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Considered the father of modern science, Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) made major contributions to the fields of physics, astronomy, cosmology, mathematics and philosophy. He invented an improved telescope that let him observe and describe the moons of Jupiter, the rings of Saturn, the phases of Venus, sunspots and the rugged lunar surface. His flair for self-promotion earned him powerful friends among Italy's ruling elite and enemies among the Catholic Church's leaders. His advocacy of a heliocentric universe brought him before religious authorities in 1616 and again in 1633, when he was forced to recant and placed under house arrest for the rest of his life.

Galileo's Early Life, Education and Experiments

Galileo Galilei was born in Pisa in 1564, the first of six children of Vincenzo Galilei, a musician and scholar. In 1581 he entered the University of Pisa to study medicine, but was soon sidetracked by mathematics. In 1583 he made his first important discovery, describing the rules that govern the motion of pendulums.

Did you know? After being forced during his trial to admit that the Earth was the stationary center of the universe, Galileo allegedly muttered, "Eppur si muove!" ("Yet it moves!" ). The first direct attribution of the quote to Galileo dates to 125 years after the trial, though it appears on a wall behind him in a 1634 Spanish painting commissioned by one of Galileo's friends.

From 1589 to 1610, Galileo was chair of mathematics at the universities of Pisa and then Padua. During those years he performed the experiments with falling bodies that made his most significant contribution to physics.

Galileo, Telescopes and the Medici Court

In 1609 Galileo built his first telescope, improving upon a Dutch design. In January of 1610 he discovered four new "stars" orbiting Jupiter-the planet's four largest moons. He quickly published a short treatise outlining his discoveries, "Siderius Nuncius" ("The Starry Messenger"), which also contained observations of the moon's surface and descriptions of a multitude of new stars in the Milky Way. In an attempt to gain favor with the powerful grand duke of Tuscany, Cosimo II de Medici, he suggested Jupiter's moons be called the "Medician Stars."

"The Starry Messenger" made Galileo a celebrity in Italy. Cosimo II appointed him mathematician and philosopher to the Medicis, offering him a platform for proclaiming his theories and ridiculing his opponents.

Galileo's observations contradicted the Aristotelian view of the universe, then widely accepted by both scientists and theologians. The moon's rugged surface went against the idea of heavenly perfection, and the orbits of the Medician stars violated the geocentric notion that the heavens revolved around Earth.

Galileo on Trial

In 1616 the Catholic Church placed Nicholas Copernicus' "De Revolutionibus," the first modern scientific argument for a heliocentric (sun-centered) universe, on its index of banned books. Pope Paul V summoned Galileo to Rome and told him he could no longer support Copernicus publicly.

In 1632 Galileo published his "Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems," which supposedly presented arguments for both sides of the heliocentrism debate. His attempt at balance fooled no one, and it especially didn't help that his advocate for geocentrism was named "Simplicius."

Galileo was summoned before the Roman Inquisition in 1633. At first he denied that he had advocated heliocentrism, but later he said he had only done so unintentionally. Galileo was convicted of "vehement suspicion of heresy" and under threat of torture forced to express sorrow and curse his errors.

Nearly 70 at the time of his trial, Galileo lived his last nine years under comfortable house arrest, writing a summary of his early motion experiments that became his final great scientific work.

Galileo's Legacy

Galileo's motion experiments paved the way for the codification of classical mechanics by Isaac Newton. His heliocentrism (with modifications by Kepler) soon became accepted scientific fact. His inventions, from compasses and balances to improved telescopes and microscopes, revolutionized astronomy and biology. And his penchant for thoughtful and inventive experimentation pushed the scientific method toward its modern form.

In his conflict with the Church, Galileo was also largely vindicated. Enlightenment thinkers like Voltaire used tales of his trial (often in simplified and exaggerated form) to portray Galileo as a martyr for objectivity. Recent scholarship suggests Galileo's actual trial and punishment were as much a matter of courtly intrigue and philosophical minutiae as of inherent tension between religion and science.

In 1744 Galileo's "Dialogue" was removed from the Church's list of banned books, and in the 20th century Popes Pius XII and John Paul II made official statements of regret for how the Church had treated Galileo.

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Considered the father of modern science, Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) made major contributions to the fields of physics, astronomy, cosmology, mathematics and philosophy. He invented an improved telescope that let him observe and describe the moons of Jupiter, the rings of Saturn, the phases of Venus, sunspots and the rugged lunar surface.

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Tycho Brahe, Kepler and palnetary motion

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Tycho Brahe, Kepler and palnetary motion

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PART 1

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The story of the Royal Society is the story of modern science.

Our origins lie in a 1660 'invisible college' of natural philosophers and physicians. Today we are the UK's national science academy and a Fellowship of some 1,600 of the world's most eminent scientists.

Nullius in verba

The very first 'learned society' meeting on 28 November 1660 followed a lecture at Gresham College by Christopher Wren. Joined by other leading polymaths including Robert Boyle and John Wilkins, the group soon received royal approval, and from 1663 it would be known as 'The Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge'.

The Royal Society's motto 'Nullius in verba' is taken to mean 'take nobody's word for it'. It is an expression of the determination of Fellows to withstand the domination of authority and to verify all statements by an appeal to facts determined by experiment.

Advancements and adventure

The early years of the Society saw revolutionary advancements in the conduct and communication of science. Hooke's Micrographia and the first issue of Philosophical Transactions were published in 1665 alone. Philosophical Transactions, which established the important concepts of scientific priority and peer review, is now the oldest continuously-published science journal in the world.

We published Isaac Newton's Principia Mathematica, and Benjamin Franklin's kite experiment demonstrating the electrical nature of lightning. We backed James Cook's journey to Tahiti, reaching Australia and New Zealand, to track the Transit of Venus. We published the first report in English of inoculation against disease, approved Charles Babbage's Difference Engine, documented the eruption of Krakatoa and published Chadwick's detection of the neutron that would lead to the unleashing of the atom.

The leading scientific lights of the past four centuries can all be found among the 8,000 Fellows elected to the Society to date. From Newton to Darwin to Einstein, Hawking and beyond, pioneers and paragons in their fields are elected by their peers. Current Fellows include Jocelyn Bell Burnell, Sophie Wilson and Tim Berners-Lee.

Independence

Over time, the criteria for, and transparency of election to the Fellowship became stricter, and Fellows were elected solely on the merit of their scientific work. The first female Fellows were elected in 1945 - Dorothy Hodgkin, elected in 1947, remains Britain's only female Nobel Prize-winning scientist.

In the 19 th century, a Parliamentary Grant system was introduced, allowing the Society to aid scientific development while remaining an independent body. The Society now allocates nearly £42 million each year from government grants and donations and legacies from organisations and individuals.

Peter Collins, Emeritus Director at the Royal Society, has written about the history of the Society's postwar activities in The Royal Society and the promotion of science since 1960 (published by Cambridge University Press in 2015).

Through our policy work, journals, scientific meetings, events, worldwide partnerships and grants and awards, the Royal Society works to support excellence in science, building a home and future for science in the UK.

Timeline

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oldest scientific academy still existing

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History of the Royal Society | Royal Society

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Explore the history of the Royal Society, including our motto and discover our timeline of key events.

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video National Geographic about Newton and his secrets

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video National Geographic about Newton and his secrets

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Isaac Newton Mystery Files Forever by National Geography

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Basic primer on Newton's First Law of Motion