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https://kayfrancisfilms.com/biographychronology/

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Click here for a detailed biography.
Click here for a detailed chronology of her life.

Kay Francis was born on January 13, 1905. She was raised by a single mother, Katherine Clinton, a largely unmemorable stage actress. Francis herself got into theater in the 1920s, moving to Hollywood at the end of the decade. After a few years of supporting roles at Paramount, she moved to Warner Bros. where she reigned as the studio's Queen of the Lot (and highest-paid star) from 1932-1937, before being pushed out by management in favor of Bette Davis,

After a legal dispute with Warner Bros., she was demoted to B-pictures, insisted she wanted to be forgotten, and was unable to secure another studio contract after her legal battle with her previous employer. After finishing her movie career at the low-ranking Monogram Pictures, she banished her appearances to summer stock theater where her name still had power. When that came to an end in the mid 1950s she lived comfortably until her death from cancer on August 26, 1968.

After her death Kay Francis and her career were largely banished from all books and documentaries regarding Warner Bros. If she was mentioned at all, the information usually detailed her decline in popularity, refusing to focus on how successful she really was.

So this website was dedicated to her originally on January 1, 2010. I wanted to be able to provide the public with as much information about this woman as I possibly could. No one deserves to be forgotten.

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Click here for a detailed biography. Click here for a detailed chronology of her life. Kay Francis was born on January 13, 1905. She was raised by a single mother, Katherine Clinton, a largely unmemorable stage actress. Francis herself got into theater in the 1920s, moving to Hollywood at the end of the decade.

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Padlet Manager - Cody N.
Discussion Leader - Huy T.
Notetaker - Marilynn B.
Evaluator - Jaden D.

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Prior to the start of World War II, Angelou moved back in with her mother, who at this time was living in Oakland, California. She attended George Washington High School and took dance and drama courses at the California Labor School.

When war broke out, Angelou applied to join the Women's Army Corps. However, her application was rejected because of her involvement in the California Labor School, which was said to have Communist ties. Determined to gain employment, despite being only 15 years old, she decided to apply for the position of a streetcar conductor. Many men had left their jobs to join the services, enabling women to fill them. However, Angelou was barred from applying at first because of her race. But she was undeterred. Every day for three weeks, she requested a job application, but was denied. Finally, the company relented and handed her an application. Because she was under the legal working age, she wrote that she was 19. She was accepted for the position and became the first African American woman to work as a streetcar conductor in San Francisco. Angelou was employed for a semester but then decided to return to school. She graduated from Mission High School in the summer of 1944 and soon after gave birth to her only child, Clyde Bailey (Guy) Johnson.

In 1969, Angelou published I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, an autobiography of her early life. Her tale of personal strength amid childhood trauma and racism resonated with readers and was nominated for the National Book Award. Many schools sought to ban the book for its frank depiction of sexual abuse, but it is credited with helping other abuse survivors tell their stories. I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings has been translated into numerous languages and has sold over a million copies worldwide. Angelou eventually published six more autobiographies, culminating in 2013's Mom & Me & Mom.

Angelou carried out a wide variety of activities on stage and screen as a writer, actor, director, and producer. In 1972, she became the first African American woman to have her screen play turned into a film with the production of Kunta Kinte's grandmother in the television miniseries Georgia, Georgia. Angelou earned a Tony nomination in 1973 for her supporting role in Jerome Kitty's play Roots in 1977. Look Away, and portrayed

Angelou died on May 28, 2014. Several memorials were held in her honor, including ones at Wake Forest University and Glide Memorial Church in San Francisco. To honor her legacy, the US Postal Service issued a stamp with her likeness on it in 2015. (The US Postal Service mistakenly included a quote on the stamp that has long been associated with Angelou but was actually first written by Joan Walsh Anglund

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Poet, dancer, singer, activist, and scholar Maya Angelou is a celebrated author best known for her unique and pioneering autobiographical writing style.

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The caged bird "sings of freedom", writes Maya Angelou in her poem "Caged Bird" - a poignant recurring image throughout her work, as she eloquently explores the struggle to become liberated from the shackles of racism and misogyny. This evocative first volume of her six books of autobiography, originally published in 1969 (1984 in the UK), vividly depicts Angelou's "tender years" from the ages of three to 16, partly in the American south during the depression-wracked 1930s, while also offering timeless insights into the empowering quality of books.

The painful sense of being unwanted haunts her early childhood, for when Maya (then known as Marguerite) is three and her brother Bailey four they are sent to the "musty little town" of segregated Stamps, Arkansas wearing tags on their wrists addressed to "To whom it may concern", dispatched by their parents in California who had decided to end their "calamitous marriage". Living with their grandmother, "Momma", who owns a general merchandise store, and Uncle Willie, they suffer racist incidents both in the store and on the streets - nowhere feels safe. Sent to live with her mother, Maya endures the trauma of rape by her mother's lover Mr Freeman ("a breaking and entering when even the senses are torn apart"). After Freeman is murdered, she stops speaking, frightened of words.

Angelou finds her voice and a love of language and books through the help of Mrs Bertha Flowers who, writes Angelou, "has remained throughout my life the measure of what a human being can be". The memoir's absorbing emotional arc traces Angelou's growth from inferiority complex to confidence, finding the strength to tackle "the puzzle of inequality and hate" and be hired as the first black streetcar conductor in San Francisco thanks to her "honeycomb of determination".

Challenging societal structures, Angelou also succeeds in altering literary structures, experimenting with the capabilities of memoir - indeed, her editor had dared her to "write an autobiography as literature". Told with a winning combination of wit and wisdom, this is a paean to the powers of storytelling to build bridges across divides, and heal what has been damaged.

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I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings by Maya Angelou - review

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The first volume of Maya Angelou's autobiography is proof of her inner strength and a testament to the power of words, writes Anita Sethi

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Article About Black Entrepreneurs During The Jim Crow Era

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Article About Black Entrepreneurs During The Jim Crow Era

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https://www.thehenryford.org/explore/blog/black-entrepreneurs-during-the-jim-crow-era

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"Jim Crow" laws-first enacted in the 1880s by angry and resentful Southern whites against freed African Americans-separated blacks from whites in all aspects of daily life. Favoring whites and repressing blacks, these became an institutionalized form of inequality.

In the Plessy v. Ferguson case of 1896, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that states had the legal power to require segregation between blacks and whites. Jim Crow laws spread across the South virtually anywhere that the two races might come in contact. In the North and Midwest, segregation became equally entrenched through informal customs and practices. Many of these laws and practices lasted into the 1960s, until outlawed by the 1964 Civil Rights Act.

Through separate (and inferior) public facilities like building entrances, elevators, cashier windows, and drinking fountains, African Americans were reminded everywhere of their second-class status. THF13419, THF13421
It took a great deal of courage, resilience, and strength of character for African Americans to maintain their self-respect and battle the daily humiliation of Jim Crow. The black church, self-help organizations, and men's and women's clubs offered refuge, support, and protection, while the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) provided potential legal assistance.

Out of the demeaning environment of Jim Crow arose the opportunity for some African Americans to establish their own businesses. The more cut off that black communities became from white communities and the more that white businessmen refused to cater to black customers, the more possible it became for enterprising black entrepreneurs to create viable businesses of their own.

Most of these businesses were local, small-scale, and family-run. Many black entrepreneurs followed the tenets of Booker T. Washington, who had established the National Business League in 1900 to promote economic self-help. Washington advocated economic development as the best path to racial advancement and the means to eventually challenging the racial prejudice of Jim Crow. While Washington's precepts would become increasingly out of step with the times, especially when the Civil Rights movement gained momentum, the support for his ideas among black entrepreneurs of the Jim Crow era is repeatedly evident in the naming of businesses after Washington.

The following images from the collections of The Henry Ford provide an intriguing window into the world of black enterprise and entrepreneurship during the Jim Crow era.
Barber Shops
Black barbers had long cut white customers' hair as part of their traditional second-class status in service to white people. But, by the early 20 th century, white patrons had begun to shift their business to white-owned shops. A new generation of black barbers proudly established shops within their own communities, catering to a growing black consumer market. They knew that their white counterparts would offer no competition, as they did not want the close contact with blacks that cutting hair demanded. Nor could white barbers offer black men the kind of haircut and shave that they themselves knew how to give.

The cost to enter the field was low but black barbers' status was high. They generally attracted a regular customer base, akin to church preachers. Men congregated and felt comfortable in these shops, and conversation flowed freely, both about local goings-on and larger racial matters that concerned them all. Barber shops remained important spheres of influence during and after the Civil Rights era.
Beauty Parlors
The rise of black female beauty culture paralleled larger trends in society, especially the influence of mass media like movies and popular magazines. Several black female entrepreneurs spearheaded an emerging beauty culture industry-the most famous of these being Madam C. J. Walker. Some enterprising black women, initially trained as agents to sell special hair preparation and cosmetic products (so-called "beauty systems"), eventually opened their own beauty shops as permanent spaces to facilitate their work as "beauty culturists." With the little capital needed to start their own businesses, they could free themselves from economic dependence on their husbands or on white employers. It was respectable work, considered doing their part for racial progress and the economic uplift of the black race.

Beauty parlors became places where black women could indulge in moments of pampering, self-indulgence, and relaxation while also letting off steam, gossiping, and speaking their minds. Increasingly, beauty parlors became vital public spaces that nurtured debate and activism among women within black communities.
Undertakers and Funeral Directors
By the 1920s, funeral homes had emerged across the country as primary locations for carrying out the responsibilities of handling and burying the deceased. These first emerged in large towns and cities and gradually spread to rural regions. Funeral homes became a particularly lucrative avenue of entrepreneurship for blacks, which lacked white competition because of the close physical contact that was involved in this work. When African Americans were excluded from joining the National Funeral Directors Association, they organized their own independent organization in 1925.

People entrusted black undertakers and funeral directors in their local communities with the proper and responsible treatment of their deceased loved ones. These entrepreneurs offered an appropriate mixture of respect for traditional religious practices, modern American values, and the changing desires of local neighborhoods. Some black funeral homes flourished through aggressive marketing and modern amenities like spacious limousines.
Cafés, Taverns, and Liquor Stores
During the Jim Crow era, segregation may have been the law in the South but it was just as apparent in northern and midwestern cities. Restaurants, cafés, taverns, and liquor stores thrived in black neighborhoods, established by local businessmen and geared to local customers. These two stores-in St. Louis, Missouri and Chicago, Illinois-seem to have been extremely popular gathering places for both men and women.
Roadside Amenities
It was one thing to frequent the businesses in your own neighborhood. But what happened when you took an out-of-town road trip? Where might you and your family inadvertently encounter hostility, be turned away, perhaps even risk your lives? Black postal worker Victor H. Green attempted to help black travelers combat this dilemma by creating The Negro Motorist Green Book. From 1936 to 1966, the Green Book offered a directory of safe places for African-American travelers. This included not only the expected roadside amenities of lodgings, service stations, and restaurants, but also listings of many of the classic businesses found in local neighborhoods-like barber shops, beauty parlors, liquor stores, and nightclubs. [For more on the Green Book, see this blog post.

A. G. Gaston Motel, 1954. THF 104701, 104700
One of the most difficult and risky aspects of cross-country travel for African Americans was the question of where to stay overnight. The Negro Motorist Green Book attempted to update its listings as often as possible, while word of mouth helped African Americans learn of safe places-who often drove miles out of their way to get to them. But the fact remained that the most extensive listings of hotels and motels were in northern metropolises with large populations of black Americans. In smaller towns, a tourist home or two might be listed-which meant staying in a room in someone's house. Many towns lacked even a single listing.

In 1954, a new kind of black-owned lodging opened in Birmingham, Alabama, coinciding with a black Baptist convention in town. Billed "The Nation's Newest and Finest Motel," it was built, owned, and run by pioneering black entrepreneur Arthur George (A. G.) Gaston. Gaston also established several other businesses in Birmingham, including a bank, radio stations, the Booker T. Washington Insurance Company, a funeral home, and a construction firm.

Modeled after the groundbreaking Holiday Inns that had recently opened in Memphis, Tennessee, the A. G. Gaston Motel included 32 rooms, each with their own air-conditioning and telephone. Gaston remarked that opening this motel "means that many persons passing through our city will have a fine place to stay." In 1963, the Gaston Motel became the epicenter of Birmingham's Civil Rights protests and demonstrations.
Berry Gordy and Motown Records
Berry Gordy Jr., founder of Motown Records in Detroit, Michigan, in 1959, created a business that successfully bridged the Jim Crow era and the post-Civil Rights Act era. He accomplished this by accurately predicting the coming of an integrated market of consumers for black popular music.

In 1922, Gordy's father, Berry Sr., moved his family to Detroit from Georgia-an area steeped in Jim Crow laws and practices-because he faced hostility and potential violence from local whites when his food distribution business proved too successful. Berry Sr. established the Booker T. Washington Grocery Store in the black working-class neighborhood of Detroit, which soon also became highly successful. All the while, he encouraged his children to be industrious and establish their own business ventures.

Inspired by the legendary boxer Joe Louis, Berry Jr. first dreamed of becoming a famous boxer but he eventually gravitated to his other interest-music. From record store owner to songwriter to multi-million-dollar record producer and distributor, Gordy used his business savvy to redefine black music coming out of Detroit as popular music that both blacks and whites would want to hear and buy. Throughout the monumental success of his career, Gordy claimed that he had continually upheld his family's business ethic and the self-help ideals of Booker T. Washington.

The Jim Crow Era provided the impetus for a number of black businesses to grow and flourish, instilling a sense of pride within black communities, serving as symbols of racial progress, and promising safe places to do business and socialize. The conversation and ideas that flowed freely in black business establishments also helped raise consciousness and establish a sense of solidarity within black neighborhoods. When the Civil Rights movement gained momentum-offering an end to the indignities and disenfranchisement of Jim Crow-many black entrepreneurs did what they could to support the movement. After the Civil Rights Act passed in 1964, and segregation was declared illegal, black entrepreneurs could take pride in the role they had played in the Civil Rights movement despite the fact that the future viability of their segregated businesses were now in jeopardy.

To read more on these topics, check out these helpful books:

Cutting Across the Color Line: Black Barbers and Barber Shops in America, by Quincy T. Mills (2013)

Style and Status: Selling Beauty to African American Women, 1920-75, by Susannah Walker (2007)

Pageants, Parlors, and Pretty Women: Race and Beauty in the 20th Century South,(2016)

Dancing in the Street: Motown and the Cultural Politics of Detroit, by Suzanne E. Smith (1999)

Donna R. Braden is the Curator of Public Life at The Henry Ford.
by Donna R. Braden, entrepreneurship, African American history

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Black Entrepreneurs during the Jim Crow Era -- The Henry Ford Blog - Blog - The Henry Ford

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"Jim Crow" laws-first enacted in the 1880s by angry and resentful Southern whites against freed African Americans-separated blacks from whites in all aspects of daily life. Favoring whites and repressing blacks, these became an institutionalized form of inequality. In the Plessy v. Ferguson case of 1896, the U.S.

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https://www.fbi.gov/history/famous-cases/kkk-series

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The free bird leaps
on the back of the wind
and floats downstream
till the current ends
and dips his wings
in the orange sun rays
and dares to claim the sky.

But a bird that stalks
down his narrow cage
can seldom see through
his bars of rage
his wings are clipped and
his feet are tied
so he opens his throat to sing.

The caged bird sings
with fearful trill
of the things unknown
but longed for still
and his tune is heard
on the distant hill for the caged bird
sings of freedom

The free bird thinks of another breeze
and the trade winds soft through the sighing trees
and the fat worms waiting on a dawn-bright lawn
and he names the sky his own.

But a caged bird stands on the grave of dreams
his shadow shouts on a nightmare scream
his wings are clipped and his feet are tied
so he opens his throat to sing

The caged bird sings
with a fearful trill
of things unknown
but longed for still
and his tune is heard
on the distant hill
for the caged bird
sings of freedom.

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I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings - Maya Angelou - My poetic side

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The free bird leaps on the back of the wind and floats downstream till the current ends and dips his wings in the orange sun rays and dares to claim the sky. But a bird that stalks down his narrow cage can seldom see through his bars of rage his wings are clipped and his feet are tied so he opens his throat to sing.

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Look over the Maslow's Hierachy Chart together (read the back) Choose a question 1-5 to discuss AND answer question #6. P.M. puts a response on a pin

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Why do you think the author wrote this book? Context +Exigence. Include an outside source or a quote from the book to support opinion in your pin.

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Doctor Takes Advantage of Young Gymnasts without them Knowing

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Doctor Takes Advantage of Young Gymnasts without them Knowing

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arry Nassar was a wonderful doctor - everyone said so. The little girls who were sent to him were told it was an honour. Their parents were told it was a sign their daughters were destined for greatness if this doctor - who treated Olympians! - would treat their children. USA Gymnastics and Michigan State University employed him for decades and, according to his former patients, when complaints were made about him they were ignored. After all, Larry Nassar was a wonderful doctor, and no one said this more than Nassar himself, who used his reputation to groom his hundreds, possibly even thousands, of victims.

"I was a wonderful doctor," he wrote in a letter while on trial for multiple charges of sexual assault, most against minors.

"You are not a doctor [now]," the sharp-shooting Judge Rosemarie Aquilina told him, shortly before sentencing him to up to 175 years in prison.

The Larry Nassar scandal is the biggest sexual abuse scandal in sports history. Nassar's victims, who include some of the most famous female athletes around today, including Simone Biles and McKayla Maroney, outnumber the alleged victims of Harvey Weinstein and Bill Cosby combined. The abuse was global: he abused girls in London at the 2012 Olympics; at the Károlyi Ranch, USA Gymnastics' training centre in Texas; at gymnastics meets in Rotterdam.

Over the course of the week-long sentence hearing, more than 150 women made impact statements in which they described lives crushed by trauma and shame. Shy little girls who briefly found self-confidence through sport became deeply self-loathing teenagers and adults because the man who was supposed to help them do the sport they loved instead molested them, over and over again.

The most obvious word this case sparks is "how": how could this have ever been allowed to happen? How could USA Gymnastics have required hundreds of girls under its care to submit to mandatory treatment from a man who would give them "pelvic exams" in their hotel or dorm beds at night, wholly unsupervised? And how could the complaints about him have been dismissed for so long, as detailed by the gold medallist Aly Raisman in her unforgettably blistering testimony? "It's easy to put out statements talking about how athlete care is the highest priority. But [USA Gymnastics] has been saying that for years, and all the while, this nightmare was happening," Raisman said in court.

To outsiders, these questions seem inexplicable. But to those with more experience of the sport they are all too easily explained.

"There is no other sport in which this could have happened but gymnastics," says Joan Ryan, whose 1995 book, Little Girls in Pretty Boxes, about the physical and psychological toll gymnastics takes on girls and young women, is still regarded as one of the seminal books about the sport. "These girls are groomed from an incredibly young age to deny their own experience. Your knee hurts? You're being lazy. You're hungry? No, you're fat and greedy. They are trained to doubt their own feelings, and that's why this could happen to over 150 of them."

Jennifer Sey was the 1986 US national champion and a seven-times national gymnastics team member. She says she was very aware of sexual abuse in the sport when she was training in the 80s: "There were two men who worked in my gym, both coaches, who were abusers. One was a girls' coach, who was especially emotionally abusive and a sexual abuser, too. One of my teammates, now an adult, told me how he abused her for several years. My brother's coach in the same gym was a known paedophile. It was openly discussed among the boys. No one did anything. The abuser was a revered coach and no one wanted to tarnish his reputation. Plus there was always concern that if you rocked the boat you would be ostracised, you wouldn't be chosen for the team, you would be blackballed in the sport. Which was true, as we have heard from athletes in the Nassar case."

Aside from the number of girls and women abused, the most shocking revelation about this case is how the abuse was covered up, and for how long. Complaints were made to Michigan State University about Nassar as far back as 1998, but no one did anything. An investigation conducted by the Indy Star during Nassar's trial revealed a long pattern in USA Gymnastics of hushing up or downplaying complaints about sexual abuse in the sport. Repeatedly, coaches and officials were protected at the expense of the athletes.

"Gymnastics and the US Olympic Committee didn't want to scare off sponsors and they didn't want to risk the piles of Olympic medals. So they covered it up. And at a certain point they were so far in on the cover up that they were implicated. So they dug in deeper to protect themselves from criminal and civil liability," says Sey.

Nassar's trial has shone a light on a mentality in the sports world that values performance over protection, medals over morals, and this has long been a concern about the gymnastics world. Indeed, the unspoken assumption that this is how gymnastics works might explain why, until the final week, there was so little media interest in the Nassar case compared to previous sexual abuse scandals in other parts of the sports world.

"This administration has never had a desire to win at any cost and we expect the athletes' welfare to be given the highest priority," says Claire Jackson from British Gymnastics when asked about the Nassar case.

Ryan wrote about the notoriously brutal regime at the Károlyi Ranch, run by Béla and Márta Károlyi and where Nassar worked, detailing how girls were so deprived of food and water they would beg their male teammates to smuggle them snacks. Yet as long as the Károlyis brought in medals the media loved them. When the gymnast Jamie Dantzscher spoke out about the Károlyis in 2000, one US columnist sneered that Dantzscher's "finger-pointing trill was a far more graceless performance than our fourth-place finish".

Almost two decades later, Dantzscher was one of the women who testified about the abuse she had suffered from Nassar, and the Károlyis are named in a handful of lawsuits tying them to Nassar. USA Gymnastics has announced it will no longer use the Károlyis' ranch.

"When I wrote about the ranch in 1995 there was all this backlash from coaches saying: 'Oh, these girls are just annoyed they never won. It's sour grapes.' It's so sad that it ended up being the girls who brought Nassar to justice - they knew the adults around them wouldn't help them," says Ryan.

Since the start of Nassar's trial, the president of Michigan State University has resigned under pressure and multiple officials have resigned from USA Gymnastics. But given that no one from the US Olympic Committee even bothered to come to Nassar's trial many are questioning how committed officials truly are to changing the culture.

"We need change to come from lawmakers, not organisations. There needs to be government oversight with hard and fast rules, because these girls are children, and if they win fewer medals, so be it," says Ryan.

Champion Women, an advocacy group for girls and women in sport, chaired by the former Olympic gold medallist Nancy Hogshead-Makar, has sent a letter to Congress, signed by hundreds of elite athletes, including Martina Navratilova, demanding that laws be passed that protect young athletes from predators.

"Research shows that the more elite the athlete, the more likely they are to be sexually abused by someone within their own entourage. The legislation is necessary to fill gaps in legal protections for athletes not participating in school-sponsored sports," the letter reads.

But those with long experience in the sport aren't holding their breath. Would Sey allow her daughter to go into professional sports?

"No," she replies. "I think childhood is best spent being a child."

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How was Larry Nassar able to abuse so many gymnasts for so long?

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arry Nassar was a wonderful doctor - everyone said so. The little girls who were sent to him were told it was an honour. Their parents were told it was a sign their daughters were destined for greatness if this doctor - who treated Olympians! - would treat their children.

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The rate of sexual assault and rape has fallen 63% since 1993, from a rate of 4.3 assaults per 1,000 people in 1993, to 1.2 per 1000 in 2016.1

How Often Does Sexual Assault Occur in the United States?

Everyone Is Affected by Sexual Violence

Every 73 seconds another American is sexually assaulted.¹

1 out of every 6 American women has been the victim of an attempted or completed rape in her lifetime (14.8% completed, 2.8% attempted). ⁴

About 3% of American men-or 1 in 33-have experienced an attempted or completed rape in their lifetime. ⁴

From 2009-2013, Child Protective Services agencies substantiated, or found strong evidence to indicate that, 63,000 children a year were victims of sexual abuse.⁵

A majority of child victims are 12-17. Of victims under the age of 18: 34% of victims of sexual assault and rape are under age 12, and 66% of victims of sexual assault and rape are age 12-17.⁶

​ Read more statistics about child sexual abuse.

The Majority of Sexual Assaults Occur At or Near the Victim's Home

What was the survivor doing when the crime occured?

48% were sleeping, or performing another activity at home

29% were traveling to and from work or school, or traveling to shop or run errands

12% were working

7% were attending school

5% were doing an unknown or other activity

Understanding RAINN's statistics

Sexual violence is notoriously difficult to measure, and there is no single source of data that provides a complete picture of the crime. On RAINN's website, we have tried to select the most reliable source of statistics for each topic. The primary data source we use is the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS), which is an annual study conducted by the Justice Department. To conduct NCVS, researchers interview tens of thousands of Americans each year to learn about crimes that they've experienced. Based on those interviews, the study provides estimates of the total number of crimes, including those that were not reported to police. While NCVS has a number of limitations (most importantly, children under age 12 are not included), overall, it is the most reliable source of crime statistics in the U.S.

We have also relied on other Justice Department studies, as well as data from the Department of Health and Human Services and other government and academic sources. When assembling these statistics, we have generally retained the wording used by the authors. Statistics are presented for educational purposes only. Each statistic includes a footnote citation for the original source, where you can find information about the methodology and a definition of terms.

Learn more about RAINN's statistics.

Sources: ​

1. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Crime Victimization Survey, 2018 (2019). Note: RAINN applies a 5-year rolling average to adjust for changes in the year-to-year NCVS survey data.

2. i. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics, Sexual Victimization in Prisons and Jails Reported by Inmates, 2011-2012 (2013); ii. United States Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Administration on Children, Youth and Families, Children's Bureau. Child Maltreatment Survey, 2012 (2013); iii. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Crime Victimization Survey, 2010-2014 (2015); iv. Department of Defense, Fiscal Year 2014 Annual Report on Sexual Assault in the Military, (2015.) (This statistic presents information that references victims from varied demographics and time ranges. Specifically, the number of Americans assaulted includes those age 12 and older, and the number of child sexual abuse victims includes minors, some of whom are 12 and older. While this may mean data is overlapped, RAINN presents this data for educational purposes only, and strongly recommends using the citations to review any and all sources for more information and detail.)

3. i. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics, Female Victims of Sexual Violence, 1994-2010 (2013); ii. National Institute of Justice & Centers for Disease Control & Prevention, Prevalence, Incidence and Consequences of Violence Against Women Survey (1998). (This statistic presents information on the total number of male and female victims in the United States, using a study from 1998. Because the U.S. population has increased substantially since then, it is probable that the number of victims has as well. RAINN presents this data for educational purposes only, and strongly recommends using the citations to review any and all sources for more information and detail.)

4. National Institute of Justice & Centers for Disease Control & Prevention, Prevalence, Incidence and Consequences of Violence Against Women Survey (1998).

5. United States Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Administration on Children, Youth and Families, Children's Bureau. Child Maltreatment Survey, 2012 (2013).

6. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics, Sex Offenses and Offenders (1997).

7. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics, Female Victims of Sexual Violence, 1994-2010 (2013). (Due to rounding, this statistic may not total 100%. RAINN presents this data for educational purposes only, and strongly recommends using the citations to review any and all sources for more information and detail.)

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The rate of sexual assault and rape has fallen 63% since 1993, from a rate of 4.3 assaults per 1,000 people in 1993, to 1.2 per 1000 in 2016.1 Every 73 seconds another American is sexually assaulted.1 1 out of every 6 American women has been the victim of an attempted or completed rape in her lifetime (14.8% completed, 2.8% attempted).

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https://innocenceproject.org/emmett-till-birthday-pervis-payne-innocent-black-men-slavery-racism/

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Updated on Aug. 5, 2020 at 5:00 p.m. ET: On July 30, Shelby County District Attorney Amy Weirich announced that her office is opposing DNA testing of evidence in Pervis Payne's case. Weirich also said that evidence presented to Payne's legal team in 2019 - previously referred to in this article as "hidden evidence" - is actually from another case and was shown to Payne's team in error. This article has been updated to reflect this new information.

Emmett Till, a young Black boy in Mississippi, turned 14 on July 25, 1955. Almost exactly one month later, he was brutally murdered after being accused of sexually harassing Carolyn Bryant, a white woman, in a grocery store.

would have turned 79 today had he not been killed. The two white men accused of his murder were later found "not guilty" by an all-white, all-male jury. Four months after the trial, which took place in a segregated courtroom , the two men admitted to kidnapping and murdering Till in an interview with Look magazine . Because they had already been acquitted, they could not be tried again. Neither ever served time for Till's death.

Six decades later, Bryant that she had lied and that the parts of her accusation considered most incendiary at the time - that Till had grabbed her and made verbal and physical advances on her - were untrue. Bryant has never faced any legal consequences for her accusations against Till. The FBI opened a reinvestigation into his murder three years ago .
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Till's story of injustice might have been lost to history if his mother, Mamie Till-Mobley , hadn't that the world take notice of her son. When Till's body was found in the Tallahatchie River days after the teen had been abducted from his great uncle's house, it was unrecognizable. His great uncle was only able to identify his body - disfigured from being beaten, shredded with barbed wire, shot, and thrown in the river - by his father's initialed ring, which he still had on his finger.

"Let the people see what they did to my boy," Till-Mobley said when she saw her son's body. She insisted on an open casket for his funeral so that the public would have to contend with the heinous crime carried out against her son and so many other Black Americans throughout history.

Related: Read Mamie Till-Mobley's book "The Death of Innocence"

More than 4,700 people were lynched in the United States between 1882 and 1968, according to the NAACP . The vast majority were Black, while many of the white victims of lynching were killed for helping Black people, advocating for their rights, or for speaking up against the lynching of Black people.

Though Till's story has not been forgotten, such racism and inequality persist today and contribute to injustice in the legal system and beyond. From the Scottsoboro Boys , who were wrongly convicted of raping two white women, to the " Exonerated Five " to Christopher Cooper , the man a white woman falsely told police had threatened her life in May, Black and brown men in America have continued to be perceived as dangerous, violent, and hypersexual. The harmful and racist stereotypes of Black men as predators has contributed to Black men being incarcerated at higher rates and to wrongful conviction.

"Let the people see what they did to my boy."

These are the same kind of racist stereotypes that the prosecution in Pervis Payne's case evoked at trial to convict him of murder. , who has an intellectual disability, has spent 32 years facing execution in Tennessee for a crime he has always said he did not commit - and DNA testing of evidence in his case could help prove this. The Innocence Project jointly filed a petition for DNA testing .

Payne was convicted for the 1987 murder of Charisse Christopher and her child in Millington, Tennessee. The prosecution argued that Payne had been searching for sex after using drugs and looking at a Playboy magazine, and that he attacked Christopher after he made an advance on her and she rejected him. But no evidence supports this theory.

Though Payne's mother begged law enforcement to administer a drug test to her son to prove that he had not been using drugs, they refused. Payne had no history of drug use, no criminal record, and was not known to be violent. In fact, those who know him describe him as a kind and respectful man, who liked to make his family laugh and help out at his father's church.
Read more: 8 Things You Need to Know About Pervis Payne's Case
But the prosecution painted a very different picture, making Payne out to be a violent and hypersexual drug user. And, at trial, the prosecutor repeatedly pointed out the victim's "white skin" when referring to parts of her body, a poignant reminder of her whiteness in a county ranked among the 25 counties with the most recorded lynchings between 1877 and 1950, according to the Equal Justice Initiative .
Send Pervis a note to tell him that you'll be fighting for him.
In the late 1800s, claims that Black men had raped or made sexual advances on white women were frequently cited to justify their lynchings. Historians say that in reality many rape accusation claims were false and were often used as cover for consensual relationships that were, at the time, extremely taboo. And racist beliefs were so deep-seated among white communities, that "Whites could not countenance the idea of a white woman desiring sex with a [Black person], thus any physical relationship between a white woman and a [B]lack man had, by definition, to be an unwanted assault," writes historian Philip Dray.
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The perception of Black men as a danger to white women in particular, contributing to false accusations like the ones lobbied against Till and the Scottsboro Boys, is deeply rooted in this history and the legacy of slavery. In Louisiana, for instance, rape was only considered a crime when the victim was a white woman, according to the American Bar Association , and capital punishment was a mandatory punishment for rape and attempted rape only when the alleged attacker was a slave (and Black).

Payne had no history of drug use, no criminal record, and was not known to be violent.

, the court allowed juries to consider a defendant's race and to rely on social stereotypes about that race - like the prevalent belief at the time that Black men are prone to raping women - to infer the defendant's intent to commit a crime.

Today, Black men are twice as likely to be arrested for a sex offense and three times more likely to be accused of rape than white men, the Appeal reported . That's not because they are committing such crimes at higher rates than people of other races or ethnicities, but because they are more often suspected and accused of such crimes due to racial biases.

All too often, Black men are presumed guilty by law enforcement and the public, contributing to wrongful convictions and harsher sentences when found guilty. According to the National Registry of Exonerations , innocent Black people are seven times more likely to be wrongfully convicted of murder than innocent white people. And studies show that Black men are sentenced to death far more often when accused of committing a crime against a white person. Since 1976, nearly 300 Black people accused of murdering white people have been executed - about 14 times the number of white people executed for murdering white people, the Death Penalty Information Center reported .

Payne, a Black man, is scheduled to be executed on Dec. 3, for the murder of Christopher, a white woman. But DNA testing that could be completed within 60 days, could prove what he's been saying for three decades: He's innocent.

His life, like Till's, should not be unjustly taken.

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From Emmett Till to Pervis Payne - Black Men in America Are Still Killed for Crimes They Didn't Commit

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Updated on Aug. 5, 2020 at 5:00 p.m. ET: On July 30, Shelby County District Attorney Amy Weirich announced that her office is opposing DNA testing of evidence in Pervis Payne's case. Weirich also said that evidence presented to Payne's legal team in 2019 - previously referred to in this article as "hidden evidence" - is actually from another case and was shown to Payne's team in error.

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Choose an aspect of setting that you think is significant to the book (time, period, place, etc.) and research this setting and discuss how it impacts the speaker or other characters in the book. Pin one source + response to the above question.

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Maslow's Hierachy chart, choose a different question 1-5 + #6 to answer

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https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joe-Louis

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Joe Louis, byname of Joseph Louis Barrow, also called the Brown Bomber, (born May 13, 1914, Lafayette, Alabama, U.S.-died April 12, 1981, Las Vegas, Nevada), American boxer who was world heavyweight champion from June 22, 1937, when he knocked out James J. Braddock in eight rounds in Chicago, until March 1, 1949, when he briefly retired. During his reign, the longest in the history of any weight division, he successfully defended his title 25 times, more than any other champion in any division, scoring 21 knockouts (his service in the U.S. Army from 1942 to 1945 no doubt prevented him from defending his title many more times). He was known as an extremely accurate and economical knockout puncher.

Louis's father, a sharecropper, was committed to a state mental hospital when Louis was about two years old. After his mother remarried, the family, which included eight children, moved to Detroit, Michigan, where Louis took up amateur boxing. He won the U.S. Amateur Athletic Union 175-pound championship in 1934 and also was a Golden Gloves titleholder; of 54 amateur fights, Louis won 50 and lost 4. His first professional fight took place on July 4, 1934, and within 12 months he had knocked out Primo Carnera, the first of six previous or subsequent heavyweight champions who would become his victims; the others were Max Baer, Jack Sharkey, Braddock, the German champion Max Schmeling, and Jersey Joe Walcott. Louis sustained his first professional loss in 1936 at the hands of Schmeling. In 1938, after having beaten Braddock and taken the title, Louis met Schmeling in a rematch that the American media portrayed as a battle between Nazism and democracy (though Schmeling himself was not a Nazi). Louis's dramatic knockout victory in the first round made him a national hero. He was perhaps the first Black American to be widely admired by whites, a fact attributable not only to his extraordinary pugilistic skills but also to his sportsmanlike behaviour in the ring (he did not gloat over his white opponents), his perceived humility and soft-spoken demeanour, and his discretion in his private life.

Joe Louis and Max Schmeling AP Images

Louis was at his peak in the period 1939-42. From December 1940 through June 1941 he defended the championship seven times. After enlisting in the U.S. Army in 1942, he served in a segregated unit with Jackie Robinson, who later became the first African American to play major league baseball. Louis did not see combat but fought in 96 exhibition matches before some two million troops; he also donated more than $100,000 to Army and Navy relief funds. After the war he was less active, and in 1949 he retired as the undefeated champion long enough to allow Ezzard Charles to earn recognition as his successor.

Although Louis earned nearly $5 million as a fighter, he spent or gave away nearly all of it. When the Internal Revenue Service demanded more than $1 million in back taxes and penalties, he was forced to return to the ring to pay off his debts. He fought Charles for the championship on September 27, 1950, but lost a 15-round decision. In his last fight of consequence, against future champion Rocky Marciano on October 26, 1951, he was knocked out in eight rounds. From 1934 to 1951, Louis had 71 bouts, winning 68, 54 by knockouts. A Hollywood movie about his life, The Joe Louis Story, was made in 1953.

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After his second retirement Louis continued to be plagued by money problems, and he was briefly forced to work as a professional wrestler. Later he became a greeter for Caesar's Palace, a resort and casino in Las Vegas, Nevada. Upon his death in 1981 he was buried in Arlington National Cemetery; one of the pallbearers at his funeral was Schmeling. Louis remained a Detroit icon after his death: the Joe Louis Arena was home to the Detroit Red Wings of the National Hockey League from 1979 to 2017, and a well-known public monument to Louis (a 24-foot [7.3-metre] arm with a clenched fist suspended in pyramidal frame) was erected in downtown Detroit in 1986. Louis was inducted into the Ring Magazine Boxing Hall of Fame in 1954 and the International Boxing Hall of Fame in 1990. He was posthumously awarded the Congressional Gold Medal in 1982.

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Joe Louis, American boxer who reigned as heavyweight champion for a record 11 years, 8 months and is considered one of the greatest fighters of all time. During his reign he successfully defended his title 25 times, more than any other champion in any division, scoring 21 knockouts.

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Results indicate that even 4- to 5-year-olds are able to resist misleading questions and suggestive questioning. Children's recall errors generally have involved forgetting things that had happened, rather than fabricating things that had not; although some evidence also points to increased suggestibility when leading questions were used. Other studies have shown that younger children expressed no less confidence than older children, although they were less accurate, and that highly confident child witnesses were perceived as more credible by jurors. Another study indicates that attempts to manipulate the confidence level through positive or negative feedback are successful with older children and adults, but not with younger children. Work also has focused on developing a systematic investigative procedure for interviewing child sexual abuse victims. One approach, the statement validity analysis, involves an interview and subsequent analysis of truthfulness in terms of specified content criteria (e.g., logical structure, specific content and details, offense-specific elements). Other studies have examined the effects of stress, including that associated with various criminal justice procedures, on the accuracy of child witnesses, as well as the attitudes of a variety of professionals toward child witness credibility. 4 references.

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Results indicate that even 4- to 5-year-olds are able to resist misleading questions and suggestive questioning. Children's recall errors generally have involved forgetting things that had happened, rather than fabricating things that had not; although some evidence also points to increased suggestibility when leading questions were used.

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The enslaved population at Mount Vernon did not meekly accept their bondage. Many resisted slavery in a variety of ways, differing in intensity and methodology. Among the less obvious methods of resistance were actions such as feigning illness, working slowly, producing shoddy work, and misplacing or damaging tools and equipment. The major advantage of these seemingly "passive" tactics was that they were often difficult for George Washington and his managers to observe and prove. Further, almost any enslaved person, regardless of age or physical prowess, could utilize these methods of protest.

On the opposite end of the resistance spectrum were more active and noticeable actions such as theft, arson, sabotage of crops, and running away. While these actions might be especially satisfying for a frustrated person to carry out, they also carried a far greater risk of detection and punishment. Theft was one of the most frequently mentioned acts of visible resistance in George Washington's personal papers. Over the years, enslaved workers at Mount Vernon were accused of stealing a wide variety of objects, including tools, fabrics, yams, raw wool, wine, rum, milk, butter, fruits, meats, corn, and potatoes.

Enslaved people also utilized running away and escape as a means to resist forced servitude. At least 47 enslaved people tried to run away from Mount Vernon or other lands belonging to Washington during his lifetime (about 7% of the total population). Most runaways were young men, but women tried to escape too. The majority left alone, but some fled in groups. The largest flight occurred in April of 1781. Seventeen people-Lucy, Ester, Deborah, Peter, Lewis, Frank, Fredrick, Harry Washington, Tom, Sambo, Thomas, Peter, Stephen, James, Wally, Daniel, and Gunner- escaped Mount Vernon while the British warship Savage anchored in the Potomac off the shore of the plantation.

At least three of the people who attempted to escape from the Washingtons over the years worked very closely with the Washington family. Christopher Sheels worked as George Washington's personal valet made plans to escape in 1799 but was found out. Hercules who worked as a cook ran away on February 22, 1797, and was never heard from again. Lastly, Ona Judge, the personal maid of Martha Washington, left the executive mansion in Philadelphia on May 21, 1796, and despite repeated attempts by the Washingtons could not be convinced to return to Mount Vernon and once again be enslaved.

Mary V. Thompson
Research Historian
George Washington's Mount Vernon
Notes
1. For more on resistance methods used by enslaved people, see John Hope Franklin and Loren Schweniger, Runaway Slaves: Rebels on the Plantation (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000); Ira Berlin, Generations of Captivity: A History of African-American Slaves (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003); Eugene Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made (New York: Vintage Books, 1976).

2. " George Washington to Lund Washington, 30 April 1781," The Writings of George Washington, Vol. 22, ed. John C. Fitzpatrick (Washington. DC: United States Government Printing Office, 1942), 14-5, 14n.

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The enslaved population at Mount Vernon did not meekly accept their bondage. Many resisted slavery in a variety of ways, differing in intensity and methodology. Among the less obvious methods of resistance were actions such as feigning illness, working slowly, producing shoddy work, and misplacing or damaging tools and equipment.

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(Last Updated On: June 13, 2022)

Tut Language

The Tut language is spoken in the village of Tut, located in the Madang Province of Papua New Guinea. The Tut people are a small, isolated community who have traditionally been subsistence farmers. The Tut language is not written and is only passed down orally from generation to generation.

The Tut language is endangered due to several factors. The Tut people have had little contact with the outside world, and as a result, the language has not been exposed to other languages. This isolation has also made it difficult for linguists to study and document the Tut language. In addition, the Tut people are a small community. As the younger generation moves away from the village in search of education and employment, the number of speakers of the Tut language is declining.

The Tut language is an integral part of the cultural heritage of the Tut people. The language is a source of identity for the community, and it is a unique expression of the Tut people's culture and history. The Tut language is also a valuable resource for linguists, as it provides insight into the Austronesian family of languages.

The Tut language is an integral part of the cultural heritage of the Tut people. The language is endangered due to several factors, including isolation, lack of exposure, and the small size of the Tut community. The Tut language is a valuable resource for linguists and an essential part of the Tut people's identity.

Because reading was banned among Blacks at the time, they required a manner to spell that did not follow the standards of regular English.

In the 19th century, the Tut people learned how to read and write using the Bible. However, many of them continued to practice their traditional beliefs. Because of this, the Tut language became more complex over time.

Today, the Tut language is still being passed down orally among the older generations. As the younger generations move away from the villages, the number of speakers declines.

Why Is the Tut Language Endangered?

The Tut language is threatened because of its small population and isolation from the rest of the world. It is also endangered because of the loss of young people who leave the village to seek higher education.

Isolation

The Tut language is endangered because it is a rare language. There are only about 100 native speakers today. Most of the remaining speakers live in the village of Kambai. In addition, the Tut language is challenging to learn because it has no written form. This makes it hard for children to study the language at school.

Lack of Exposure

Another reason why the Tut language is endangered is because the Tut people do not receive much exposure to the outside world. Many of the younger generations have never been exposed to the outside world. Therefore, they do not know how to speak English.

Small Size of Community

Another factor contributing to the decline of the Tut language is the small size of the community. Only about 10% of the population speaks the language. This means that less than 1% of the entire population can speak the language fluently.

Education

Many young people leave the village to attend college. Once they return home, they do not continue to practice the Tut language. This is because they were educated in schools where they learned English instead of Tut.

How does Tut Language work?

Tut Language is a language learning tool that helps you learn languages. The app uses machine learning to help you understand the vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation of any language. It also offers various tools for practicing your new skills, such as flashcards, games, and quizzes.

The Tut language app includes features that will help you learn the vocabulary and grammar of the Tut language. For example, the Tut app contains a dictionary to look up words and phrases. The app also provides a tutor feature to ask questions directly to an expert Tut speaker.

What Are Some Other Languages That Use Tut Language?

Several other languages use the Tut language. Here are some examples:

* Afrikaans - South Africa

* Arabic - Saudi Arabia

* German - Germany

* Italian - Italy

* Japanese - Japan ( Best Tips to become a Japanese Translator)

* Polish - Poland

* Spanish - Spain

* Russian - Russia

* Turkish - Turkey

Frequently Asked Questions

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Everything You Need to Know About the Tut Language

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There are many different ways to communicate with someone deaf or hard of hearing. One way is to use Tut Language, a form of sign language that uses only the hands and arms. There are specific rules that should be followed when using Tut Language, and these will be discussed in this essay.

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- What is the main conflict in the book? person vs. person/group/society/nature/self. etc.
- How might this conflict be more significant than just this speaker's story? Explain and support with a source you find and pin it to this response

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- Review Maslow's chart. Answer a different question in 1-5 then answer #6 for this section of book

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3/13 - Ch 1-9 - Pg. 1-60
3/22 - Ch 10-17 Pg. 61-119
3/27 - Ch 18-23 Pg. 120-184
4/7 - Ch 24-30 Pg. 185-242
4/17 - Ch 31-End Pg. 243-289

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Executive Order 9066

On February 19, 1942, shortly after the bombing of Pearl Harbor by Japanese forces, President Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066 with the stated intention of preventing espionage on American shores.

Military zones were created in California, Washington and Oregon-states with a large population of Japanese Americans. Then Roosevelt's executive order forcibly removed Americans of Japanese ancestry from their homes. Executive Order 9066 affected the lives about 120,000 people-the majority of whom were American citizens.

Canada soon followed suit, forcibly removing 21,000 of its residents of Japanese descent from its west coast. Mexico enacted its own version, and eventually 2,264 more people of Japanese descent were forcibly removed from Peru, Brazil, Chile and Argentina to the United States.

Anti-Japanese American Activity

Weeks before the order, the Navy removed citizens of Japanese descent from Terminal Island near the Port of Los Angeles.

On December 7, 1941, just hours after the bombing of Pearl Harbor, the FBI rounded-up 1,291 Japanese American community and religious leaders, arresting them without evidence and freezing their assets.

In January, the arrestees were transferred to prison camps in Montana, New Mexico and North Dakota, many unable to inform their families and most remaining for the duration of the war.

Concurrently, the FBI searched the private homes of thousands of Japanese American residents on the West Coast, seizing items considered contraband.

One-third of Hawaii's population was of Japanese descent. In a panic, some politicians called for their mass incarceration. Japanese-owned fishing boats were impounded.

Some Japanese American residents were arrested and 1,500 people-one percent of the Japanese population in Hawaii-were sent to prison camps on the U.S. mainland.

Photos of Japanese American Relocation and Incarceration

John DeWitt

Lt. General John L. DeWitt, leader of the Western Defense Command, believed that the civilian population needed to be taken control of to prevent a repeat of Pearl Harbor.

To argue his case, DeWitt prepared a report filled with known falsehoods, such as examples of sabotage that were later revealed to be the result of cattle damaging power lines.

DeWitt suggested the creation of the military zones and Japanese detainment to Secretary of War Henry Stimson and Attorney General Francis Biddle. His original plan included Italians and Germans, though the idea of rounding-up Americans of European descent was not as popular.

At Congressional hearings in February 1942, a majority of the testimonies, including those from California Governor Culbert L. Olson and State Attorney General Earl Warren, declared that all Japanese should be removed.

Biddle pleaded with the president that mass incarceration of citizens was not required, preferring smaller, more targeted security measures. Regardless, Roosevelt signed the order.

War Relocation Authority

After much organizational chaos, about 15,000 Japanese Americans willingly moved out of prohibited areas. Inland state citizens were not keen for new Japanese American residents, and they were met with racist resistance.

Ten state governors voiced opposition, fearing the Japanese Americans might never leave, and demanded they be locked up if the states were forced to accept them.

A civilian organization called the War Relocation Authority was set up in March 1942 to administer the plan, with Milton S. Eisenhower from the Department of Agriculture to lead it. Eisenhower only lasted until June 1942, resigning in protest over what he characterized as incarcerating innocent citizens.

Relocation to 'Assembly Centers'

Army-directed removals began on March 24. People had six days notice to dispose of their belongings other than what they could carry.

Anyone who was at least 1/16th Japanese was evacuated, including 17,000 children under age 10, as well as several thousand elderly and disabled residents.

Japanese Americans reported to "Assembly Centers" near their homes. From there they were transported to a "Relocation Center" where they might live for months before transfer to a permanent "Wartime Residence."

Assembly Centers were located in remote areas, often reconfigured fairgrounds and racetracks featuring buildings not meant for human habitation, like horse stalls or cow sheds, that had been converted for that purpose. In Portland, Oregon, 3,000 people stayed in the livestock pavilion of the Pacific International Livestock Exposition Facilities.

The Santa Anita Assembly Center, just several miles northeast of Los Angeles, was a de-facto city with 18,000 incarcerated, 8,500 of whom lived in stables. Food shortages and substandard sanitation were prevalent in these facilities.

Life in 'Assembly Centers'

Assembly Centers offered work to prisoners with the policy that they should not be paid more than an Army private. Jobs ranged from doctors to teachers to laborers and mechanics. A couple were the sites of camouflage net factories, which provided work.

Over 1,000 incarcerated Japanese Americans were sent to other states to do seasonal farm work. Over 4,000 of the incarcerated population were allowed to leave to attend college.

Conditions in 'Relocation Centers'

There were a total of 10 prison camps, called "Relocation Centers." Typically the camps included some form of barracks with communal eating areas. Several families were housed together. Residents who were labeled as dissidents were forced to a special prison camp in Tule Lake, California.

Two prison camps in Arizona were located on Native American reservations, despite the protests of tribal councils, who were overruled by the Bureau of Indian Affairs.

Each Relocation Center was its own "town," and included schools, post offices and work facilities, as well as farmland for growing food and keeping livestock. Each prison camp "town" was completely surrounded by barbed wire and guard towers.

Net factories offered work at several Relocation Centers. One housed a naval ship model factory. There were also factories in different Relocation Centers that manufactured items for use in other prison camps, including garments, mattresses and cabinets. Several housed agricultural processing plants.

Violence in Prison Camps

Violence occasionally occurred in the prison camps. In Lordsburg, New Mexico, prisoners were delivered by trains and forced to march two miles at night to the camp. On July 27, 1942, during a night march, two Japanese Americans, Toshio Kobata and Hirota Isomura, were shot and killed by a sentry who claimed they were attempting to escape. Japanese Americans testified later that the two elderly men were disabled and had been struggling during the march to Lordsburg. The sentry was found not guilty by the army court martial board.

On August 4, 1942, a riot broke out in the Santa Anita Assembly Center, the result of anger about insufficient rations and overcrowding. At California's Manzanar War Relocation Center, tensions resulted in the beating of Fred Tayama, a Japanese American Citizen's League (JACL) leader, by six men. JACL members were believed to be supporters of the prison camp's administration.

Fearing a riot, police tear-gassed crowds that had gathered at the police station to demand the release of Harry Ueno. Ueno had been arrested for allegedly assaulting Tayama. James Ito was killed instantly and several others were wounded. Among those injured was Jim Kanegawa, 21, who died of complications five days later.

At the Topaz Relocation Center, 63-year-old prisoner James Hatsuki Wakasa was shot and killed by military police after walking near the perimeter fence. Two months later, a couple was shot at for strolling near the fence.

In October 1943, the Army deployed tanks and soldiers to Tule Lake Segregation Center in northern California to crack down on protests. Japanese American prisoners at Tule Lake had been striking over food shortages and unsafe conditions that had led to an accidental death in October 1943. At the same camp, on May 24, 1943, James Okamoto, a 30-year-old prisoner who drove a construction truck, was shot and killed by a guard.

Fred Korematsu

In 1942, 23-year-old Japanese-American Fred Korematsu was arrested for refusing to relocate to a Japanese prison camp. His case made it all the way to the Supreme Court, where his attorneys argued in Korematsu v. United States that Executive Order 9066 violated the Fifth Amendment.

Korematsu lost the case, but he went on to become a civil rights activist and was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1998. With the creation of California's Fred Korematsu Day, the United States saw its first U.S. holiday named for an Asian American. But it took another Supreme Court decision to halt the incarceration of Japanese Americans.

Mitsuye Endo

The prison camps ended in 1945 following the Supreme Court decision, Ex parte Mitsuye Endo. In this case, justices ruled unanimously that the War Relocation Authority "has no authority to subject citizens who are concededly loyal to its leave procedure."

The case was brought on behalf of Mitsuye Endo, the daughter of Japanese immigrants from Sacramento, California. After filing a habeas corpus petition, the government offered to free her, but Endo refused, wanting her case to address the entire issue of Japanese incarceration.

One year later, the Supreme Court made the decision, but gave President Truman the chance to begin camp closures before the announcement. One day after Truman made his announcement, the Supreme Court revealed its decision.

Reparations

The last Japanese internment camp closed in March 1946. President Gerald Ford officially repealed Executive Order 9066 in 1976, and in 1988, Congress issued a formal apology and passed the Civil Liberties Act awarding $20,000 each to over 80,000 Japanese Americans as reparations for their treatment.

Sources

Japanese Relocation During World War II. National Archives.
Confinement and Ethnicity: An Overview of World War II Japanese American Relocation Sites. J. Burton, M. Farrell, F. Lord and R. Lord.
Lordsburg Internment POW Camp. Historical Society of New Mexico.
Smithsonian Institute.

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Japanese Internment Camps: WWII, Life & Conditions | HISTORY

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Japanese internment camps were established during World War II by President Franklin D. Roosevelt through his Executive Order 9066. From 1942 to 1945, it was the policy of the U.S. government that people of Japanese descent, including U.S. citizens, be incarcerated.

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Home World History Wars, Battles & Armed Conflicts
Table of Contents

Also called:

Second World War

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Date:

September 3, 1939 - September 2, 1945

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What was the cause of World War II?

What countries fought in World War II?

Who were the leaders during World War II?

What were the turning points of World War II?

How did World War II end?

How many people died during World War II?

World War II, conflict that involved virtually every part of the world during the years 1939-45. The principal belligerents were the Axis powers- Germany, Italy, and Japan-and the Allies- France, Great Britain, the United States, the Soviet Union, and, to a lesser extent, China. The war was in many respects a continuation, after an uneasy 20-year hiatus, of the disputes left unsettled by World War I. The 40,000,000-50,000,000 deaths incurred in World War II make it the bloodiest conflict, as well as the largest war, in history.

Along with World War I, World War II was one of the great watersheds of 20th-century geopolitical history. It resulted in the extension of the Soviet Union's power to nations of eastern Europe, enabled a communist movement to eventually achieve power in China, and marked the decisive shift of power in the world away from the states of western Europe and toward the United States and the Soviet Union.
(Read Sir John Keegan's Britannica entry on the Normandy Invasion.)

Axis initiative and Allied reaction

The outbreak of war

By the early part of 1939 the German dictator Adolf Hitler had become determined to invade and occupy Poland. Poland, for its part, had guarantees of French and British military support should it be attacked by Germany. Hitler intended to invade Poland anyway, but first he had to neutralize the possibility that the Soviet Union would resist the invasion of its western neighbour. Secret negotiations led on August 23-24 to the signing of the German-Soviet Nonaggression Pact in Moscow. In a secret protocol of this pact, the Germans and the Soviets agreed that Poland should be divided between them, with the western third of the country going to Germany and the eastern two-thirds being taken over by the U.S.S.R.

Pop Quiz: 17 Things to Know About World War II

Having achieved this cynical agreement, the other provisions of which stupefied Europe even without divulgence of the secret protocol, Hitler thought that Germany could attack Poland with no danger of Soviet or British intervention and gave orders for the invasion to start on August 26. News of the signing, on August 25, of a formal treaty of mutual assistance between Great Britain and Poland (to supersede a previous though temporary agreement) caused him to postpone the start of hostilities for a few days. He was still determined, however, to ignore the diplomatic efforts of the western powers to restrain him. Finally, at 12:40 pm on August 31, 1939, Hitler ordered hostilities against Poland to start at 4:45 the next morning. The invasion began as ordered. In response, Great Britain and France declared war on Germany on September 3, at 11:00 am and at 5:00 pm, respectively. World War II had begun.

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World War II | Facts, Summary, History, Dates, Combatants, & Causes

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World War II was a conflict that involved virtually every part of the world during 1939-45. The main combatants were the Axis powers (Germany, Italy, and Japan) and the Allies (France, Great Britain, the United States, the Soviet Union, and China). It was the bloodiest conflict, as well as the largest war, in human history.

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https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/with-a-history-of-abuse-in-american-medicine-black-patients-struggle-for-equal-access

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With a history of abuse in American medicine, Black patients struggle for equal access

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Black Americans have historically faced discrimination and even abuse by medical professionals, issues that have again come to the forefront during the pandemic. We here from Americans who have directly experienced discrimination, and Yamiche Alcindor speaks with Dr. Vanessa Northington Gamble, a pr…

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https://www.history.com/news/roaring-twenties-scams-ponzi-wall-street

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The Shady, Get-Rich Scams of the Roaring Twenties | HISTORY

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As newly minted Wall Street millionaires flaunted their wealth in the Roaring Twenties, many Americans, eager to make easy money, fell prey to cons.

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List 5 questions you would love to ask the author and explain briefly. Why you would ask them this?

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Choose another question from the Maslow's hierachy chart to answer AND answer #6 again for this section.

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https://www.nbcbayarea.com/news/local/maya-angelou-was-1st-black-san-francisco-cable-car-conductor/86333/#:~:text=Opacity,-Reset%20Done&text=Before%20she%20became%20one%20of,female%20black%20street%20car%20conductor.

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Before she became one of the most important African-American authors, orators and civil rights activists of the 20th century, Maya Angelou broke barriers working as San Francisco's first female black street car conductor.

Angelou -- who died Wednesday in Winston-Salem, North Carolina at age 86 -- started the job when she was just 16 years old.

Her mother, Vivian Baxter, encouraged her to pursue the position in the 1940s, Angelou told her dear friend, Oprah Winfrey, in a May 2013 "Super Soul Sunday" interview. Her mom told her that if she wanted her "dream job," she would need to arrive earlier than the secretaries and work harder than anyone else. Angelou wanted the job so badly, adding: "I loved the uniforms."

"I saw women on the street cars with their little changer belts... And they had caps with bills on them and they had form-fitting jackets," Angelou recalled.

She got the job. Her route, she said, ran from the beach to the Ferry Building.

Angelou also wrote about her street car experiences in a book, "Mom & Me & Mom ," one of seven autobiographies penned by the prolific author, who also wrote three books of essays, several compilations of poetry, plays, movies and TV shows. In her most famed book, I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, Angelou described standing on the black platform of a 7-Haight streetcar collecting nickels from passengers.

According to Market Street Railway, which employed Angelou, there is evidence to suggest a few black street car operators were hired before her, but she was the first female African-American conductor. Memorial to Maya Angelou at the San Francisco Railway Museum.

This year, she received a lifetime-achievement award from the Washington, D.C.-based Conference of Minority Transportation Officials during a program celebrating "Women Who Move the Nation." She was asked to be the keynote speaker in March. But in a phone interview Wednesday, spokesman Bill Carney said that she canceled the day before because of health reasons, and Jesse Jackson stepped in to replace her.

But most don't know about Angelou's street car experience. What the world remembers about Angelou are the words she spoke and wrote.

In her vast body of work, Angelou became a leading voice for the African-American community, and has been long regarded as an American civil rights leader.

Born in St. Louis, Missouri in 1928, Angelou later moved to Oakland, California, where a sculpture is dedicated to her at a park near the Fox Theater. During World War II, she studied dance and drama on a scholarship at the California Labor School in San Francisco.

Glide Memorial Church Co-Founder Rev. Cecil Williams told NBC Bay Area on Wednesday that he met Angelou - whom he called "sister" - at a party he hosted at his San Francisco home 40 years ago. "She was so inclusive, a great activist, a sage, and a creator of song and dance," Williams said, rattling off a list of wonderful attributes. "She did so much to bring people together. She was just one of the most human persons I have ever met."

Angelou spoke at Williams' church more than 100 times. Since she was ill in December, one of those times was speaking by video to honor Glide's 50th holiday festival to pay tribute to Williams and his wife, Janice Mirikitani, also a poet. Williams also officiated at Angelou's three weddings - and even held one "divorce ceremony" for her, he said.

Maya Angelou at Glide Memorial Church in San Francisco. Undated.

When Williams found out about his friend's death, he said he was "so moved, I just had to break down for a short time."

Though he met Angelou much later in life, he does remember her telling him about her driving a street car.

"Yes," Williams said. "We had a laugh about that."

NBC Bay Area's Christie Smith and Shelby Hansen contributed to this report.

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Maya Angelou Was 1st Black, Female San Francisco Street Car Conductor

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Before she became one of the most important African-American authors, orators and civil rights activists of the 20th century, Maya Angelou broke barriers working as San Francisco's first female black street car conductor. Angelou -- who died Wednesday in Winston-Salem, North Carolina at age 86 -- started the job when she was just 16 years old.

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Choose the final question from the Maslow's hierachy chart to answer AND answer #6 again for this section

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The US teen birth rate (births per 1,000 females aged 15 to 19 years) has been declining since 1991. Teen birth rates continued to decline from 17.4 per 1,000 females in 2018 to 16.7 per 1,000 females in 2019. This is another record low for US teens and a decrease of 4% from 2018. 1,2 Birth rates fell 7% for females aged 15 to 17 years and 4% for females aged 18 to 19 years. ²

Although reasons for the declines are not totally clear, evidence suggests these declines are due to more teens abstaining from sexual activity, and more teens who are sexually active using birth control than in previous years. 3, 4

Still, the US teen birth rate is substantially higher than in other western industrialized nations, 5 and racial/ethnic and geographic disparities in teen birth rates persist. 1,2

Disparities in Teen Birth Rates

Teen birth rates declined from 2018 to 2019 for several racial groups and for Hispanics. 1,2 Among 15- to 19-year-olds, teen birth rates decreased:

5.2% for Hispanic females.

5.8% for non-Hispanic White females.

1.9% for non-Hispanic Black females.

Rates for non-Hispanic American Indian/Alaska Natives (AI/AN), non-Hispanic Asians, and non-Hispanic Native Hawaiian, and other Pacific Islander teenagers were unchanged.

In 2019, the birth rates for Hispanic teens (25.3) and non-Hispanic Black teens (25.8) were more than two times higher than the rate for non-Hispanic White teens (11.4). The birth rate of American Indian/Alaska Native teens (29.2) was highest among all race/ethnicities. 1

Birth Rates for Females Aged 15 to 19 Years, by Race and Hispanic Origin of Mother: United States, 2018 and 2019

Data source: Martin JA, Hamilton BE, Osterman MJK, Driscoll AK. Births: final data for 2019. Natl Vital Stat Rep. 2021;70(2):1-50.

Geographic differences in teen birth rates persist, both within and across states. Although among states with low overall teen birth rates, some counties have high teen birth rates. ⁶

Social determinants of health, such as low education and low income levels of a teen's family, may contribute to high teen birth rates. ⁷ Teens in certain settings are at higher risk of teen pregnancy and birth than other groups. For example, young women living in foster care are more than twice as likely to become pregnant than young women not in foster care. ⁸

To improve the life opportunities of adolescents facing significant health disparities and to have the greatest effect on overall US teen birth rates, CDC uses data to inform and direct interventions and resources to areas with the greatest need.

The Importance of Prevention

Teen pregnancy and childbearing are associated with increased social and economic costs through immediate and long-term effects on teen parents and their children.

Pregnancy and birth are significant contributors to high school dropout rates among girls. Only about 50% of teen mothers receive a high school diploma by 22 years of age, whereas approximately 90% of women who do not give birth during adolescence graduate from high school.¹⁰

The children of teenage mothers are more likely to have lower school achievement and to drop out of high school, have more health problems, be incarcerated at some time during adolescence, give birth as a teenager, and face unemployment as a young adult.¹¹

On a positive note, between 1991 and 2015, the teen birth rate dropped 64%, which resulted in $4.4 billion in public savings in 2015 alone.¹²

Evidence-based teen pregnancy prevention programs have been identified by the US Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) Teen Pregnancy Prevention Evidence Review, which used a systematic process for reviewing evaluation studies against a rigorous standard. The Evidence Review covers a variety of diverse programs, including sexuality education programs, youth development programs, abstinence education programs, clinic-based programs, and programs specifically designed for diverse populations and settings. In addition to evidence-based prevention programs, teens need access to youth-friendly reproductive health services and support from parents and other trusted adults, who can play an important role in helping teens make healthy choices about relationships, sex, and birth control. Efforts at the community level that address social and economic factors associated with teen pregnancy also play a critical role in addressing racial/ethnic and geographical disparities observed in teen births in the United States.

References

1. Martin JA, Hamilton BE, Osterman MJK, Driscoll AK. Births: final data for 2019. Natl Vital Stat Rep. 2021;70(2):1-50.

2. Martin JA, Hamilton BE, Osterman MJK, Driscoll AK. Births: final data for 2018. Natl Vital Stat Rep. 2019;68(13):1-47.

3. Santelli J, Lindberg L, Finer L, Singh S. Explaining recent declines in adolescent pregnancy in the United States: the contribution of abstinence and improved contraceptive use. Am J Public Health. 2007;97(1):150-6.

4. Lindberg LD, Santelli JS, Desai S. Understanding the decline in adolescent fertility in the United States, 2007-2012. J Adolesc Health. 2016:1-7.

5. Sedgh G, Finer LB, Bankole A, Eilers MA, Singh S. Adolescent pregnancy, birth, and abortion rates across countries: levels and recent trends. J Adolesc Health. 2015;56(2):223-30.

6. Romero L, Pazol K, Warner L, et al. Reduced disparities in birth rates among teens aged 15 to 19 Years-United States, 2006-2007 and 2013-2014. MMWR Morbid and Mortal Wkly Rep. 2016;65(16):409-414.

7. Penman-Aguilar A, Carter M, Snead M, Kourtis A. Socioeconomic disadvantage as a social determinant of teen childbearing in the US Public Health Rep. 2013;128(suppl 1):5-22.

8. Boonstra HD. Teen pregnancy among women in foster care: a primer. Guttmacher Policy Review. 2011; 14(2).

9. National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy, Counting It Up: The Public Costs of Teen Childbearing 2013. Accessed March 31, 2016.

10. Perper K, Peterson K, Manlove J. Diploma Attainment Among Teen Mothers. Child Trends, Fact Sheet Publication #2010-01: Washington, DC: Child Trends; 2010.

11. Hoffman SD. Kids Having Kids: Economic Costs and Social Consequences of Teen Pregnancy. Washington, DC: The Urban Institute Press; 2008.

12. Power to Decide. Progress Pays Off. Accessed January 10, 2019.

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Teen pregnancy and childbearing bring substantial social and economic costs through immediate and long-term impacts on teen parents and their children.

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Maya Angelou, "Caged Bird" from Shaker, Why Don't You Sing? Copyright © 1983 by Maya Angelou. Used by permission of Random House, an imprint and division of Penguin Random House LLC. All rights reserved.

Source: The Complete Collected Poems of Maya Angelou (Random House Inc., 1994)

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Caged Bird by Maya Angelou | Poetry Foundation