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Photojournalist paraglides over a serene landscape.

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The Silk Road wasn't a road made of silk, but an important trade route that connected the ancient world. The route stretched for thousands of miles, linking Asia with Europe. Traders and travelers began using the Silk Road more than 2,000 years ago. It remained in use until the late Middle Ages.

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc./Kenny Chmielewski

So why was this famous route called the Silk Road? Because silk was such a valuable product in ancient times, the route along which it was transported came to be known by that name. Silk came westward to Europe. Other prized goods went east to China. The Silk Road also had branches that connected with routes in India.

The Silk Road was much more than a bustling trade route, however. Ideas as well as goods were carried over the route. People from different cultures met, shared their knowledge and traditions, and learned about one another.

Read on to hear more about the Silk Road and its fascinating history! In this article, you'll learn about:

The origins of the Silk Road

The vast territory covered by the Silk Road and its western connections

The famous adventurer Marco Polo and his journey along the road

Why use of the Silk Road declined

How the Silk Road helped shape the world we know today

Before the era of modern transportation, traders and other people journeyed together in groups called caravans when crossing deserts or other hostile regions. This was to help ensure their safety. Camels were often used by these groups to carry heavy loads. Beginning in the 2nd century bc, caravans traveled the path of the Silk Road. Trade began to flourish along the route. Eventually, China developed trade relations with the Roman Empire by using the Silk Road.

The easternmost edge of the Silk Road began at Xi'an, China, in the east-central portion of the country. The 4,000-mile (6,400-kilometer) road crossed mountains and deserts before reaching the Mediterranean Sea in the West. The main route basically followed the Great Wall of China into the area of northwestern China. It then bypassed the Takla Makan Desert, climbed the Pamir Mountains, and crossed Afghanistan. The route continued west through the modern-day countries of Iran, Iraq, Syria, and Turkey. The merchandise being transported could then be shipped across the Mediterranean Sea to Rome. At the height of the Silk Road trade in ad 200, this route and its western connections over Roman lands made up the longest road on Earth.

Caravans transported goods between many towns and trading centers along the Silk Road. Few people traveled the entire route, however. Instead, goods were carried in stages by different groups. After traders transported their goods along part of the route, they passed the merchandise on to others for the next leg of the journey.

Besides fine Chinese silk, what other items did these ancient traders carry? Here are just a few examples:

Tea, porcelain, spices, and precious stones were among the valuable goods sent to Europe from Asia.

Wool, gold, silver, and glassware were some of the items carried east along the route.

The Silk Road also served as an important means of cultural exchange. As people from different cultures and places met during their journey, they shared their various traditions, customs, and beliefs. For example, several major religions spread by way of the Silk Road. By the beginning of the 1st century ad Buddhism had followed the route from India into Central Asia and China. Later, Christianity and Islam expanded westward along the Silk Road from the Middle East.

Roman control of territory in Asia and the Mediterranean area gradually decreased. As this occurred, travel on the Silk Road became less safe, and traffic declined. The Mongol Empire revived the route for a while, in the 13th and 14th centuries. During that time the Italian merchant and adventurer Marco Polo used the Silk Road to travel to Cathay (northern China). Polo would spend many years in China and write a book about his experiences. His book helped Europeans learn about Asian peoples and goods.

In part because of Polo's accounts of the riches of Asia, Europeans became eager to find sea routes to the East. The search for new trade routes led to a major period of exploration throughout the world. Sea routes to Asia were discovered as a safer and faster means of trade than the overland route. In the 1400s the Silk Road fell into disuse.

Although the days of the Silk Road are long past, its influence can still be seen. Many modern-day cities trace their history back to the Silk Road. A number of towns or stops along the old route developed into major urban centers with diverse cultures and populations.

Many efforts have been made to preserve what remains of the Silk Road. For example, certain areas and structures along the route have been declared UNESCO World Heritage sites. Such sites are special places that have been set aside to be protected.

In recent years the United Nations has made plans for a highway system and railroad across Asia. The Silk Road served as the inspiration for these projects. The road also inspired famed cellist Yo-Yo Ma to start an arts organization known as Silkroad. The organization explores cultural traditions along the route and helps artists from around the world to meet and work together.

For articles related to the Silk Road, check out the following!

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The Silk Road wasn't a road made of silk, but an important trade route that connected the ancient world. The route stretched for thousands of miles, linking Asia with Europe....

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Search | Everything | Smithsonian Learning Lab

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This resource consists of two different types of looking, thinking, and learning activities. These activities call on your observation and thinking skills as you closely examine selected objects from Ancient China. The activities will explore the themes of daily life, trade, religion, and writing.

LOOK AT THIS!

Look at This activities provide close-up views with guiding questions and background information. What will you learn about what the ancient Chinese valued?

SURPRISE ME!

Surprise Me investigations offer pop-up hot spots on selected objects to reveal intriguing information about Chinese daily life and religion.

Geography

China covers an exceptionally large area of land (over 3 million square miles) on the continent of Asia and is the third largest country on Earth. It is home to the Great Wall, the largest man-made structure on Earth. The climate of ancient China included four seasons, much like we have in North America. China has an immense coastline that is bordered by the Yellow Sea, East China Sea, and the South China Sea. The terrain of China is quite diverse and consists of the eastern alluvial plains , which are fairly flat landforms created by sediment deposited over a long period of time by rivers , the northern grasslands, the southern forest and hill regions, and the mountains and deserts of the west. In the west lies the formidable mountain ranges of the Kunlan, Tien Shan, and the Himalayas. Mount Everest is part of the Himalayas and is the highest peak in the world. To the north and west we also find vast deserts, such as the Gobi , Asia's largest desert, and the Taklimakan.

These natural borders, as well as the Great Wall, kept ancient China isolated from the rest of Eurasia and protected it from foreign invaders that might want to take land and resources. These borders also meant that the Chinese would focus on developing an internal culture and would not seek external expansion for centuries.

Ancient Chinese civilization developed thousands of years ago along two vital river systems, the Huang He River in the northeast, and the Yangtze River in the south. Communities were built around these rivers because of their abundance of natural resources , which are resources that come from the earth. Rich fertile soil allowed for farming and encouraged irrigation to help crops grow. Fishing and hunting provided an ample food supply, and transportation by boat allowed people to travel for trade and to visit other settlements. And, of course, there was lots of water to drink!

Ancient Chinese civilization first began along the Huang He River . This region is where the earliest Chinese dynasties were based. The river starts in the mountains of Tibet and flows almost 3,000 miles to the Yellow Sea. It is nicknamed the Yellow River because of its yellow silt. This type of soil was ideal for growing wheat and millet. This region featured a cooler, drier climate, and flatter land than in southern China. Another nickname for the river is The Great Sorrow because it often floods, causing devastating destruction and death to millions of people over the centuries.

The Yangtze River originates in the Tibetan Plateau and flows almost 4,000 miles to the East China Sea. It is nicknamed the Long River and is the third largest river in the world (after the Nile and the Amazon) . As time passed the Chinese people spread southward to the Yangtze River area. This region had a hot climate, with lots of rainfall and a hillier terrain than in the north. The fertile soil in this area made it ideal for growing rice and is where the ancient Chinese developed the method of terrace farming on hillsides.

Early Life/Burial Practices

The Shang dynasty (1600-1045 BC) began around 1600 BC along the Huang Ye River floodplains and is considered to be the first dynasty based on archaeological evidence. The Shang dynasty had many impressive achievements, among them the military use of the horse-drawn chariot and the development of large cities. These cities were home to royal palaces and temples, but also included industrial and craft production zones, where miners, stone and jade carvers, potters, bronze workers, and other artisans lived and worked. During the time of the Shang, the production and quality of bronze objects grew dramatically. Bronze items such as decorated cups, goblets, cauldrons and bells were used in sacrificial rituals to nature gods and royal ancestors and were also used in burials.The Shang believed in an afterlife and practiced ancestor worship, so it was thought that items from daily life should be buried with the dead. Archaeologists have discovered dozens of immense tombs of Shang kings and nobility that were filled with hundreds of exquisite bronze objects, as well as the skeletons of human beings and animals.

Because the Chinese believed in an afterlife, careful attention was taken when the dead were buried. They were buried not only with items they would need, but also with items of importance, such as objects made of bronze and precious stones like jade.

An example of one such burial item from the Shang dynasty is the following small jade pendant.

LOOK AT THIS! Pendant in Shape of Silkworm with Dragon Head

Pendant in Shape of Silkworm with Dragon Head, Chinese, Shang Dynasty, 13th-11th century BC, j ade (nephrite), Adolph D. and Wilkins C. Williams Fund, 59.17.7

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This resource consists of two different types of looking, thinking, and learning activities. These activities call on your observation and thinking skills as you closely examine selected objects from Ancient China. The activities will explore the themes of daily life, trade, religion, and writing. LOOK AT THIS!

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Chinese Calligraphy

Calligraphy, or the art of writing, was historically considered the highest visual art form in China. To study and develop their skills, students of calligraphy would copy the works of well-known practitioners, using brushes, ink, inkstone, water, and paper to write and paint.

Chinese calligraphy is practiced with what are called the Four Treasures of the Study: brush, paper, ink, and inkstone. These functional items took on great significance as symbols of study and scholarship. These tools used to create artwork are often so beautifully crafted that they, too, are considered works of art.

Watch as skilled calligrapher Yi Hao, a volunteer teacher from the Confucius Institute at The College of William & Mary writes the characters found in this interactive. Modern calligraphers work with the same basic tools as those writing thousands of years ago.

Try writing the Chinese characters in the slides below and learn more about symbols of good fortune that can be found in VMFA's collection of Chinese art.

When students learn to write Chinese characters, they also learn that the strokes are to be written in a certain order. The rules for writing Chinese characters are based on creating a smooth motion with your hand, which will make your writing more efficient and beautiful. As a general rule, strokes are written from left to right and top to bottom. Horizontal strokes are usually written before vertical ones.

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Calligraphy, or the art of writing, was historically considered the highest visual art form in China. To study and develop their skills, students of calligraphy would copy the works of well-known practitioners, using brushes, ink, inkstone, water, and paper to write and paint.

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The Great Wall of China truly deserves its name. Literally the name is translated as "the 10,000-Li Long Wall". "Li" is an ancient Chinese unit of distance measured by feet. But for the modern people it is easier to imagine it in more familiar units of measure. In this way, the length of the wall stretching east to west is 9,000 km, but when counting with all the branches its total length is more than 21,000 km - long enough to encircle half of the globe!

The wall begins in Shanhaiguan district. This part of the wall is called "the Dragon's head" and rises right out of the water, not allowing to bypass it. Then the wall goes through the north to the west, climbing the spurs and descending to the abysses, and ends in Gansu Province.

The width of this construction is 5-8 meters; some sections of the wall suitable for several horse riders running side by side. Now you will not meet the riders, but instead of them there are crowds of tourists on the wall. That's it, the Great Wall of China is one of the most known monuments of the world.

But still, there are some hardly accessible corners of the wall, not attended by tourists. That's where we went - the place called "Beijing knot", a branch point located in the mountains about 60 km north of Beijing.

This part of the wall is truly wild and inaccessible. Some flat sections often gives way to steep ascents. The wall repeats every curve of the rocky landscape constantly rising up and falling abruptly. The area is pretty dangerous, and accidents often occur. Narrow steps sometimes turn into almost vertical barrier with the angle of 80 degrees. The names "Stairway to Heaven", "Eagle's flight", "Cut on the arrow" turn out to be not just poetical figures of speech, but an honest description of the landscape.

We stayed in a small mountain lounge with a poor breakfast in the morning, and started our way to the mountains in the small hours. The lane leads us through the forest with the dry leaves rustling under our feet. An hour and a half we saw the towers and the ridge. Quite soon, here it is - the Great Wall!

Between the ancient stones there are trees and bushes. This section of the wall is not recommended for tourists for visiting, many signs tell us about it. But it is the wild beauty that attracts us. We climbed the wall and created several panoramas. The sun appeared just behind the mountains. Being illuminated by the sun, the wall resembles an ancient dragon, crawling on the mountain. It is getting warmer.

Our way goes to the tower "Beijing knot". The first impression that it is easy to get there is illusive. Having overcome prickly bushes, we appeared before the foundation of the wall that becomes the "stairs" when it goes along the ridge. At first climbing is easy, but the height of the steps is gradually getting higher and we have to bypass the rockslides. The equipment that we took with us turns even the easiest trekking into a good physical exercise. Finally, we got up there! The scene is breathtaking, from the "knot" the wall branches off in several ways; the birds fly near us yelling something approving to us.

A small break with a snack, a chocolate and strange sausages - but in the mountains we cannot be choosy. Stas launches a drone and starts capturing from above. Now we decide, what we shall do next. We wanted to capture some more towers located further from here. To do that, we have to return to the valley and follow another lane, or go all the way through the wall, which is more challenging. On the map we can see numerous signs: "dangerous pass", "no pass", "better go around". Which way to choose?

The bigger part of the adventures begins with the words "I know a shorter way". Having decided to follow the way through the wall, we did not expected that we would need to crawl: first up, then down. Have I mentioned the angle of 80 degrees? And now imagine the steps 50-80 cm high and with the width of your hand.

In the middle of our ascent we almost lost our enthusiasm. But there was no way to return. A breathtaking view that can be observed from the fortress "The eagle facing upwards" gave us a little more strength. The wall here is more restored, with fewer rockslides and downfalls. There is one more famous place waiting for us - "Staircase to heaven". Extreme lovers come here from the side of Jiankou. So we had to descend. But going down in the mountains is often more difficult, especially when you follow the unknown route.

Meanwhile, the sun was getting closer to horizon. To overcome the way that we went through in a daytime seemed hardly probable. The only way was to go ahead. So here it is "Staircase to heaven". Imagine that you stand on the roof of a tall building and you have to go down using narrow steps. Yes, that way down. Mountaineering equipment? No, haven't heard about that.

We start descending. Slowly I stretch my leg downwards trying to feel the narrow step. It must be there, I just can't see it. Then the second leg. Damn, the backpack got stuck. Once again. Now better. The next move...

It took us almost an hour to descend. It went dark, but the way through the night forest was good enough comparing to the descend through the small ancient stone steps.

It is amazing that the wall has remained intact even in the places where there was no restoration works. Legends say that the secret is the rice porridge added to the limestone mortar to fix the stones. I also wondered that the upper surface of the wall is paved. Somewhere the trees grew through the pavement, but still the condition is good.

The following day we went to the wall, but this time to visit Jiankou tower. Stas was eager to repeat our heroic deed, but I suggested bypassing the most extreme part of the wall through the forest. That's how we did.

The wall with its wild beauty and grown trees is much more interesting than its "refined" parts. Unfortunately, this part of the wall will be restored soon, too. But our photos and videos will preserve it as it is today.

Photos and text by Sergey Shandin and Stanislav Sedov

25 May 2018

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Great Wall of China. Jiankou and Jiaoshan

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The bigger part of the adventures begins with the words "I know a shorter way". Having decided to follow the way through the wall, we did not expected that we would need to crawl: first up, then down. Have I mentioned the angle of 80 degrees?

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The areas surrounding China’s second-longest river were home to the oldest dynasties of ancient China, making the Huang He Valley the birthplace of Chinese civilization.

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Image

Photograph by Hung Chung Chih

The one thing most people "know" about the Great Wall of China-that it is one of the only man-made structures visible from space-is not actually true. Since the wall looks a lot like the stone and soil that surround it, it is difficult to discern with the human eye even from low Earth orbit, and is difficult to make out in most orbital photos. However, this does not detract from the wonder of this astounding ancient structure.

For millennia, Chinese leaders instituted wall-building projects to protect the land from northern, nomadic invaders. One surviving section of such an ancient wall, in the Shandong province, is made of hard-packed soil called "rammed earth" and is estimated to be 2,500 years old. For centuries during the Warring States Period, before China was unified into one nation, such walls defended the borders.

Around 220 B.C.E., Qin Shi Huang, also called the First Emperor, united China. He masterminded the process of uniting the existing walls into one. At that time, rammed earth and wood made up most of the wall. Emperor after emperor strengthened and extended the wall, often with the aim of keeping out the northern invaders. In some places, the wall was constructed of brick. Elsewhere, quarried granite or even marble blocks were used. The wall was continuously brought up to date as building techniques advanced.

Zhu Yuanzhang, who became the Hongwu Emperor, took power in 1368 C.E. He founded the Ming Dynasty, famous for its achievements in the arts of ceramics and painting. The Ming emperors improved the wall with watchtowers and platforms. Most of the familiar images of the wall show Ming-era construction in the stone. Depending on how the wall is measured, it stretches somewhere between 4,000 and 5,500 kilometers (2,500 and 3,400 miles).

In the 17th century, the Manchu emperors extended Chinese rule into Inner Mongolia, making the wall less important as a defense. However, it has retained its importance as a symbol of Chinese identity and culture. Countless visitors view the wall every year. It may not be clearly visible from space, but it is considered "an absolute masterpiece" here on Earth.

National Geographic Society

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The Great Wall of China was built over centuries by China's emperors to protect their territory. Today, it stretches for thousands of miles along China's historic northern border.

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A river is a large, natural stream of flowing water. Rivers are found on every continent and on nearly every kind of land. Some flow all year round. Others flow seasonally or during wet years. A river may be only kilometers long, or it may span much of a continent.

The longest rivers in the world are the Nile in Africa and the Amazon in South America. Both rivers flow through many countries. For centuries, scientists have debated which river is longer. Measuring a river is difficult because it is hard to pinpoint its exact beginning and end. Also, the length of rivers can change as they meander, are dammed, or their deltas grow and recede.

The Amazon is estimated to be between 6,259 kilometers (3,903 miles) and 6,800 kilometers (4,225 miles) long. The Nile is estimated to be between 5,499 kilometers (3,437 miles) and 6,690 kilometers (4,180 miles) long. There is no debate, however, that the Amazon carries more water than any other river on Earth. Approximately one-fifth of all the fresh water entering the oceans comes from the Amazon.

Rivers are important for many reasons. One of the most important things they do is carry large quantities of water from the land to the ocean. There, seawater constantly evaporates. The resulting water vapor forms clouds. Clouds carry moisture over land and release it as precipitation. This freshwater feeds rivers and smaller streams. The movement of water between land, ocean, and air is called the water cycle. The water cycle constantly replenishes Earth's supply of fresh water, which is essential for almost all living things.

Anatomy of a River

No two rivers are exactly alike. Yet all rivers have certain features in common and go through similar stages as they age.

The beginning of a river is called its source or headwaters. The source may be a melting glacier, such as the Gangotri Glacier, the source of the Ganges River in Asia. The source could be melting snow, such as the snows of the Andes, which feed the Amazon River. A river's source could be a lake with an outflowing stream, such as Lake Itasca in the U.S. state of Minnesota, the source of the Mississippi River. A spring bubbling out of the ground can also be the headwaters of a river. The source of the Danube River is a spring in the Black Forest of Germany.

From its source, a river flows downhill as a small stream. Precipitation and groundwater add to the river's flow. It is also fed by other streams, called tributaries. For instance, the Amazon River receives water from more than 1,000 tributaries. Together, a river and its tributaries make up a river system. A river system is also called a drainage basin or watershed. A river's watershed includes the river, all its tributaries, and any groundwater resources in the area.

The end of a river is its mouth. Here, the river empties into another body of water-a larger river, a lake, or the ocean. Many of the largest rivers empty into the ocean.

The flowing water of a river has great power to carve and shape the landscape. Many landforms, like the Grand Canyon in the U.S. state of Arizona, were sculpted by rivers over time. This process is called weathering or erosion.

The energy of flowing river water comes from the force of gravity, which pulls the water downward. The steeper the slope of a river, the faster the river moves and the more energy it has.

The movement of water in a river is called a current. The current is usually strongest near the river's source. Storms can also increase the current. A swift current can move even large boulders. These break apart, and the pieces that are carried in the moving water scrape and dig into the river bottom, or bed.

Little by little, a river tears away rocks and soil along its bed, and carries them downstream. The river carves a narrow, V-shaped valley. Rapids and waterfalls are common to rivers, particularly near their sources.

Eventually, the river flows to lower land. As the slope of its course flattens, the river cuts less deeply into its bed. Instead, it begins to wind from side to side in looping bends called meanders. This action widens the river valley.

At the same time, the river begins to leave behind some of the rocks, sand, and other solid material it collected upstream. This material is called sediment. Once the sediment is deposited, it is called alluvium. Alluvium may contain a great deal of eroded topsoil from upstream and from the banks of its meanders. Because of this, a river deposits very fertile soil on its flood plain. A flood plain is the area next to the river that is subject to flooding.

The deepest part of a river bed is called a channel. The channel is usually located in the middle of a river. Here, the current is often strong. In large rivers, ships travel in channels. Engineers may dredge, or dig, deeper channels so more water can flow through the river or the river can transport larger ships.

Near the end of its journey, the river slows and may appear to move sluggishly. It has less energy to cut into the land, and it can no longer carry a heavy load of sediment. Where the river meets the ocean or a lake, it may deposit so much sediment that new land, a delta, is formed.

Not all rivers have deltas. The Amazon does not have a true delta, for instance. The strength of the tides and currents of the Atlantic Ocean prevent the build-up of sediment. Deltas almost always have fertile soil. The Nile Delta and the Ganges Delta are the chief agricultural areas for Egypt and Bangladesh, for instance.

Rivers Through History

Rivers have always been important to people. In prehistoric times, people settled along the banks of rivers, where they found fish to eat and water for drinking, cooking, and bathing.

Later, people learned that the fertile soil along rivers is good for growing crops. The world's first great civilizations arose in the fertile flood plains of the Nile in Egypt, the Indus in southern Asia, the Tigris and the Euphrates in the Middle East, and the Huang (Yellow) in China.

Centuries later, rivers provided routes for trade, exploration, and settlement. The Volga River in Eastern Europe allowed Scandinavian and Russian cultures, near the source of the river, to trade goods and ideas with Persian cultures, near the mouth of the Volga in southern Europe. The Hudson River in the U.S. state of New York is named after English explorer Henry Hudson, who used the river to explore what was then the New World.

When towns and industries developed, the rushing water of rivers supplied power to operate machinery. Hundreds of factories operated mills powered by the Thames in England, the Mississippi in the United States, and the Ruhr in Germany.

Rivers remain important today. If you look at a world map, you will see that many well-known cities are on rivers. Great river cities include New York City, New York; Buenos Aires, Argentina; London, England; Cairo, Egypt; Kolkata, India; and Shanghai, China. In fact, rivers are usually the oldest parts of cities. Paris, France, for instance, was named after the Iron Age people known as the Parisii, who lived on the islands and banks of the Seine River, which flows through the city.

Rivers continue to provide transportation routes, water for drinking and for irrigating farmland, and power for homes and industries.

Rivers of Europe

The longest river in Europe is the Volga. It flows approximately 3,685 kilometers (2,290 miles) across Russia and empties into the Caspian Sea. The Volga has been used for centuries to transport timber from northern forests, grain from farms along its valley, and manufactured goods. The river is also known for its sturgeon, a type of large fish whose eggs are used to make a famous delicacy-Russian caviar.

The Thames, in England, is one of Europe's most historic rivers. Along its banks stands the city of London, a bustling urban area for more than a thousand years. By 100 CE, London had already become an important Roman settlement and trading post. Because of its location on the river and near the seacoast, London became England's principal city and trade center.

Europe's busiest river is the Rhine, which runs from the Alps in Switzerland, through Germany and the Netherlands, and empties into the North Sea. It flows through many industrial and farming regions and carries barges laden with farm products, coal, iron ore, and a variety of manufactured goods.

Rivers of Asia

Asia's longest and most important river is the Yangtze, in China. It flows from the Dangla Mountains, between Tibet and China's Qinghai province. It empties in the East China Sea 6,300 kilometers (3,915 miles) later. The Yangtze is a highway for trade through the world's most populous country.

The Yangtze is also an agricultural river. Its valley is a major rice-growing region, and its water is used to irrigate fields. Many Chinese live on the river in houseboats or sailboats called junks.

The Yangtze River is the home of the world's most powerful hydroelectric power plant, the Three Gorges Dam. Eventually, the plant will be able to constantly produce 22,500 megawatts of power. China's rural population will have access to affordable electricity for homes, businesses, schools, and hospitals. Creating the Three Gorges Dam was one of the largest engineering feats in history. Engineers dammed the Yangtze, creating a 39.3-cubic-kilometer (31.9 million acre-foot) reservoir, or artificial lake.

The Ganges is the greatest river on Asia's Indian subcontinent. It is sacred to the millions of followers of the Hindu religion. For thousands of years, Hindus have worshipped the river as a goddess, Ganga Ma (Mother Ganges). Hindus believe the river's water purifies the soul and heals the body. Millions of people use the Ganges every day for bathing, drinking, and industry.

The historic Tigris and Euphrates river system flows from Turkey through Syria and Iraq and into the Persian Gulf. The rivers lie in an area called the Fertile Crescent. The region between the two rivers, known as Mesopotamia, is the so-called "cradle of civilization." The earliest evidence of civilization and agriculture-farming and domestication of animals-appears in the Fertile Crescent.

Rivers of North America

In North America, rivers served as highways for native tribes and, later, for European explorers.

French explorers began traveling the St. Lawrence and other rivers of Canada in the 1500s. They found an abundance of fish and other wildlife, and they encountered Native American tribes who hunted beaver. The explorers took beaver pelts back to Europe, where they were used to make fashionable hats. Soon, hunters explored and traveled networks of rivers in North America in search of beaver pelts. The establishment of trading posts along the rivers later opened the way for permanent European settlers.

The St. Lawrence River is still a major waterway. The river, which empties into the Atlantic, is linked to the Great Lakes by the St. Lawrence Seaway-a series of canals, locks, dams, and lakes. The St. Lawrence Seaway allows oceangoing ships to enter the interior of the continent.

The Mississippi is the chief river of North America. It flows approximately 3,766 kilometers (2,340 miles) through the heart of the United States, from its source in Minnesota to its delta in Louisiana and the Gulf of Mexico.

Spanish and French explorers first traveled the Mississippi in the 1500s and 1600s. In 1803, the United States bought almost the entire Mississippi River Valley from France as part of the Louisiana Purchase. After that, the Mississippi was widely traveled by traders and settlers on rafts, boats, and barges.

With the introduction of the steamboat, a new, industrial, era began on the Mississippi. Paddle wheelers carried trade goods up and down the river. Soon, workboats were joined by cruise ships and other luxurious passenger vessels. Writer Mark Twain, who was once a steamboat pilot on the river, described this era in his book Life on the Mississippi.

Over time, the Mississippi increased in importance as a trade route. Today, it carries cargo ships and barges in lines that may extend for more than a kilometer. Large quantities of petroleum, coal, and other bulky goods are conveyed on the river by massive barges pushed by powerful towboats.

North America's Colorado River is famous for forming the Grand Canyon in Arizona. For millions of years, the river has cut its way through layers of rock to carve the canyon. Long ago, the river flowed through a flat plain. Then the Earth's crust began to rise, lifting the land. The river began cutting into the land. The Grand Canyon is now about one and a half kilometers (one mile) deep at its deepest point, and 29 kilometers (18 miles) wide at its widest.

Rivers of South America

The strength of the Amazon River in South America dwarfs other rivers on the planet. The amount of water flowing through the Amazon is greater than the amount carried by the Mississippi, the Yangtze, and the Nile combined.

The Amazon begins as an icy stream high in the Andes mountains of Peru. It flows through Brazil and empties into the Atlantic Ocean. The Amazon and its tributaries drain a basin that covers an area equal to three-fourths of the contiguous United States.

The first Europeans to see the Amazon were Spanish explorers, who traveled it in the 1500s. They encountered a group of people who all appeared to be women, or so the story goes. The explorers called them Amazons, after female warriors described in Greek mythology. The name Amazon was later given to the river.

For much of its course, the Amazon flows through the world's largest tropical rain forest. The region has abundant and unusual wildlife, including flesh-eating fish called piranhas; huge fish called pirarucu, which can weigh more than 125 kilograms (275 pounds); and giant snakes called anacondas.

Some Amazon tribes remain independent of Western culture. The Tagaeri people, for instance, continue to live a nomadic life based around the Amazon and its tributaries in the rain forest of Ecuador. Because of the demand for timber from the rain forest, the land of the indigenous people of the Amazon is shrinking. Today, there are fewer than 100 Tagaeri living in the rain forest.

Rivers provide energy to many South American communities. The Itaipú Dam crosses the Paraná River on the Brazil-Paraguay border. Construction of the dam required the labor of thousands of workers and cost more than $12 billion. The dam's power plant can regularly produce some 12,600 megawatts of electricity. The huge reservoir formed by the dam supplies water for drinking and for irrigation.

Rivers of Africa

Africa's two largest rivers are the Nile and the Congo.

One tributary of the Nile, the White Nile, flows from tiny streams in the mountains of Burundi through Lake Victoria, Africa's largest lake. The other tributary, the Blue Nile, begins in Lake Tana, Ethiopia. The two join at Khartoum, Sudan. The Nile then flows through the Sahara Desert in Sudan and Egypt, and empties into the Mediterranean Sea. Because the area where the tributaries meet is close to the two sources of the Nile, the area is called the Upper Nile, even though it is farther south geographically. The Lower Nile runs through Egypt.

One of the earliest civilizations in the world developed along the Lower Nile. Ancient Egyptian civilization arose about 5,000 years ago. It was directly related to the Nile and its annual flooding. Each year, the river overflowed, spreading rich sediment across its broad flood plain. This made the land extremely fertile. Egyptian farmers were able to grow plentiful crops. In fact, ancient Egyptians called their land Kemet, which means "Black Land," because of the rich, black soil deposited by the river.

Egyptians also used the Nile as a major transportation route to both the Mediterranean and the African interior. The Pschent, or double crown worn by Egyptian monarchs, combined symbolism from both the Upper Nile and Lower Nile. A tall, white crown shaped like a bowling pin represented the lands of the Upper Nile. This crown was combined with a pointy red crown that had a curly wire protruding from the front. The red color symbolized the red soils of Lower Egypt, while the curly wire represented a honeybee. When putting on the Pschent, an Egyptian ruler assumed leadership for the entire Nile.

The Nile provided enterprising Egyptians with material to form a powerful civilization. From papyrus, a tall reed that grew in the river, Egyptians made a sort of paper, as well as rope, cloth, and baskets. Egyptians also built great cities, temples, and monuments along the river, including tombs for their monarchs, or pharaohs. Many of these ancient monuments are still standing.

The Congo River flows across the middle of Africa, through a huge equatorial rain forest, before emptying in the Atlantic Ocean. The Congo is second only to the Amazon in terms of water flow. It is the deepest river in the world, with measured depths of more than 230 meters (750 feet). Huge urban areas, including the capital cities of Brazzaville, Republic of Congo, and Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo, sit on the banks of the river.

In the Democratic Republic of Congo, the river is the principal highway for transporting goods such as cotton, coffee, and sugar. Boats traveling the river range from dugout canoes to large freighters.

The river also supplies an abundance of fish to central Africa. Fishermen use baskets and nets hung from high poles across rushing falls and rapids to catch fish. They also use more traditional nets operated from either onshore or on boats.

Rivers of Australia

Much of Australia is arid, but rivers still run through it. Australia's principal rivers are the Murray and the Darling, both in the southeastern part of the continent. The Murray flows some 2,590 kilometers (1,610 miles) from the Snowy Mountains to a lagoon on the Indian Ocean. Near the town of Wentworth, the Murray is joined by the Darling, a 2,739-kilometer (1,702-mile) river that flows from the highlands of the eastern coast.

Indigenous Australians placed great importance on the Murray River. The Murray valley had the greatest population density on the continent before the arrival of Europeans in the 1600s.

By the mid-1800s, European farmers had settled along both rivers and some of their tributaries. Most Australian farmers raised sheep and cattle. Riverboats began plying the waters, and towns grew up along the banks.

Much of Australia's farmland still lies within the Murray-Darling basin, where river water irrigates some 1.2 million hectares (3 million acres). The region is the chief supplier of the country's agricultural exports-wool, beef, wheat, and oranges.

Polluted Rivers

For centuries, people have depended on rivers for many things. Rivers have provided waterways for shipping, convenient construction sites for cities, and fertile land for farming. Such extensive use of rivers has contributed to their pollution. River pollution has come from directly dumping garbage and sewage, disposal of toxic wastes from factories, and agricultural runoff containing fertilizers and pesticides.

By the 1960s, many of the world's rivers were so polluted that fish and other wildlife could no longer survive in them. Their waters became unsafe for drinking, swimming, and other uses. One of the most famous examples of a polluted river was the Cuyahoga. The Cuyahoga is a busy river in the U.S. state of Ohio that empties into Lake Erie. It is a major highway for goods and services from the Midwest to the Great Lakes. In 1969, the oily pollution in the Cuyahoga was so great that the river actually caught fire-something it had done more than a dozen times in the 19th and 20th centuries.

Since the 1969 fire, stricter laws have helped clean up polluted rivers. The laws have restricted the substances factories can dump into rivers, limited the amount of agricultural runoff, banned toxic pesticides such as DDT, and required treatment of sewage.

Although the situation in some parts of the world has improved, serious problems remain. The Citarum River in Indonesia, for instance, is often cited as the most polluted river in the world. Textile factories near the Citarum dump toxic wastes into the river. The garbage floating on top of the river is so thick that water is invisible.

Even after communities have limited river pollution, toxic chemicals may remain. Many pollutants take years to dissolve. The pollutants also build up in the river's wildlife. Toxic chemicals may cling to algae, which are eaten by insects or fish, which are then eaten by larger fish or people. At each stage of the river's food web, the amount of the toxic chemical increases.

In parts of North America and Europe, there is also the severe problem of acid rain. Acid rain develops when emissions from factories and vehicles mix with moisture in the air. The acid that forms can be toxic for many living things. Acid rain falls as rain and snow. It builds up in glaciers, streams, and lakes, polluting water and killing wildlife.

Environmentalists, governments, and communities are trying to understand and solve these pollution problems. To provide safe drinking water and habitats where fish and other wildlife can thrive, rivers must be kept clean.

Dams

A dam is a barrier that stops or diverts the flow of water along a river. Humans have built dams for thousands of years.

Dams are built for many purposes. Some dams prevent flooding or allow people to develop or "reclaim" land previously submerged by a river. Other dams are used to change a river's course for the benefit of development or agriculture. Still others provide water supplies for nearby rural or urban areas. Many dams are used to provide electricity to local communities.

In 1882, the world's first hydroelectric power plant was built on the Fox River in the U.S. city of Appleton, Wisconsin. Since then, thousands of hydroelectric plants have been built on rivers all over the world. These plants harness the energy of flowing water to produce electricity. About 7 percent of all power in the United States, and 19 percent of power in the world, comes from hydroelectric plants. China is the world's largest producer of hydroelectric power.

Hydroelectric power is renewable because water is constantly replenished through precipitation. Because hydroelectric plants do not burn fossil fuels, they do not emit pollution or greenhouse gases. However, hydroelectric power does have some negative effects on the environment.

Dams and hydroelectric plants change the flow and temperature of rivers. These changes to the ecosystem can harm fish and other wildlife that live in or near the river. And although hydroelectric plants do not release greenhouse gases, rotting vegetation trapped in the dams' reservoirs can produce them. Decaying plant material emits carbon dioxide, a major greenhouse gas, into the atmosphere.

Dams also have an effect on people living near the rivers. For example, more than 1.3 million people had to move from their homes to make way for China's Three Gorges Dam and its reservoir. Human rights organizations claim that many of these people did not receive the compensation they were promised in return for being displaced.

In addition, dams can affect fish populations and the fertility of flood plains. Fish may not be able to migrate and spawn. Farmers that depended on the fertile flooding may be cut off from the river by a dam. This can harm the livelihood of fishermen and farmers who live along the river, as well as consumers who must pay higher prices for food.

Dams with very large reservoirs may also trigger earthquakes. Earthquakes happen when two or more of the tectonic plates that make up Earth's crust slide against each other. The weight of the water in the reservoirs can cause existing cracks, or faults, in these plates to slip and create an earthquake.

River management is the process of balancing the needs of many stakeholders, or communities that depend on rivers. Rivers provide natural habitats for fish, birds, and other wildlife. They also provide recreation areas and sporting opportunities such as fishing and kayaking.

Industries also depend on rivers. Rivers transport goods and people across continents. They provide affordable power for millions of homes and businesses.

Farmers and agribusinesses often rely on rivers for transportation. Rivers also supply water for irrigation.

River managers must consider the needs of all the current and future stakeholders. River Management

Fast Fact

Flip-Flopping Flow
The Amazon River used to flow in the opposite direction. Today, the river flows from the mountains of Peru in the west to the Atlantic Ocean in the east. But millions of years ago, it actually flowed from east to west, emptying into the Pacific Ocean. The flow flipped when the Andes mountains started growing at the end of the Cretaceous period (around 65 million years ago).

Fast Fact

Germ-Killing Ganges
Hindus have always believed that the water of the Ganges River has purifying powers. Although millions of people bathe in the river regularly, it does not usually spread cholera, typhoid, or other water-borne diseases. Scientists have found that unique bacteriophages--viruses that destroy bacteria--kill germs in the water of the Ganges.

In addition, the Ganges holds up to 25 times more dissolved oxygen than any other river in the world. The oxygen helps prevent putrefaction (rotting) of organic matter in the river. Scientists do not know why the river retains so much oxygen.

Fast Fact

Mythical Rivers
The ancient Greeks believed that five rivers encircled Hades, the underworld. These rivers are Styx (hate), Phlegethon (fire), Acheron (sorrow), Cocytus (lamentation or sadness), and Lethe (forgetting). The Greeks believed that dead souls had to cross the River Acheron, a branch of the Styx, to reach the underworld. They crossed on a ferry piloted by Charon, the ferryman of Hades.

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A river is a large, natural stream of flowing water. Rivers are found on every continent and on nearly every kind of land.

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Kids learn about the history of Ancient China. Educational articles for teachers, students, and schools including the culture, art, religions, clothing, geography, empire, government, daily life, people, and dynasties of Ancient China.