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What makes the Great Wall of China so extraordinary - Megan Campisi and Pen-Pen Chen

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The rise and fall of the Mongol Empire - Anne F. Broadbridge

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This Chinese Ming dynasty banknote is inscribed with the title Great Ming circulating treasure note and a warning that counterfeiting is punishable by death. Paper currency was first used in China as early as AD 1000. However, the Ming were the first Chinese dynasty to try to totally replace coins with paper money. The state issued too much paper money, however, causing hyper-inflation. By 1425 paper money was worth only a seventieth of its original value and the use of paper currency in China was suspended.

Who were the Ming dynasty?

This banknote was commissioned by, Zhu Yuanzhang, the first Ming emperor. In 1368 he took part in the rebellion to overthrow the Mongol Yuan dynasty that ruled China. China enjoyed a long period of stability under the Ming dynasty (1368 - 1644). Many of China's ancient traditions were restored but China also pursued an expansionist foreign policy. Expeditions were sent across the Indian Ocean to India, the Middle East and East Africa. The introduction of yams, maize and potatoes by the Spanish and Portuguese allowed Ming China's population to double to at least 100 million.

A message on this banknote reads 'to counterfeit is death'

Is evil the root of all money?

This is many hundreds of years old, but in many ways it's remarkably modern. It's bigger than a banknote would be now - it's A4 sized - but actually it encompasses everything the modern banknote has, which is the visible stamp of authority of the state. And that has become crucial to people accepting paper money.

Money could be private currencies, there were in fact many attempts to initiate private currencies, they tended to break down. Why? Because the money itself was an attempt to be a substitute for promises to pay later; they wanted something in the hand now. If you had your harvest you were bringing to market you didn't necessarily want to swap it for something immediately, but you wanted purchasing power which you could retain to buy something later. But it had to be in a form that you could guarantee that it would be usable. And promises of credit often broke down - people broke their word.

That's why I think in someway the right aphorism is that 'evil is the root of all money'!
Money was invented in order to get round the problems of trusting other individuals. But then the issue is could you trust the person issuing the money? And you can imagine a world with many private currencies, but what we all want is something that we can all recognise as money; we don't want to have to go around judging whether your money is worth more than somebody else's. So the state became the natural issuer of money.

And then the question is can we trust the state? And in many ways that's a question about can we trust ourselves in the future. And what went wrong for the Ming dynasty was that although they were an empire with a bureaucracy, the one bit of the bureaucracy they didn't have was an institution to manage the paper money.

Mervyn King, Governor of the Bank of England

The Ming dynasty

China in the thirteenth century was the largest state and the largest economy anywhere in the world. And then the Mongols invaded in the 1260s, but they prove remarkably incapable of ruling the country, and after a century the country sinks into civil war. Out of this emerges the Ming dynasty in 1368.

The man who brings the dynasty into being is a peasant refugee by the name of Zhu Yuanzhang. He is also a very clever strategist, and after 15 years of civil war he emerges as the new leader in 1368 and decides to try and put China back to where it was millennia ago. He wants to recreate a stable agricultural, rural world. He wants to move away from the wild commercial vision that the Sung and the Yuan dynasty had embraced. Then curiously it slips away from him and the Ming dynasty will in turn become the largest commercial economy in the world.

People look back to the early Ming in two ways. In one way they don't like it because the similarities between Zhu Yuanzhang and Mao Zedong are very close: somebody from a rural background who steps forward, organises a revolution and grasps power,and for many people in China today Chairman Mao is not a happy memory. Therefore Zhu Yuanzhang is a figure they're a little bit anxious about. On the other hand there is a kind of fond memory of a period in which there appears to be stability. Of course, this is all retrospective: I don't think life was any more stable in the fifteenth century than it is in the twenty-first. But it seems to be a period when the Chinese knew who they were, what their place in the world was, and it was a place about which they could feel confident.

Timothy Brook, Shaw Professor of Chinese Studies, University of Oxford

Flying cash or worthless paper?

The origins of paper money lie in the 'flying cash' of Tang dynasty China (early ninth century AD). This was a perfect name for the certificates that were issued as part of a long distance remittance system. Tang dynasty China was a golden age, and a period of great activity on the Silk Road.

Merchants travelling to the capital city would deposit their coins with the government office representing their home locality, in exchange for a certificate (the 'flying cash'), which they could later cash in with the provincial authorities when they returned home.

Just like banknotes today, the certificates meant that people didn't have to carry around huge amounts of coins: the 'flying cash' was light, easy to carry, and easy to hide. There were also benefits for the issuers of the certificates, because it was cheap to produce and issue the certificates and it meant they always had access to ready cash in the capital city.

The certificates worked because there were advantages for everyone, and because people had confidence in the system. A win-win situation!

But paper money doesn't always work. Ming dynasty banknotes, like this one, were first issued in 1375, and they were successful at first. But the notes were not convertible, so people could not cash them in. Naturally, people turned to what they believed in, which happened to be silver.

Eventually, the Ming government had to enforce the use of banknotes, in particular by insisting that people paid their taxes in banknotes.

Eight Ming dynasty banknotes found in tombs dating to the 1420s tell us of the chaotic financial situation in China at that time. The notes were placed there for use in the afterworld.

In the 1420s a note for one string of coins (that's 1000 coins) was actually worth only 40 coins. The notes may have been almost worthless pieces of paper in the real world, but in the afterworld they could still represent 1000 coins.

Helen Wang, curator, British Museum

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This Chinese Ming dynasty banknote is inscribed with the title Great Ming circulating treasure note and a warning that counterfeiting is punishable by death. Paper currency was first used in China as early as AD 1000. However, the Ming were the first Chinese dynasty to try to totally replace coins with paper money.

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Genghis Khan's statue

Learn about the Yuan Dynasty, the largest empire in China's history: its origin, Mongol emperors, achievements, and end. Includes Yuan Dynasty China map.

The Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368) was China's first foreign-led dynasty, in between the Chinese Song and Ming dynasties. It was established by Kublai Khan, leader of the vast Mongol Empire, and fell into internal rebellion after it lost touch with its Mongol roots.

Facts About the Yuan Dynasty

The Yuan empire was founded by an illiterate nomad named Genghis Khan.

The Yuan Dynasty, ruled by Kublai from 1279, was the first foreign-led dynasty in ancient China.

Kublai's empire was the first to use paper money as the main currency.

The traditional Han ethnic people stayed at the bottom among the four-class system during the reign of the Mongols.

The famous Italian traveler, Marco Polo, visited China during the Yuan Dynasty and introduced China to Europeans.

Yuan's Origin

Genghis Khan (Ruled 1206-1227)

The Genghis Khan Mausoleum

Genghis Khan and his sons set the foundation for the Yuan Dynasty by defeating the Western Xia and conquering Central Asia, Mongolia, and the Hexi Corridor. This gave them a base of manpower, horses, technology, and experience to finish the conquest of the fierce Jin army and then to go on and conquer the Dali empire and the Song empire.

Trade on the Silk Road trade routes through the Hexi Corridor enriched the Mongol rulers and gave them power. Their control of this land passage allowed their troops to quickly move east or west as conflicts arose.

Ogedei Khan (Ruled 1229-1241)

Genghis Khan died in 1227 and had named his son, Ogedei, to be the next emperor. Ogedei was said to rule the whole Mongol empire from 1229 to 1241, but he concentrated his efforts in the eastern part of it.

In 1232, he invaded the Jin empire in alliance with the Song empire. Jin was defeated in 1234.

From 1235, Ogedei started a campaign with the Song Dynasty.

Kublai Khan (Ruled 1260-1294)

Kublai was a grandson of Genghis Khan. He had a comparatively long rule and reformed the empire to increase his power and make the empire prosper.

In 1253, he captured the Dali Kingdom in Yunnan Province.

In 1259, Kublai campaigned against the Southern Song Dynasty.

In 1260, Kublai took the throne after his elder brother, Mongke, died.When he heard that his elder brother, who was the Great Khan Mongke, had died, he and another brother went to war. Both of them wanted to be the Khan.

They fought a series of battles and Kublai won. This caused a division in the Mongol Empire. The Golden Horde that controlled the area of Russia and Chagatai Khanate did not recognize Kublai Khan as their ruler.

However, another brother of Kublai Khan who ruled the Ilkhanate far in the west paid homage to Kublai, but he was essentially independent of him. Kublai lost his direct control of these big Mongol regions in the west.

Hence, the eastern part of the empire became a base of power in the year 1260. To rule his empire, he utilized the government structure he found established in the Jin and Song empires but he replaced the officials with foreigners.

The Yuan Dynasty came from Mongolia.

In 1266, Kublai made Dadu (modern-day Beijing) his capital, and this further alienated him from his Mongol kinsmen who claimed he didn't follow Mongol ways and wasn't loyal to the Mongols.

In 1271, Kublai Khan founded the Yuan Dynasty, which coexisted with the Southern Song Dynasty.

Kublai sent large armies against the Song people in the 1270s. In 1276, the Mongols captured the Song capital of Hangzhou and most of the Song Dynasty clan. However, two young brothers of the captured Song emperor escaped and went south.

In 1227 , the Song Dynasty court fled to Quanzhou. They were attacked there by a rich Muslim merchant. They fled again to Hong Kong and the court attempted to make a stand there in 1279, but they were soundly defeated by the Mongols. The last emperor died there at the age of 9 in 1279.

In 1273, Kublai Khan issued paper banknotes called chao (钞). This was a big innovation in the banking and monetary system. Paper currency had been issued and used during the Song Dynasty era but the Yuan empire was the first dynasty in the world to use paper currency as the predominant circulating medium.

The advantage of paper money was that a large sum of coins was more difficult to carry and use.

For a while, paper currency helped increase the empire's trade with the rest of the world and increased the empire's overall wealth.

In 1274, he sent between 800 and 900 ships to conquer Japan for the first time. Then a storm destroyed several hundred boats.

The Beginning of Yuan

Emperor Shizu (Ruled 1279-1294)

In 1279, the Mongols completely conquered the Southern Song in the naval battle of Yashan. The last emperor of Song, the 8-year-old Emperor Bing, drowned himself in the sea with a loyal minister. The Song Dynasty collapsed.

Kublai eventually had real control of northern and southern China. He was known as Emperor Shizu of Yuan.

Kublai's Failed Invasions of Japan

In 1280, 6 years after Kublai's first campaign against Japan, he ordered the hasty assembly of a very large force. It is thought that one fleet was composed of 900 ships and that another was composed of 3,500 ships. The second fleet is said to have carried 100,000 men.

When the main fleet landed, they faced a wall that the Japanese had constructed against them, and they couldn't advance past the beach. Then a typhoon destroyed the rest of the fleet. It is thought that the ships the Mongols sailed in were designed for rivers and were not suited for sea voyages.

Yuan's Political System - Islam Became a Minority Religion

The Mongols, though they were originally nomads, herders, and hunters, ruled the empire successfully in the first few decades. This amazing dynasty made some major changes in the region's government and culture.

One big change during Kublai's reign was that foreigners became the rulers and administrators. Since they didn't trust the local people, they moved in a large number of Muslims and other people to help them rule the empire.

The Mongols had their own religious belief called Shamanism. However, this religion did not spread. Instead, both the Mongols and some indigenous people started accepting Islam. Some of the western Mongol domains converted to Islam, as did many Mongols in Central Asia and China.

They established a class structure with Genghis Khan's clan at the top, Mongols next, Muslims and other foreigners who were installed in official positions next, and the Chinese at the bottom. This created a lot of resentment among many of the people. They exacted a lot of wealth from many tributary states,which they used to fund their wars and to live extravagantly.

Muslim administrators and merchants took local wives and brought up their descendants as Muslims. In this way, Islam was established as a minority religion.

Yuan's Literature and Theater

In the beginning, the Mongols didn't emphasize and nurture the old Chinese literature, philosophy, or culture. They were more pragmatic. They wanted to have fun, and so they liked theatrical entertainment with a lot of action and Mongol-style music, big feasts, and parties.

Mongol rule was the time for popular entertainment to flower in the colloquial language for both the rulers and the masses.

In the genres of fictional novels and theater, major works in the vernacular language were written.

Emperor Wuzong (1307-1311)

The Chinese resented the Mongol proscription against them holding important positions as officials but the empire held together well until the third emperor, named Kulug Khan, came to power. His reign lasted only a few years from 1307 to 1311 but the empire had a severe debt and inflation problem, and discontent grew.

During his reign, the value of the paper currency was devalued by about 80 percent. This procedure enriched the court and the Mongols relative to the rest of the population but impoverished the population in general, especially the rich Chinese merchants and officials.

Since the Mongol rulers could print as much paper currency as they wanted, they printed too much and the value of the money kept dropping. The costly wars and great defeats were financed largely with paper money and, to reinforce their monetary control, they outlawed the use of gold and silver currency.

The Yuan Dynasty's Decline

Emperor Mingzong (Ruled 1329-1332)

From the 1330s onward, natural disasters, such as epidemics, droughts, and floods, brought suffering and death to the peasants. The Little Ice Age began, and similar famines and natural disasters caused political instability around the world at the same time.

In 1331, the bubonic plague pandemic, known as the "Black Death" in Europe, began to sweep the empire. The epidemic ravaged the empire. Millions of people died in Hebei Province alone.

Emperor Huizong (Ruled 1333-1367)

In 1344, the Yellow River shifted course. This caused a massive flood that impoverished an important and populous region at the center of the empire. The river flooded on two other occasions during the last couple of decades.

There were also massive famines. There was a time of drought that lasted from 1340 to 1380.

In 1351, a rebellion started called the Red Turban Rebellion. The Red Turbans said that the bad rule of the Yuan Dynasty caused the natural disasters because they lost the Mandate of Heaven. The court defeated the rebellion but more started soon after.

Between 1356 and 1367, an important leader of the Red Turban Rebellion, Zhu Yuanzhang, defeated all the other powerful rival armies. In 1368, he attacked the Yuan empire capital of Dadu (Beijing) and gained control of it. The Yuan court fled northwards.

Mongolia became the final home of the Yuan Dynasty clans. Mongolians kept trying to recapture the empire but they failed. They eventually allied with the Manchus, and Mongolians became officials in the Qing Dynasty.

Zhu Yuanzhang destroyed the Yuan palaces. He established a new dynasty called the Ming Dynasty.

Yuan Dynasty Sights and Tours

The Silk Road was a part of the Mongol and Yuan empires.

Beijing tours: Beijing (then called Dadu -'Big Capital') was the capital of the Yuan Dynasty and has continued to be China's capital for most of the following 800 years. Discover the enduring charm of the 'big capital' with China Highlights.

Silk Road tours: Their control of the Silk Road's northern land route to Central Asia gave the Mongols a major source of income and manpower. It is still a popular travel route for sightseeing. We offer a number of packages that highlight the sights along the historic land route.

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The Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368): Mongol China History

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Genghis Khan's statue Learn about the Yuan Dynasty, the largest empire in China's history: its origin, Mongol emperors, achievements, and end. Includes Yuan Dynasty China map. The Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368) was China's first foreign-led dynasty, in between the Chinese Song and Ming dynasties.

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The Mongol invasions of Japan took place in 1274 and 1281 CE when Kublai Khan (r. 1260-1294 CE) sent two huge fleets from Korea and China. In both cases, the Japanese, and especially the samurai warriors, vigorously defended their shores but it would be typhoon storms and the so-called kamikaze or 'divine winds' which sank and drowned countless ships and men, thus saving Japan from foreign conquest. The whole glorious episode, which mixed divine intervention with martial heroism, would gain and hold mythical status in Japanese culture forever after.

Diplomatic Opening

The Mongols had already sucked half of China and Korea into their huge empire, and their leader Kublai Khan now set his sights on Japan. Kublai was the grandson of Genghis Khan and had founded the Yuan dynasty of China (1271-1368 CE) with his capital at Dadu (Beijing), but just why he now wanted to include Japan in his empire is unclear. He may have sought to conquer Japan for its resources. The country did have a long-standing reputation in East Asia as a land of gold, a fact recounted in the West by the Venetian traveller Marco Polo (1254-1324 CE). Kublai Khan may have wished to enhance his prestige or eliminate the trade between that country and his great enemy in southern China, the Southern Song Dynasty (1125-1279 CE). The conquest of Japan would also have brought a new and well-equipped army into the Khan's hands, which he could have used to good effect against the troublesome Song. The invasions may even have been some sort of revenge for the havoc that the (Japanese pirates) had been causing to East Asian coastlines and trade ships. Whatever his reasons, the approach was clear: diplomacy first, warfare second.

The Great Khan sent a letter to Japan in 1268 CE recognising its leader as the 'king of Japan' and expressing a desire to foster friendly relations but also demanding tribute be paid to the Mongol court with the ominously veiled threat that the use of arms was, the Khan hoped, to be avoided. A Chinese ambassador, Zhao Liangbi, was also sent to Japan in 1270 CE, and he stayed there for a year to foster some sort of understanding between the two nations. Further letters and ambassadors were sent by the Khan up to 1274 CE, but all were blatantly ignored as if the Japanese did not quite know how to respond and so decided to sit silently on the diplomatic fence.

The Kamakura Shogunate had ruled Japan since 1192 CE, and the regent shogun Hojo Tokimune (r. 1268-1284 CE) was confident he could meet any threat from mainland Asia. Troops were put on alert in the Dazaifu fortress and military base in northwest Kyushu where any invasion seemed most likely to land, but the Khan's diplomatic approach was rebuffed both by the Japanese emperor and the shogunate. The lack of subtlety in the Japanese response to the Khan's overtures may have been down to their lack of experience in international relations after a long period of isolation and by the bias of their principal contact with mainland Asia, the Southern Song, and the low opinion exiled Chinese Zen Buddhist monks had of their Mongol conquerors.

The First Invasion (Bunei Campaign)

The Khan amassed a fleet of some 800-900 ships and dispatched it from Korea to Japan in early November 1274 CE. The ships carried an army of some 16,600-40,000 men, which consisted of Mongols and conscripted Chinese and Koreans. The first Japanese territory to receive these invaders was Tsushima and Iki Islands on 5 and 13 November respectively, which were then plundered. The Mongol attacks had met stiff resistance on Tsushima, where the defenders were led by So Sukekuni, but were successful largely thanks to superior numbers. The defensive force at Iki, led by Taira Kagetaka, was equally valiant, but they were eventually obliged to make a last stand within Hinotsume castle. When no reinforcements came from the mainland, the castle fell.

The invaders employed more dynamic battlefield strategies using well-disciplined & skilful cavalry which responded to orders conveyed by gongs & drums.

After a brief stop at Takashima Island and the Matsuura peninsula, the invasion fleet proceeded to Hakata Bay, landing on 19 November. The large bay's sheltered and shallow waters had suggested to the Japanese this would be the exact spot chosen by the Mongol commanders. Prepared they may have been, but the total Japanese defence force was still small, between 4,000 and 6,000 men.

The Mongols won the first engagements thanks to their superior numbers and weapons - the powerful double-horn bow and gunpowder grenades fire by catapults - and their more dynamic battlefield strategies using well-disciplined and skilful cavalry which responded to orders conveyed by gongs and drums. The Mongols had other effective weapons, too, such as armour-piercing crossbows and poisoned arrows. In addition, the Japanese were not used to combat involving mass troop movements as they favoured allowing individual warriors to pick their own single targets. Rather, the Japanese warriors operated in small groups led by a mounted samurai skilled at archery and a number of protective infantry armed with a naginata or curved-blade pole-arm. Another disadvantage was that the Japanese tended to use shields only as protective walls for archers while the Mongols and the Korean infantry typically carried a shield of their own as they moved around the battlefield. The samurai did have certain advantages over the enemy as they wore iron-plate and leather armour (only the Mongol heavy cavalry wore armour) and their long sharp swords were used much more effectively than the Mongol short sword.

Curiously, 18 days after first landing on Japanese soil and despite creating a bridgehead at Hakata Bay, the invaders did not push on deeper into Japanese territory. Perhaps this was because of supply problems or the death of the Mongol general Liu Fuxiang, killed by a samurai's arrow. It may also be true that the whole 'invasion' was actually a reconnaissance mission for the second larger invasion yet to come and no conquest was ever intended in 1274 CE. Whatever the motive, the invaders remained by their ships for the night, withdrawing out into the bay for safety on 20 November. This was a fateful decision because, in some accounts, a terrible storm then struck which killed up to a third of the Mongol army and severely damaged the fleet. The attackers were thus obliged to withdraw back to Korea.

Diplomatic Interval

Kublai Khan then returned to diplomacy and sent another embassy to Japan in 1275 CE demanding, once again, tribute be paid. This time the shogunate was even more dismissive in its reply and beheaded the Mongol ambassadors on a beach near Kamakura. The Khan was undeterred and sent a second embassy in 1279 CE. The messengers met the same fate as their predecessors, and the Khan realised only force would bring Japan into the Mongol Empire. However, Kublai Khan was occupied with campaigns in southern China against the Song, and it would be two more years before he turned his attention once again to Japan.

Meanwhile, the Japanese had been expecting an imminent invasion ever since 1274 CE, and this period of high suspense made a great dent in the government's treasury. Apart from keeping the army on standby, fortifications were built and massive stone walls erected around Hakata Bay in 1275 CE which measured some 19 kilometres (12 miles) in length and were up to 2.8 metres (9 ft) high in places. Intended to permit archers on horses, the inner sides of the Hakata walls were sloped while the outer facing was sheer. If a second invasion was to come, Japan was now much more prepared for it.

The Second Invasion (Koan Campaign)

Kublai Khan's second invasion fleet was a whole lot bigger than the first one. This time, thanks to his recent defeat of the Song and acquisition of their navy, there were 4,400 ships and around 100,000 men, again a mix of Mongol, Chinese, and Korean warriors.

Once again, the invaders hit Tsushima (9 June) and Iki (14 June) before attacking Hakata Bay on Kyushu on 23 June 1281 CE. This time, though, the force split and one fleet attacked Honshu where it was rebuffed at Nagato. Meanwhile, at Hakata, the Japanese put their defences to good use and presented a stiff resistance. The fortification walls did their job, and this time the attackers could not establish themselves permanently on the beach, resulting in much shipboard fighting. Eventually, after heavy losses, the Mongols withdraw first to Shiga and Noki Islands and then to Iki Island. There they were harassed by Japanese ships making constant raids into the Mongol fleet using small boats and much courage. Many of the later stories of samurai heroics come from this episode of the invasion.

On 14 August a typhoon destroyed most of the Mongol fleet, wrecking ships that had been tied together for safety against Japanese raids.

The Khan then dispatched reinforcements from southern China, perhaps another 40,000 men (some sources go as high as 100,000), and the two armies gathered to make a combined push deeper into Japanese territory, this time selecting Hirado as the target in early August. The combined fleets then moved east and attacked Takashima, the battle there taking place on 12 August.

Fierce fighting raged for several weeks and the invaders likely faced shortages of supplies. Then, yet again, the weather intervened and caused havoc. On 14 August a typhoon destroyed most of the Mongol fleet, wrecking ships that had been tied together for safety against Japanese raids and smashing the uncontrollable vessels against the coastline. From half to two-thirds of the Mongol force was killed. Thousands more of the Khan's men were washed up or left stranded on the beaches of Imari Bay, and these were summarily executed, although some Song Chinese, former allies of Japan, were spared. Those ships that survived sailed back to China.

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The storm winds that either sunk or blew the Mongol ships safely away from Japanese shores were given the name kamikaze or 'divine winds.' as they were seen as a response to the Japanese appeal to Hachiman, the Shinto god of war, to send help to protect the country against a vastly numerically superior enemy. The name kamikaze would be resurrected for the Japanese suicide pilots of the Second World War (1939-1945 CE) as they, too, were seen as the last resort to once again save Japan from invasion.

It seems, too, that the Mongol ships were not particularly well-built and so proved much less seaworthy than they should have been. Modern marine archaeology has revealed that many of the ships had especially weak mast steps, which is something absolutely not to have in the case of a storm. The poor workmanship may have been due to Kublai Khan rushing to get the invasion fleet together as many of the ships in the fleet were of a variety without a keel and highly unsuitable for sea voyages. Further, Chinese ships of the period were actually renowned for their seaworthiness, so it seems the demand for a huge fleet in a short space of time resulted in a risk that did not pay off. Nevertheless, the crucial factor in the fleet's demise was the Japanese attacks which had forced the Mongol commanders to have their large and unwieldy ships lashed together using chains. It was this defensive measure which proved fatal, come the typhoon.

Aftermath

The Mongols would also fail in their attempts to conquer Vietnam and Java, but after 1281 CE, they did then establish a lasting peace over most of Asia, the Pax Mongolica, which would endure until the rise of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 CE). Kublai Khan never gave up on the diplomatic route either and continued to send unsuccessful missions to persuade Japan to join the Chinese tribute system.

The Japanese, meanwhile, may have seen off the two invasions they called Moko Shurai but they fully expected a third to come at any time and so kept an army in constant readiness for the next 30 years. Fortunately, for them, the Mongols had other challenges to face along the borders of their massive empire and there would be no third time lucky in the attempt to conquer Japan. The great significance of the invasions to the Japanese people is here summarised by the historian M. Ashkenazi:

For the Japanese of the thirteenth century, the threatened Mongol invasion was, historically, and politically, a major watershed. It was the first time the entire military might of Japan had had to be mobilized for defence of the nation. Until then, even foreign wars were little more than squabbles that involved one or another faction within Japan - essentially domestic affairs. With the Mongol invasion, Japan became exposed to international politics at a personal and national level as never before. (188-9)

The Buddhist monks and Shinto priests who had long been promising divine intervention were proved right when the storms destroyed the Mongol fleets, and this resulted in an upsurge in both religions' popularity. One area of life where the invasions are curiously absent is in Japanese medieval literature but there is one famous scroll painting depicting the invasion. Commissioned by a samurai warrior who fought during the invasion, Takezaki Suenaga, it is known as the Mongol Scroll ( Moko Shurai Ekotoba) and was produced in 1293 CE to promote Takezaki's own role in the battle.

Unfortunately for the Japanese government, though, the practical costs of the invasions would have serious consequences. An army had to be kept in constant readiness - Hakata was kept on alert with a standing army until 1312 CE - and payment to soldiers became a serious problem leading to widespread discontent. This was a war of defence not conquest and there were no spoils of war like booty and land to reward the fighters. The agricultural sector was also severely disrupted by the defence preparations. Rivals to the Hojo clan, who ruled the Kamakura Shogunate, began to prepare their challenge to the political status quo. Emperor Go-Daigo (r. 1318-1339 CE), eager for the emperors to regain some of their long-lost political power, stirred up a rebellion which resulted in the eventual fall of the Kamakura Shogunate in 1333 CE and the installation of the Ashikaga Shogunate (1338-1573 CE) with its first shogun Ashikaga Takauji (r. 1338-1358 CE).

This content was made possible with generous support from the Great Britain Sasakawa Foundation.

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The Mongol Invasions of Japan, 1274 & 1281 CE

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The Mongol invasions of Japan took place in 1274 and 1281 CE when Kublai Khan (r. 1260-1294 CE) sent two huge fleets from Korea and China. In both cases, the Japanese, and especially the samurai warriors...

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The Great Wall of China is estimated to be 2,300 years old. It is in the list of the seven wonders of the world.

It was named the great wall as a collective name for a series of walls that were built across the historical northern borders of China.

The wall was built to protect and unite territories of Chinese states and empires against various nomadic groups of the steppe.

The wall is made up of earth and stone, it stretches from the China seaport of Shanhaiguan into Gansu province.

The wall was built to overlap in some strategic sections of the wall for maximum security.

The Great Wall of China became a UNESCO World Heritage Site in December 1987.

The wall is the longest man-made structure in the world, with a total length of about 13170.7 miles (21,196.19 km).

Read more on the best cities to visit in China. Here are the top 10 facts about the Great Wall of China.

1. The Great Wall was built for more than 1800 Years

When Emperor Qin Shi Huang took over the neighboring territories in 221 BCE and made it the Qin Dynasty.

He started constructing a 5,000-kilometer wall to protect his new-found territory.

It was a common feature to have walls erected around Chinese territories to protect the citizens from enemy invasions.

The walls date back to the 8th century BCE when barriers were put up to keep away nomadic armies.

Dynasties that took over would continue with the work and fortified their territories even more.

The Great Wall of China is largely credited to the Ming Dynasty that created the most recognized segments of the wall between the 14th and 17th centuries.

2. The Great Wall is made up of several walls

Most people believe that the Great Wall of China is one continuous wall.

The wall is made up of more than 20,000-kilometers of walls that stretch from the northern border of Ancient and Imperial Chinese territories.

It is made up of walls that are seamless at different sections. The sections were built by different dynasties over a period using stones and other substances.

3. Sticky rice was used in the construction of the wall

The wall was built with stones and earth, a more important part of the construction was the glutinous rice.

The sticky rice was used as the mortar due to its adhesive property. Studies have shown that the sticky substance of the rice is behind the endurance and strength of the wall.

It helped fix the bricks in place and held the bricks together so tightly that weeds cannot grow in many parts.

4. The wall was built by Chinese prisoners

During the reign of the Qin Dynasty, the construction of the Great Wall was done by convicted criminals. They were also part of the maintenance and surveillance team too.

The prisoners were distinguished from the rest of the law-abiding citizens by having their heads and faces blackened, they also had their legs in chains.

Those that were found guilty of homicide or tax evasion were punished by being sent to the wall construction.

It was a dangerous affair as it is estimated that 400,000 people died during the construction of the wall.

5. Roosters were used to guide the dead to crossover

The construction of the wall was a dangerous task, many lives were lost in the process of construction.

After the loss of life of their loved ones, the grieving families feared that the spirits of their beloved would be trapped at the wall forever.

They, therefore, strived to free them by crossing over the wall with a rooster in hand.

They believed that the rooster would help the trapped souls away from the wall to the other life where they would be free.

6. Foreign tourists have been more drawn to the wall than the Chinese tourists

The Great Wall of China is famous world over and is always in the bucket list of any tourist visiting China.

This famous landmark began drawing the attention of tourists in the 20th century becoming an international attraction.

The Chinese became interested in the wall's appeal in the 19th century after they had trade engagements with other Asian and European countries.

The traders that went to China would go back to their home countries with tales of arts and prints and the wall. This made the Chinese appreciate the wall even more.

The most visited section of the wall is known as Badaling near Beijing. This section receives almost 63,000,000 visitors per year.

It reaches a visitor flow of 70,000 people per day during peak season.

7. Some parts of the Great Wall were vandalized

Not all parts of the wall that stands today is what was there centuries ago. The surviving part of the wall that stands today is 13,171 miles (ca. 21,197 km) long.

This is believed to be less than the peak of the wall during the rule of the Ming Dynasty.

At least 1200 miles of the wall was destroyed, vandalized to make way for construction.

8. The Great wall is slowly vanishing

It is believed that some sections of the Great Wall at Gansu and Ningxia provinces will disappear in the next 20 years.

This section of the wall is said to be degenerating quickly due to natural and human activities.

These predictions on the slow disappearance of the wall has been more in the 21st century. Erosion and human activities are destroying the wall.

9. Bricks from the wall was used to build homes

Part of the reason for the disappearance f some miles of the Great Wall is that during the Cultural Revolution in 1966 to 1976, bricks from the wall were used to build homes, farms and reservoirs.

Mao Zedong, former chairman of the people's republic of China and the Red Guard saw the Wall as a relic whose materials would better serve in the development of contemporaneous housing than a historical landmark.

10. The wall was built by several dynasties

When the construction of the wall began, it was built by three states that were fighting.

It was later rebuilt by six other dynasties then restored as a tourist attraction by the Chinese government.

The Wall authorization was done by the First Emperor who died in 210 BC, long before the emergence of the Mongols around AD 800.

The Great Wall of China is the pride of the country. The amazing architecture that has survived several centuries.

The wall was built to keep away any invaders but it failed to do so. Some invaders managed to attack the wall while others failed.

The wall was close to the Silk Road which had a range of agricultural products and finer textiles, this attracted more enemies.

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Top 10 Facts about the Great Wall of China

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Top 10 Facts about the Great Wall of China The Great Wall of China is estimated to be 2,300 years old. It is in the list of the seven wonders of the world. It was named the great wall as a collective name for a series of walls that were built across the historical northern [...]

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The Forbidden City (Chinese name: 故宫 Gugong 'Former Palace') was the palatial heart of China. It is an imperial palace complex of the Ming and Qing dynasties (1368-1912) in Beijing, China.

As one of the five most important palaces in the world, the grand halls and walls proudly display the essence and culmination of traditional Chinese architecture, fitting for the capital city of the world's largest nation.

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What are some interesting facts about the Forbidden City?

Why Is It Called the Forbidden City?

Forbidden City History

The Forbidden City

The Forbidden City is now 601 years old [2021]. It was built from 1406 to 1420 on the orders of Zhu Di - Ming Dynasty Emperor Yongle (reign 1402-24).

Emperor Yongle was the third emperor of the Ming Dynasty. He seized the throne from his nephew. In order to consolidate his imperial power and protect his own security, he decided to move the capital from Nanjing to Beijing, which was his fief. Thus, Emperor Yongle ordered Kuai Xiang to design the Forbidden City in Beijing.

The Forbidden City experienced three fires, and so most of present palaces were rebuilt during the Qing Dynasty.

During the Second Opium War (1856-1860), the Forbidden City was controlled by Anglo-French forces and occupied until the end of the war.

Puyi, the last emperor, lived in the Forbidden City until he was expelled in 1924. After that, the Palace Museum in the Forbidden City was established and was opened to the public.

The Layout of the Forbidden City

The Forbidden City covers an area of about 72 hectares (180 acres) with a total floor space of approximately 150,000 square meters (1,600,000 square feet).

The Forbidden City falls into three parts: the defenses (moat and wall), the Outer Court and the Inner Court.

1. Forbidden City Gates and Walls - for Defense

Defensive Wall of the Forbidden CityFor security the Forbidden City is enclosed by a 10-meter-high defensive wall, which has a circumference of 3,430 meters. At each corner of the Forbidden City, there stands a magnificent watchtower, which was heavily guarded.

The Meridian Gate (Wumen in Chinese) is the main gate of the Forbidden City. It had three openings. Only the emperor could go through the middle one. It was the place where the emperor issued imperial edicts and battle orders.

The Meridian Gate is the entrance for Forbidden City visits. Visitors need to pass through Tian'anmen ('Gate of Heavenly Peace') to reach the Meridian Gate.

Meridian Gate

2. The Outer Court - Used for Ceremonial Purposes

Hall of Supreme Harmony

The outer court has three main buildings, where emperors attended grand ceremonies. In the Ming Dynasty era, emperors would hold court in Hall of Supreme Harmony to conduct state affairs.

The first hall waiting for you is the Hall of Supreme Harmony (Taihedian), the most important and largest structure in the Forbidden City. The emperors' Dragon Throne (Longyi) is in this hall. In Qing Dynasty, it was mainly used for ceremonial purposes, such as coronations, investitures, and imperial weddings.

The second hall, behind the Hall of Supreme Harmony is the Hall of Central Harmony (Zhonghedian), the resting place of the emperor before presiding over grand events held in the Hall of Supreme Harmony. Emperors would rehearse their speeches and presentations here before departing to the Temple of Heaven for the sacrifice rites.

The last hall is the Hall of Preserving Harmony (Baohedian), used for banquets and later for imperial examinations.

There are a couple of side gardens with interesting halls to explore. Please consult with your local guide if you want to visit them and have more time to explore the palace.

3. The Inner Court - Residence of the Emperor and His Family

Palace of Heavenly Purity

In the Qing Dynasty, the emperors lived and worked mostly in the Inner Court.

Out from the Hall of the Preserving Harmony, you will notice a huge block of marble carved with cloud and dragon designs. Go straight, and you will see another gate, called the Gate of Heavenly Purity (Qianqingmen). This is the main gateway to the inner living court.

The inner court has three main structures at the northern rear of the Forbidden City:

The first structure inside the inner court is the Palace of Heavenly Purity (Qianqinggong). Before Emperor Yongzheng (r. 1722-35), it was the residence of the emperor. Later it became the emperor's audience hall.

The second structure, behind it is the Palace of Union and Peace (Jiaotaidian), where the imperial seals were stored.

The third hall is the Hall of Terrestrial Tranquility (Kunninggong). In the Ming Dynasty, it was the residence of the empress. In the Qing Dynasty, it became a shamanist worship place. It was also used on the emperor's wedding night.

Other important structures:

Mental Cultivation Hall(Yangxindian):From the time of third Qing emperor Yongzheng, all the remaining Qing emperors, 8 in total, resided in this hall.

Six Eastern Palaces and Six Western Palaces on either side of the three main structures were the residences of the imperial concubines. It was also where many Qing emperors were born and raised.

The Imperial Garden is behind the Palace of Earthly Tranquility. It was a place for the emperor's family to relax and visit. The garden offers an aesthetic change - from the crimson and gray building complex to a colorful and luxuriant atmosphere.

Forbidden City Architecture

The Forbidden City is outstanding not only because of its magnitude, but also for its unique architectural design. Here are five key features.

1. Axial Symmetry and South-North Orientation

The important gates and halls of the Forbidden City were arranged symmetrically.

To represent the supreme power of the emperor, given from Heaven, and the place where he lived being the center of the world, all the important gates and halls of the Forbidden City were arranged symmetrically on the north-south central axis of old Beijing.

Heaven was thought to be Polaris (the North Star), the only seemingly stationary star in the northern sky, and the Forbidden City's layout points its visitors straight at "Heaven".

2. Wooden Structures without Nails

Wooden architecture in the Forbidden City

The Forbidden City is the largest and most complete complex of ancient wooden structures in the world.

The main frames of all buildings were built with high-quality wooden beams and columns, including whole trunks of precious Phoebe zhennan wood from the jungles of southwest China.

Forbidden City carpenters used interlocking mortise and tenon joints to build its great palace buildings "harmoniously", without nails. Nails were considered violent and inharmonious.

See The 4 Reasons Why Most Traditional Chinese Architecture Was Wooden.

3. The Yellow and Red Color Scheme

Red and yellow are the main Forbidden City colors.

The main colors of the Forbidden City are yellow and red. The walls, pillars, doors, and windows were mostly painted in red, which is a regarded as a symbol of good fortune, and happiness in Chinese culture.

During the Ming and Qing dynasties, yellow was a symbol of supreme power and only used by the imperial family. If you climb up to the top of "Scenery Hill" in Jingshan Park and overlook the Forbidden City, you will see an expanse of yellow glazed tile roofs.

4. Mystical Animal Statuettes on the Roofs

Animal Statuettes on the Roof of the Hall of Supreme Harmony

There is a row of mystical animal statuettes placed along the ridge line of halls that were only for official use.

The animals, like dragons, phoenixes, and lions, have powerful meanings in Chinese culture.

The Hall of Supreme Harmony has 10 roof ridge statuettes - left to right: 'Series Ten' (行什, unique to this roof, an anti-thunder monkey god), dragon, phoenix, lion, sea horse, Heavenly steed, a fish dragon, a Haetae (sheep-like dragon), a lion-like dragon, and a bull-like dragon.

The number of animals is different based on the importance of the buildings. You can see 10 animals on the Hall of Supreme Harmony, the most important structure in the Forbidden City, and seven on the Palace of Earthly Tranquility, the residence of the Empress.

5. Stone/Bronze Lions

In Chinese culture, the lion is the king of the animals, and is regarded as a symbol of power and strength.

Stone lions can be seen beside the entances of many Forbidden City halls.

Stone and bronze lions are popular as symbolic guardians, and can be seen beside the gates of many Forbidden City palace compounds.

The lions are always in pairs, with the female lion on the left and the male on the right. See more on China's Stone Lions - the Lowdown and Many Photos.

See more on Forbidden City Architecture.

Forbidden City Collections

Palace Museum

The Palace Museum in the Forbidden City holds more than a million rare and valuable works of art, a sixth of the total number of cultural relics in China.

The collection includes ceramics, paintings, calligraphy, bronzes, timepieces, jade pieces, ancient books, and historical documents. Some of the valuable collections include:

The Tomb-Sweeping Day Riverside Painting - a priceless treasure that stands out in the history of Chinese painting: the more than 500 figures in the painting each wear different styles of dress and are involved in different economic activities

The 'Eternal Territorial Integrity' Gold Cup - the greatest treasure of the Forbidden City: it was used by emperors of the Qing Dynasty

Lang Kiln Red-Glazed Vase - a rare red glazed porcelain vessel of extraordinary craftsmanship

For more, see The Top 10 Treasures in the Forbidden City.

More Forbidden City Related Articles

Explore the Forbidden City with Local Experts

A Panoramic View of the Forbidden City

The Forbidden City is a must-see attraction for visitors to Beijing. Visitors are limited to 80,000 a day. It is advisable to book well in advance.

Recommended Beijing Tours:

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Forbidden City: Uncover Its History and Facts You Didn't Know

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The Forbidden City (Chinese name: 故宫 Gugong 'Former Palace') was the palatial heart of China. It is an imperial palace complex of the Ming and Qing dynasties (1368-1912) in Beijing, China. As one of the five most important palaces in the world, the grand halls and walls proudly display the essence and culmination of traditional Chinese architecture, fitting for the capital city of the world's largest nation.

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Learning Objective

Explain the events that led to the fall of the Yuan dynasty

Key Points

The final years of the Yuan dynasty were marked by struggle, famine, and bitterness among the populace, with Kublai Khan's successors losing all influence on other Mongol lands across Asia.

From the late 1340s onward, people in the countryside suffered from frequent natural disasters such as droughts, floods, and the resulting famines, and the government's lack of effective policy led to a loss of popular support, eventually leading to the Red Turban Rebellion, which weakened the Yuan's power.

Emperor Toghun Temür defeated the Red Turban Rebellion, but was weakened and needed to rely more heavily on local warlords, and therefore central government control dissipated.

Toghun fled north to Shangdu from Khanbaliq (present-day Beijing) in 1368 after the approach of the forces of the Míng dynasty (1368-1644), founded by Zhu Yuanzhang in the south, thereby ending the Yuan.

The Yuan remnants retreated to Mongolia after the fall of Yingchang in 1370, and there formally carried on the name Great Yuan in what is known as the Northern Yuan dynasty.

Terms

Northern Yuan

The Mongol regime based in the Mongolian homeland after the fall of the Yuan dynasty in China in 1368.

Red Turban Rebellion

An uprising influenced by White Lotus Society members that, between 1351 and 1368, targeted the ruling Yuan dynasty of China, eventually leading to its overthrow.

The final years of the Yuan dynasty were marked by struggle, famine, and bitterness among the populace. In time, Kublai Khan's successors lost all influence on other Mongol lands across Asia, as the Mongols beyond the Middle Kingdom saw them as too Chinese. Gradually, they lost influence in China as well. The reigns of the later Yuan emperors were short and marked by intrigues and rivalries. Uninterested in administration, they were separated from both the army and the populace, and China was torn by dissension and unrest. Outlaws ravaged the country without interference from the weakening Yuan armies.

From the late 1340s onwards, people in the countryside suffered from frequent natural disasters such as droughts, floods, and the resulting famines, and the government's lack of effective policy led to a loss of popular support. In 1351, the Red Turban Rebellion started and grew into a nationwide uprising. In 1354, when Toghtogha led a large army to crush the Red Turban rebels, Toghun Temür suddenly dismissed him for fear of betrayal. This resulted in Toghun Temür's restoration of power on the one hand and a rapid weakening of the central government on the other. He had no choice but to rely on local warlords' military power, and gradually lost his interest in politics and ceased to intervene in political struggles, all of which led to the official end of the Yuan dynasty in China. After trying to regain Khanbaliq, an effort that failed, he died in Yingchang (located in present-day Inner Mongolia) in 1370. Yingchang was seized by the Ming shortly after his death. Some Yuan royal family members still live in Henan today.

Prince Basalawarmi of Liang established a separate pocket of resistance to the Ming in Yunnan and Guizhou, but his forces were decisively defeated by the Ming in 1381. By 1387 the remaining Yuan forces in Manchuria under Naghachu had also surrendered to the Ming dynasty.

The Yuan remnants retreated to Mongolia after Yingchang fell to the Ming in 1370, and there formally carried on the name Great Yuan in what is known as the Northern Yuan dynasty. According to Chinese political orthodoxy, there could be only one legitimate dynasty whose rulers were blessed by Heaven to rule as emperors of China, and so the Ming and the Northern Yuan denied each other's legitimacy as emperors of China, although the Ming did consider the previous Yuan it had succeeded to have been a legitimate dynasty. Historians generally regard Ming dynasty rulers as the legitimate emperors of China after the Yuan dynasty.

The Ming army pursued the ex-Yuan Mongol forces into Mongolia in 1372, but were defeated by the Mongol forces under Biligtü Khan Ayushiridara and his general Köke Temür. They tried again in 1380, ultimately winning a decisive victory over the Northern Yuan in 1388. About 70,000 Mongols were taken prisoner, and Karakorum (the Northern Yuan capital) was sacked. Eight years later, the Northern Yuan throne was taken over by Biligtü Khan Ayushiridara, a descendant of Ariq Böke, instead of the descendants of Kublai Khan. The following centuries saw a succession of Genghisid rulers, many of whom were mere figureheads put on the throne by those warlords who happened to be the most powerful. Periods of conflict with the Ming dynasty intermingled with periods of peaceful relations with border trade.

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Explain the events that led to the fall of the Yuan dynasty The final years of the Yuan dynasty were marked by struggle, famine, and bitterness among the populace, with Kublai Khan's successors losing all influence on other Mongol lands across Asia.