned to the Games for the first time since 1920, with events for both men and women. Soviet gymnast Olga Korbut and weightlifter Vasily Alekseyev made their Olympic debuts in 1972. Teófilo Stevenson of Cuba won the first of his three boxing gold medals in the heavyweight division.

The Soviet Union captured the gold medal in men's basketball, upsetting the United States, which until then had never lost a game in Olympic competition. The victory was wrapped in controversy after game officials extended the contest by three seconds, allowing the Soviets the opportunity to score a final basket and win 51-50. The U.S. team, believing that the final result was unfair, did not attend the victory ceremony, refused their silver medals, and filed an official protest. Despite sworn testimony from the referee and the timekeeper that the Soviet victory was illegal, a five-man jury of appeal denied the U.S. protest.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Munich 1972 Olympic Games | Athletes, Massacre, & Facts

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Munich 1972 Olympic Games, athletic festival held in Munich that took place August 26-September 11, 1972. The Munich Games were the 17th occurrence of the modern Olympic Games. Tragedy struck the 1972 Olympics in Munich when eight Palestinian terrorists invaded the Olympic Village on September 5 and killed two members of the Israeli team.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
“This is a thriller, a page-turner, a probing look into the inner workings of the assassination squads that Israel mobilized after the Munich massacre.”–David K. Shipler, Pulitzer Prize-winning author of Arab and Jew“Gratitude is due to Mr. Klein for his painstaking . . . book, the best one could possibly hope for.”–Walter Lacquer, The Wall Street JournalAward-winning journalist Aaron J. Klein tells, for the first time, the complete story of the 1972 Munich Olympics massacre and the Israeli counterterrorism operation it spawned. With unprecedented access to Mossad agents and an unparalleled knowledge of Israeli intelligence, Klein peels back the layers of myth and misinformation that have permeated previous books, films, and magazine articles about the “shadow war” against Black September and other related terrorist groups. In this riveting account, long-held secrets are finally revealed, including who was killed and who was not, how it was done, which targets were hit and which were missed. In the end, Klein shows that the Israeli response to Munich was not simply about revenge, as is popularly believed. By illuminating the tactical and strategic purposes of the Israeli operation, Striking Back allows us to draw profoundly relevant lessons from one of the most important counterterrorism campaigns in history.“[Klein] makes it clear why [the Munich attacks were] a pivotal event in the evolution of global terrorism.” –Janet Maslin, The New York Times“A drama-filled look at the murders and Israeli reprisals.”–Billy Heller, New York Post (“Required Reading”)“A real thriller that will unnerve as much as it captivates.”–Laurence Washington, Rocky Mountain News

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
This book contextualizes the Munich massacre as one of the factors that contributed to a re-thinking of security strategies in the early 1970s, a moment in the evolution of modern governments’ fight against terrorism.In the early hours of September 5th, 1972, heavily armed members of the Palestinian group, Black September, turned terrorism into a global televisual spectacle for the first time by entering the Olympic Village, where they murdered two Israeli athletes and took nine of their teammates hostage in 31 Connollystraße. Indeed, terrorism has far-reaching implications on social, psychological, and political levels. Sporting attacks on athletic personalities or mega-events may also seriously affect the reputation of the political leadership, ultimately undermining the state’s authority. Hence, 50 years later, this book aims to gather contemporaneous scholarly work that further explores this topic from a variety of perspectives—from security, sociology, media, history, public relations, to the political, ideological, and psychological aspects of sport and terror.This volume will be of great use to scholars and researchers interested in Terrorist and Security studies, political violence, and the Arab Israeli conflict, particularly the collective memory of the Munich Massacre. The chapters in this book were first published as a special issue of Israel Affairs.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
News Tip: ‘Munich’ Likely to Promote German Reflection on Jews and Justice, Duke Professor Says | Duke Today

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Steven Spielberg’s new movie “Munich” -- about the killing of Israeli athletes at the 1972 Olympics in Munich, Germany, and Israel’s clandestine reprisals -- gives Germans an opportunity to reflect on their country’s relationship with Jews, says a Duke University professor of German culture.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Three people living in Tel Aviv, Haifa, and Jerusalem embark on distinct journeys that converge at “the file”; their efforts to admit Palestine to the Olympics in the early twentieth century. Their pivotal roles in history have been purposely omitted from official record, kept secret, or forgotten.Why? Because of the “Nazi Olympics” in 1936 in Berlin. And because of the death in 1972 of eleven Israeli Olympic athletes in the Munich Massacre.This book narrates the previously untold history of a Palestine Olympic Committee recognized before the creation of the State of Israel in 1948. It sheds light on some of the darkest events in sport history, exposing secretive relationships behind the doors of the Jerusalem YMCA, Nazi agitation, arrests, internments, and other intrigue in the complicated history of Israeli and Palestinian sport.The File breaks new ground at the intersection of sport and politics—illuminating the hope, tension, and horror of the 20s, 30s, and 40s, the creation of the State of Israel and the Palestinian refugees, and the resulting guerrilla attack at the Olympics in Munich in 1972—and reveals a handful of heroes whose impact on athletes and international sport competitions is still felt today.Consultant and researcher San Charles Haddad weaves a true and masterful tale of forgotten personalities in a conflict characterized by unabated venom, bringing hope and new questions in his wake. What will be the future of Israel and Palestine, and how might sport play a restorative role in the twenty-first century?

# data[].attributes.body
How terrorism + counterterrorism changed.

# data[].attributes.headline
How terrorism changed Olympics + the world

# data[].attributes.subject
How terrorism changed Olympics + the world

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
An attack at the 1972 Munich Olympic Games would produce one of the defining images of international terrorism. The chilling photo of a hooded man peering from a balcony in the Olympic Village would be viewed worldwide as a horrific symbol of global terrorism. The man wearing a mask with cutout slits for his eyes was a member of the Palestinian terrorist group Black September. He and his fellow terrorists had seized 11 members of the Israeli Olympic delegation and were holding them hostage. They would kill them all as the tragedy unfolded. What had been dubbed the ?happy Olympics? would be forever remembered as the Munich massacre. The Olympics would never the same.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Project MUSE - Massacre in Munich: The Olympic Terror Attacks of 1972 in Historical Perspective

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Thanks in part to Steven Spielberg’s film Munich (2005), the name of this fine Bavarian city no longer conjures up only happy images of the Hofbräuhaus and Oktoberfest—or even the much less happy connection to the infamous Munich Agreement of 1938, which made “Munich” a byword for appeasement. These days “Munich” is indelibly associated with the brutal murder of eleven Israeli Olympians during the 1972 Summer Games.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
External events and image change: The Munich crisis - ProQuest

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Explore millions of resources from scholarly journals, books, newspapers, videos and more, on the ProQuest Platform.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
From Munich to Boston, and from Theater to Social Media: The Evolutionary Landscape of World Sporting Terror

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Modern terrorist attacks are usually characterized by intentionally extreme public displays of massive violence to get wide propagation, courtesy of the media. This article uses large-scale, world…

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Munich massacre and the proliferation of counterterrorism special

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The attack on members of the Israeli team during the 1972 Olympic Games in Munich, West Germany, was a critical juncture in the understanding of terrorism as

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
When the theatre of terror emerged | 3 | The Munich Massacre | Gabriel

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
What began as the 1972 Munich Olympic Games quickly became a global media event, a live broadcast of a deadly terrorist attack that changed the future of modern

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
This study considers the ever-increasing preoccupation those countries hosting mega-sports events have with implementing security and counter-terrorism measures and the consequences of this upon th…

# data[].attributes.headline
BBC article on context (Main source for first 2 pages)

# data[].attributes.subject
BBC article on context (Main source for first 2 pages)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Israel and the Palestinians: History of the conflict explained

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The conflict between Israel and the Palestinian people is one of the longest-running in the world.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
50 years ago, the Munich Olympics massacre changed how we think about terrorism

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Gunmen held members of the Israeli team hostage, eventually killing them, during the 1972 Munich Olympics. The attack was the first time a global audience had witnessed terrorism as it happened.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Munich massacre and the proliferation of counterterrorism special operation forces

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The attack on members of the Israeli team during the 1972 Olympic Games in Munich, West Germany, was a critical juncture in the understanding of terrorism as theatre and in the fusion between count…

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The hijacking of Lufthansa Flight 615 occurred on 29 October 1972 and was aimed at the liberation of the three surviving perpetrators of the Munich massacre from a West German prison.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
COUNTERING TERRORISM: THE ISRAELI RESPONSE TO THE 1972 MUNICH OLYMPIC MASSACRE AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF INDEPENDENT COVERT ACTION TEAMS - Alexander B. Calahan

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Munich massacre - German, Israeli, Responses | Britannica

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Munich massacre - German, Israeli, Responses: Georg Sieber was dismissed by an administrative apparatus that worked to conceal evidence of its mistakes. Golda Meir authorized Operation Wrath of God, a targeted assassination campaign against Black September operatives and organizers. West Germany formed a specialized counterterrorism unit with nationwide jurisdiction.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.provider_name
EBSCO Information Services, Inc. | www.ebsco.com

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Date September 5-6, 1972
In a massacre of eleven Israeli athletes at the 1972 Olympic Games, Palestinian terrorists committed murder in the name of nationalism.
Also known as Munich Massacre

Locale Munich, West Germany

Key Figures

Yasir Arafat (1929-2004), leader of Fatah guerrillas and later chair of the Palestine Liberation Organization

Golda Meir (1898-1978), prime minister of Israel, 1969-1974

Hans-Dietrich Genscher (b. 1927), chief negotiator for the West German government during the crisis

Avery Brundage (1887-1975), president of the International Olympic Committee

Summary of Event

As soon as the state of Israel was created by the United Nations in 1948, Palestinian guerrilla organizations sought to destroy it. In 1949, the Egyptians were the first to use Palestinian guerrillas against Israel. By 1956, attacks inside Israel were also directed from Palestinian enclaves in Jordan, Syria, and Lebanon. After Israel's overwhelming victory in the Six-Day War of 1967, the Arab states were reluctant to allow the Palestinians the use of their territory to stage attacks on Israel. As a result, the Palestinians lost the ability to wage war and therefore shifted their activities to daring international acts of terrorism. Financed by Arab oil money and with the help of the Communist bloc, the Palestinians shocked the world with dramatic political assassinations and extortions. Terrorists hijacked passenger aircraft and offered hostages in exchange for freedom for their fellow fighters imprisoned in Israel and Europe. The hijackings were also used to attract world attention to the cause of obtaining a Palestinian homeland. The sequence of events that took place on September 5 and 6, 1972, was another such attempt.

In the darkness of predawn hours on September 5, eight Palestinian fedayeen (fighters for the faith) entered the Israeli residence at the Olympic Village, taking nine Israeli athletes hostage and killing two others. By the time the drama ended some twenty hours later, a German police official, five Palestinian terrorists, and eleven Israeli athletes were dead.

The body of Israeli wrestling coach Moshe Weinberg was dragged outside onto the steps leading to the Israeli compound. Wrestler Joseph Romano lay dead inside. The nine Israeli hostages were bound hand and foot in groups of three. In exchange for the Israelis, the Palestinians demanded the release of two hundred Arab prisoners in Israel, of the two leaders of a notorious German leftist terrorist gang, and of Kozo Okamoto, a Japanese terrorist who had taken part in the massacre of twenty-six people at Israel's Lod airport only four months earlier.

Billed as the "Games of Joy," the Twentieth Olympiad was a festival in which twelve thousand athletes participated. More world records were set in Munich than in any previous Olympic Games. This was the Olympics of Mark Spitz, the Jewish American swimmer who won seven gold medals for the United States. The most spectacular Olympics yet, with unprecedented worldwide media coverage, the Munich Olympiad was the ideal stage for the eight fedayeen, who simply climbed over a six-foot fence and entered the village.

The perpetrators belonged to the most extreme Palestinian terrorist group, Black September. Although Fatah, the dominant Palestinian guerrilla organization, and its leader, Yasir Arafat, denied any collusion with Black September, there is evidence to the contrary. Fatah wanted its connection to Black September to remain secret, so that its image in Europe and the United States would not be tarnished. Arafat, fully aware that Fatah had been infiltrated by Israeli intelligence, concealed the connection, allowing only the nine Central Committee members to deal with Black September matters.

Black September was created at the end of 1970 by a handful of survivors of the "ten terrible September days" of fighting against the forces of King Hussein of Jordan in a futile attempt to turn that country into a Palestinian homeland. Exiled in Lebanon, they committed themselves to total war against the Jews of the world and to the elimination of King Hussein.

Palestinian animosity toward the Arab states stemmed from the first Arab-Israeli war in 1948-1949. The Arab states, overconfident and with their own territorial designs on Palestine, were defeated by Israel, leaving some 650,000 Palestinian refugees in Arab territory. Instead of absorbing the Palestinians, the Arab states abandoned them in refugee camps and shanty towns.

One thing on which all the Arabs, including the Palestinians, agreed was that the existence of the state of Israel was the main problem. They perceived the creation of Israel as an invasion and another humiliation imposed on them by Western powers and sanctioned by the American-controlled United Nations. Moreover, Arabs believed that they were being forced to pay the price for Europe's collective guilt over the Holocaust, in which nearly six million Jews were killed.

The Jewish minority in Palestine had lived alongside the Arabs for centuries, enduring various degrees of persecution. The emergence of Zionism, the Jewish quest to return to the Jews' biblical homeland in Palestine and to re-create Israel, changed that equation. The British, who administered Palestine after World War I, tried to limit Jewish immigration to appease the Arabs. The Jews, however, could not be stopped from fleeing persecution in Europe during the 1930's and 1940's. After World War II, in their desperation to resettle some half million survivors of the Nazi death machine, the Zionist leaders chose to see Palestine as a land without people for a people without a land.

The Arab world, wanting to keep Palestine for itself, responded violently to the creation of Israel. Terrorist groups such as Black September were only part of that reaction, and the Munich Massacre was only one of a series of terrorist acts committed in the battle for Palestine.

Negotiations with the Black September terrorists in the Olympic Village continued into mid-afternoon on September 5, and were covered on worldwide television. Athletes were seen tirelessly training, and the village hot spots remained full. Most Arab countries applauded their courageous brothers. Communist bloc countries remained silent. East Germany's residences, adjacent to the Israeli compound, refused to evacuate and blamed the whole affair on Israel.

Israeli prime minister Golda Meir refused to capitulate to the Palestinians, leaving the matter to be resolved by the West German authorities. Israel once again affirmed its conviction that giving in to terrorism leads to more terrorism. The fedayeen, suspicious of German claims that the Israeli parliament was still debating, pressed negotiators for an aircraft to fly them and their hostages to Cairo. Afraid of losing their nerve and stamina, the terrorists decided to retreat to friendlier grounds.

Hans-Dietrich Genscher, who later became the foreign minister of unified Germany, took over the negotiations. He offered the terrorists unlimited sums of money in exchange for the Israelis. When that failed, he offered himself and other West German officials as hostages instead of the athletes but was again rebuffed. Realizing that time was running out, West German chancellor Willy Brandt telephoned the Egyptians, but neither Anwar el-Sadat nor his foreign minister was available in Cairo.

The International Olympic Committee (IOC), the governing body of the Olympiad, was faced with the prospect of stopping the Games. Avery Brundage, the controversial president of the IOC, was bent on continuing the Games and made decisions on his own, without the consent of the Executive Board.

The terrorists set their final deadline for 9:00 p.m. on September 5. While a crowd watched and television cameras zoomed, the eight fedayeen and nine Israelis walked out close together, with the athletes at gunpoint. The group was driven by bus to two helicopters, which flew them to an airbase outside Munich, where a fueled 707 waited. Five sharpshooters were also waiting at the airport. After the terrorists inspected the jetliner, it became evident to the Germans that the fedayeen sensed a trap. With the lives of the two German helicopter pilots also in jeopardy, the snipers opened fire. During the firefight, one of the terrorists tossed a grenade into a helicopter, incinerating five athletes. The other four Israelis were machine-gunned while sitting, tied up, in the second helicopter.

Significance

A silent and troubled audience of eighty thousand filled the Olympic Stadium for a hastily arranged memorial service the following morning. For the first time in Olympic history, the podium was draped in black and the flags of 122 nations flew at half-staff. The representatives of the Arab countries were absent. The delegations from the Soviet Union, East Germany, Poland, and Yugoslavia also did not attend. The surviving Israeli athletes were on the stand next to eleven empty chairs honoring their dead teammates.

Only days later, on the eve of the Hebrew New Year, Israel retaliated with air strikes inside Syria and Lebanon, inflicting sixty-six deaths and wounding dozens, according to Arab sources. In what was the heaviest fighting since the 1967 war, Israeli ground troops broke through the Lebanese border to battle the guerrillas. The harsh Israeli response threatened the fragile peace in the Middle East as Syria quickly mobilized and deployed its forces at the frontier.

Although the Munich Massacre was not the first Black September attack on Israel, it marked a turning point in the way Israel would react to the challenge of combating terrorism. To prevent attacks, all Israeli embassies became fortresses. Walls were reinforced with concrete capable of withstanding an all-out terrorist attack. The latest security systems were installed, and state-of-the-art screening devices were implemented. The embassies were stocked with large amounts of weapons and ammunition. Israeli diplomats carried pistols, and most foreign governments assisted with additional protection and intelligence.

Three top Israeli security officials were fired. Prime Minister Golda Meir called in Major General Aharon Yariv to launch an antiterrorist war to wipe out Black September, Fatah, and their accomplices, whom the Israelis considered to be one and the same. Assassination squads were sent to hunt down and kill Black September operatives in Europe and elsewhere. The extended covert operation became known as Operation Wrath of God.

The terrorists succeeded in forcing the world to take note of their plight. In the Arab view, the operation was a supreme success despite the deaths of the five fedayeen. Moreover, Arafat could mingle with diplomatic circles pretending to have no knowledge of, or connections to, Black September.

Libya requested the bodies of the five dead commandos, and the funeral there attracted tens of thousands of mourners. All Arab ambassadors assigned to Tripoli were present. The three surviving fedayeen were set free the following month, when the hijackers of Lufthansa 727 demanded their release. Black September threatened to blow up Lufthansa jetliners until the commandos were let go, and the West Germans capitulated.

Immediately after the Munich slayings, the problem of terrorism was placed on the agenda of the General Assembly of the United Nations. The United States called for an international pact against terrorism. Another resolution proposed the condemnation of terrorism followed by an international conference. Believing that the resolutions were directed against them, the Arab states supported a third resolution to defeat the other two, blaming the West for causing terrorism.

The Olympic Games were canceled once during World War I and twice during World War II. In 1980, the United States boycotted the Moscow Games, protesting the invasion of Afghanistan. In 1984, the Soviet Union boycotted the Los Angeles Games in kind. In 1972, in Munich, the polarization caused by the Arab-Israeli conflict and East-West rivalry resulted in the paralysis that allowed the tragedy to occur. Willi Daume, president of the organizing committee for the Games, summed up the general feeling at the memorial service for the Israelis: "Even in the world of crime, there are still some taboos, a final limit of dehumanization beyond which one dares not go. This limit was crossed by those guilty of the attack on the Olympic Village."

Bibliography

Dobson, Christopher. Black September: Its Short, Violent History. New York: Macmillan, 1974. A complete account of the beginning and the end of Black September. Dobson offers a historical account and a philosophical explanation of the activities of this group. Attempts to show how cruel and counterproductive Arab terrorism is. Includes an index.

Groussard, Serge. The Blood of Israel: The Massacre of the Israeli Athletes, the Olympics, 1972. Translated by Harold J. Salemson. New York: William Morrow, 1975. Provides an enormously detailed chronological account of this tragic event. Includes brief biographies of the athletes who were killed and of the various personalities involved. Supplemented by appendixes and maps of the Olympic Village and Olympic Park.

Kamenka, Eugene, and Alice Erh-Soon, eds. Human Rights: Ideas and Ideologies. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1978. Composed of nine essays by nine separate authors. Discusses the origin of human rights philosophies; their strengthening and eventual transformation; human rights and international law; Marxism, socialism, and human rights; and individual rights against group rights. Includes a list of suggested reading and an index.

Klein, Aaron J. Striking Back: The 1972 Munich Olympics Massacre and Israel's Deadly Response. New York: Random House, 2005. Full account of the massacre and Israel's sustained "shadow war" that followed.

Parry, Albert. Terrorism: From Robespierre to Arafat. New York: Vanguard Press, 1978. Discusses the nature of terrorism, examines terrorism in history and in modern times, and explores the potential for destruction that new technology offers terrorists. Supplemented by an appendix, a bibliography, notes, and an index.

Reeve, Simon. One Day in September: The Full Story of the 1972 Munich Olympics Massacre and the Israeli Revenge Operation "Wrath of God." New York: Arcade, 2000. Arab-Israeli relations are examined in this gripping account of the hostage crisis.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Arab Terrorists Murder Israelis at Munich Olympics | EBSCO

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Munich Massacre, which occurred during the 1972 Olympic Games, is a significant event in the history of international terrorism and the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. On September 5, eight members of the Palestinian terrorist group Black September infiltrated the Olympic Village, taking nine Israeli athletes hostage and killing two others.

# data[].attributes.headline
Sec State rogers to Nixon (policy on terrorism

# data[].attributes.subject
Sec State rogers to Nixon (policy on terrorism

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Historical Documents - Office of the Historian

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
1972 Munich Olympics thriller shows nail-biting decisions in ABC Sports control room

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Director Tim Fehlbaum’s new film September 5 is centered on how the 1972 Munich Olympics massacre changed the way media outlets cover major global stories, especially those involving acts of terror.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
United Nations Resolutions Against International Terrorism | Office of Justice Programs

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Every time a World Cup is about to kick-off, the Germans are somehow said to be among the favourites. While some teams were great, many German or West German teams were simply lucky: the team of in 1982 that beat France on penalties in a semi-final which was overshadowed by Toni Schumacher's criminal assault on Battiston. The team in South Korea and Japan 20 years later were at best plucky but bloody minded enough to reach another final, the seventh in total. Ever since being re-admitted onto world football's grandest stage in 1950, West Germany managed to secure a semi-final place in all tournaments but 4: 1962, 1978, 1994 and 1998. This is an impressive record. Add to that 3 victories, several runners-up and third place finishes and one has to consider Germany as the most consistent team in World Cup history since 1950. The other Germany, the GDR meanwhile often played well in friendlies but when matters became serious, the East Germans bottled it. Always. Except once: 1974.

Back in the Fold

The 1970s saw both Germanys become fully acknowledged members of the United Nations; then the ultimate recognition as a nation state - today recognition by FIFA would be the ultimate goal for young nation states. The World Cup 1974, staged in West Germany was the second event held in West Germany since 1945 and further confirmed that the country was now fully re-admitted into the sporting realm. The success of 1954 marked their return with aplomb, the Olympics in 1972, gave them the chance to show that Germans can be joyful people and know how to throw a party. Alas, it was not to be as the Games were overshadowed by the kidnapping of Israeli athletes on September 5. This tragedy had reverberations for the World Cup 2 years later as security measures were increased drastically; in fact security for the World Cup and the Olympic Games remained the same until 9/11.

The tournament in West Germany is linked with 2 things. Firstly, the tournament became a money machine; the era of hyper-commercialization of football had begun. Ticket sales no longer provided the largest income for the organizers. This revenue came from television rights and advertising. The election of João Havelange as FIFA president on the eve of the tournament marked the end of an era and subsequently, the event became ever more globalized and commercialized. The result we see today as FIFA are unpopular as pestilence and the tournament is surrounded in protest as in Brazil. Secondly, the 1974 World Cup will always be connected with Holland, largely thanks to their interpretation of Total Football. While it is not attempted here to go into deeper detail of this philosophy, it should be stated that besides Ajax' sweeping success in the European Cup between 1971 and 1973, Bayern München and the West German team played a similar brand and were equally successful. They peaked in 1972 when a strong England side were beaten 3-1 at Wembley in the European Nations Cup quarter-final. It was the best German team ever to play according to Uli Hesse.[i] After the Soviet Union were beaten in the final, the French sports daily L'Equipe was inspired to write about 'football from the year 2000' and the Italian Corriere dello Sport enthused about the performance being full of 'imagination and genius.' Bayern were incredibly lucky in their 3 successive European Cup victories between 1974 and 1976.

Yet, 1974 was not 1972 and the West German team looked very different for the World Cup. The most obvious change was the inclusion of Wolfgang Overath instead of Günter Netzer, whose runs from deep in midfield simply were too much of England in 1972. Glanville described Netzer as a 'sparkling star' who made 'thrilling runs with his blond hair flying, curling diabolic free kicks and distributing sweeping passes.' The Cologne play maker Overath appeared to be more reliable for Beckenbauer and thus Netzer was side lined. Further, since his transfer to Real, Netzer was no longer considered for the national team as the DFB's selection policy saw only domestic players fit for the national team. Netzer did play during the World Cup but his role was marginal to say the best.

German Angst

Moreover, the mood had changed dramatically in West Germany. In the spring of 1972, the tragic events of Munich in September 1972 were still unthinkable and the team played breath-taking football. The football played was a sporting symbol of a liberalized German society. Now, 2 years on fear and anxiety ruled the West German team in their training camp near Hamburg. In response to the Red Army Faction's continuing terrorism in the FRG and in the wake of the attack on the Munich Games, security was on maximum. The West German base camp in Malente, to the north of Hamburg resembled a fortress. It created an atmosphere that was set to explode. It went off at the worst possible time: just before the tournament was about to kick off. The reason: money. The bonus offered by the German FA was considered an offence and the squad threatened to leave if their demands were not met. The DFB offered DM30000 per man should they win the World Cup; the players wanted DM100000. Franz Beckenbauer, the captain led the negotiations and succeeded. He convinced all players to stay and to play. The dispute was settled and the squad accepted the DFB's offer of DM70000. The victim of all this was Helmut Schön, the grand seigneur of German football. He was a nervous wreck as a result. Schön simply was out of touch with this group of players who knew nothing but professional football and thus saw themselves as eleven businessmen on the pitch. The mutiny - later called 'Malente Night' - resulted in a power shift: no longer had the DFB any decisive power over the team. The Kaiser was now in charge.

This bad off-pitch form continued during the first 2 games against Chile and Australia respectively. Although 2 wins were recorded which should have calmed nerves of the media and the public, the latter were not satisfied. Chile were beaten narrowly, 1-0; the Australians 3-0 but the team simply did not convince. So much so that Beckenbauer showed his disgust with the supporters that he spat in their direction after the game. Bad manners indeed. Although Beckenbauer later apologized and said he overreacted, there was a point to be made here. The pressure was relentless. The development of German football since the late 1960s saw to that. The expectations were high due to the success of 1972. Nothing but a triumph was expected, almost demanded. When the team did not play convincingly, it was natural that there was reaction and a counter-reaction.

The Long Way West for East Germany

With the focus of the West German press on Beckenbauer and Müller, the East German representatives were less scrutinized and enjoyed their time in the West. Despite being neighbours, it has been a long way to West Germany for the East. The performances of the hammer and sickle team were anything but overwhelming in the past. Not once had the socialist version of Germany featured at a major tournament. They performed reasonably well at the Olympic Games, the World Cup for those countries under socialist or communist rule. Yet, in the qualifications for the World Cup or only the European Championships, they fell short and missed out. Mostly, they did so narrowly.

East Germany's qualification group saw them pitched against Romania, Albania and Finland. An interesting draw it was in which Romania were seen as favourites, while the others were considered to take points off each other. The first surprise was that Finland denied Romania to defeat them. Romania took the lead in Helsinki and relied on defending it and duly conceded a goal. The draw was the first surprise in this group. Thus, when the Scandinavians arrived in Dresden for the first game against the GDR, they arrived as leaders of their group. The first half against the GDR seemed to confirm Finland's superb form and East Germany's lack of nerves when it matters. A goal after the break scored by local boy Hansi Kreischer however, changed everything. The game finished 5-0. Albania, the next opponent demanded a lot of respect in either Germany as the West failed to beat them in 1968 and thus were eliminated from the tournament. Albania played a very defensive game in Magdeburg; 2 late goals from Streich and Sparwasser finally secured a 2-0 win. The top game against Romania was lost due an individual error by reserve keeper Blochwitz whose long throw fell to a Romanian attacker who instantly lobbed the ball into an empty net. Half-way through the qualification everything was still possible.

In the return leg in Finland, the hosts were beaten 5-1. The return game against Romania in front of 95000 supporters was an intensely fought game. The GDR were in control and Romania simply defended, knowing that a draw would see them through. Just before half-time the Swiss referee awarded an indirect free kick in the penalty area just to the right of the penalty spot. Ducke, a prolific centre forward back-heeled the ball to Bransch, the captain who unleashed a fierce shot that was deflected: 1-0. The second goal after 61 minutes was similar as Bransch scored another from a free kick. However, the East Germans were not through yet but they made it clear that they were not intend to lie down and die easily. It was down to the last game vs. Albania to secure qualification. A victory was a must as Romania hammered Finland 9-0. The GDR beat Albania 4-1 and won their qualification group with a point advantage over Romania.

Hamburg, 22 June 1974

Jürgen Sparwasser was The game in Hamburg to this day remains the only match between the 2 German states in a tournament. From kick-off the West took the initiative and looked more decisive in their actions. The Eastern team, defending and attempting to create own chances, remained calm. The longer the game lasted, the more open the contest became. After half an hour the GDR had a clear cut chance. After a throw-in from the right, Lauck tanked himself through towards the goal line. His cross found Kreische, who only needed to poke the ball into an empty net, but he missed. Had he scored, there would today be no talk of a Sparwasser goal. Shortly after the West German Müller hit the post. During the second half it appeared as though the team of Beckenbauer have lost their nerves as Lauck increasingly commanded the midfield, thus eliminating Overath and later Netzer.

The crucial moment came after 77 minutes. A West German attack was stopped by the East German keeper Jürgen Croy whose throw found Erich Hamann around 30 metres from goal on the right. Hamann saw plenty of space ahead of him with no one attacking him. So he marched forward. Just 10 metres into the West German half he saw Jürgen Sparwasser sprinting towards the box and crossed. A perfect cross which bounced inside the D, it hit Sparwasser's nose which helped to wrong foot Vogts and Höttges. He was through on goal, Maier came off his line, lunged towards the ball but Sparwasser lobed the ball into the net and turned away to celebrate. East Germany had beaten the favourites. Moreover, they even managed to win the group alas only to be drawn in a second group with Brazil, Argentina and Holland.

We against Us was the subheading of this game later in history. It left the West Germans with a major task at hand to rescue their World Cup campaign about which there was no doubt that they had to win it, as it was played on home soil. As it turned out, losing to the GDR meant Helmut Schön's team had an easier group to play in, avoiding the favourites. Just like in 1954 the West Germans were beaten in the group stages but turned out to be winners at the end. In 1954 Herberger's men were at the receiving end of a 8-3 shellacking by Hungary, 20 years later it was their little eastern neighbour who beat them. In the end the GDR finished a respectable third in their group behind Holland and Brazil but ahead of Argentina while the FRG topped their group after beating Poland, Sweden and Yugoslavia.

Poland beat Brazil in the third place play-off, reaching their best result at a World Cup and underlining the strength of Eastern European teams in general at the time while the final of Munich has become part of Dutch-German football folklore.quoted once saying that if on his tombstone one wrote Hamburg, 22 June 1974 everybody would know who was buried there. At least everybody in Germany would surely know that, and more so in former East Germany. In their sole appearance at a World Cup the GDR were drawn with West Germany, Australia and Chile in Group A. At the draw in December the room was quiet for a moment when the air suddenly was filled with tension only to be cleared by applause.

Around the Match

This goal has become one of the most famous in German football history, alongside Hurst's 3rd goal in 1966. Helmut Rahn's goal in the 1954 final against Hungary completes this interesting collective memory of goals.

Jürgen Sparwasser of all people later declared that the party officials charged the game. The truth lies somewhere in between. The game had become meaningless after Chile and Australia drew their final group match 0-0 and thus ensured that both German states were through before a ball was kicked. He admitted that hearing both national anthems played ahead of the game gave him and his colleagues goosebumps. East Germany underlined the progress of their sports policy successfully and were keen to prove that this success was not a one-off. Their five minutes of fame came just 2 years later when a similar team won the Olympic Gold medal in Montreal. Other footballing successes were not to come. The development stagnated towards the 1980s. For Sparwasser, the goal had an unpleasant side effect. He was treated almost like a traitor and was allegedly bribed with a house, a car and of course loads of money. Both he denied and said that he received 2000 East Marks and 2500 Deutsch Marks, like all his team mates. He later defected to the West where he still lives.

For Helmut Schön, the game carried great importance. He originated from Dresden but moved to West Berlin in 1950. It would have been a cruel blow had Kreische scored from close range: Schön was a very good friend with the father of Hansi Kreische. Further, he hoped his team would get their act together and start playing free from any mental brake. Unfortunately, this did not happen and his mood stalled.

The West German press saw no other possibility than a West German win and duly BILD argued why. After the match however, the paper's front page read: 'Not like this, Mr. Schön!' Quite a contrast was delivered by the East German papers. As the party and thus the media considered the East too weak to be a match for the West, no big pre-game propaganda was spread. Instead, the press kept calm. More surprisingly, even after the game no paper used the result for political purposes. The result came as a surprise for them.

The game has been reduced to the moment when Sparwasser scored in the 78th minute and was and still is inextricably linked with his name. It was not Sparwasser vs. the West, it was a game between 2 teams of the same people with an unexpected outcome. Jokingly, Sparwasser underlined this idea by stating that if his tomb stone was engraved with Hamburg, June 22 1974, everyone would know who would be buried underneath. This would diminish the effort of the other 10 on the pitch wearing a blue shirt this evening in what was undoubtedly East Germany's most successful year in its 40 year history.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Every time a World Cup is about to kick-off, the Germans are somehow said to be among the favourites. While some teams were great, many German or West German teams were simply lucky: the team of i...

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
AIPAC - American Recognition of Palestinian Statehood Today Would Reward Terror and Undermine Peace

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
American recognition of a Palestinian state at this moment — in the wake of the October 7 massacre — would reward terror and disincentivize negotiations while achieving nothing tangible for ordinary Palestinians. The message to the Palestinian public would be clear: Terrorism and violence pay.

# data[].attributes.body
In a perfect world, Palestine and Israel would have reached an agreement long ago that would have equally settled the two groups into separate nations. Unfortunately, the world is not perfect, and both nations are left battling each other for territory to which they both have historical ties to.

Both the Palestinian and Israeli people have a tragic and long history of oppression, violence, and instability,

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Historical Documents - Office of the Historian

# data[].attributes.headline
NYT Soviets shifted inital anti terorist position to aid itself in cold war campaign and support anti west resolution

# data[].attributes.subject
NYT Soviets shifted inital anti terorist position to aid itself in cold war campaign and support anti west resolution

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
After dozens of skyjackings, after the letter bombs, after the Munich massacre, the proposal before the United Nations seemed modest enough: to organize an international conference that would draw up…

# data[].attributes.headline
1976 Olympics source (need to add to works cited)

# data[].attributes.subject
1976 Olympics source (need to add to works cited)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Montreal 1976: A New Approach to Olympic Games Security

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Despite fears of international terrorism, the Olympic Games Montreal 1976 passed off without any incidents of note. The large-scale security operation mounted by the Canadian authorities generated learnings that were used for subsequent Games.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The online portal to the records held at the National Archives, and information about those records.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
There are a lot of resources listed here and even more within the library's webpages. Don't get overwhelmed! You do not need to search them all. The resources in this guide are here to help you find material that is more tailored to the topics of this course. They may or may not be a perfect fit for your unique research needs. Try searching in a few new spots for each research project you do, stretch out of your comfort zone a little at a time, and always ask for help from a librarian if you have questions.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
LibGuides: HIST 220: The Olympic Games: A Global History: Digital Collections

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
LibGuides: HIST 220: The Olympic Games: A Global History: Digital Collections

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Research Guides: UN General Assembly Resolutions Tables: 27th Session (1972-1973)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Research Guides: UN General Assembly Resolutions Tables: 27th Session (1972-1973)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Historical Documents - Office of the Historian

# data[].attributes.body
Blumenau

Doubek

Tf book

BBC

Rogers

Gromyko

Anderson

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The KGB’s Middle East Files: Palestinians in the service of Mother Russia - Middle East Transparent

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Secret KGB documents reveal just how deeply involved the Soviet Union was in the spilling of Israeli blood. The Russian spy agency provided Palestinian terror organizations with funds, training and arms, running agents like ‘Krotov’ - aka Mahmoud Abbas, ‘Aref’ - or Yasser Arafat, and ‘Nationalist,’ who was behind several plane hijackings long before 9/11.