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The SEED COAT is the protective outer layer of the seed that prevents seed destruction through its multi-layered tissue which includes a hard, protective, mechanical layer that is surrounded by a impermeable cuticle. This is where the hilum and micropyle can be found. The HILUM is an elliptical scar that attaches the ovule of the seed to its placenta that is partially covered by the caruncle. The MICROPYLE is a small opening in the ovule integuments that grants sperms the access to enter the ovum during fertilization. The COTYLEDON (Taiz et al., 2015).

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Palawan is one of the largest province in the Philippines in terms of land mass and is considered to be a biodiversity hotspot due to its high number of different flora and fauna species. Home to 1,522 to 1,962 species of plants (WWF, 2021), Palawan is indeed a gold mine of opportunities for plant study.

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A. Stages of Embryonic Development: DICOT & MONOCOT

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A. Stages of Embryonic Development: DICOT & MONOCOT

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STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT IN AN ANGIOSPERM THE EMBRYO UP TO DORMANCY

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Seed dormancy is a plant adaptation wherein seeds overcome long periods of unfavorable growing conditions. Factors that are involved in this are the tissues or structure of the seeds, as well as hormones that and genes that are responsible for the regulation of seed dormancy (Bentsink & Koornneef, 2008)

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A seed bank is a place where seeds of various plants are kept and stored for future use in hopes of preserving the genetic diversity of plants. Usually, important plants such as plants that provide food, or economically important plants, are brought in these places to secure them (Csontos, 2007). These are particularly  important in case several disasters may take place and certain plant species may die off. With the help of seed banks, the deposited seeds can be withdrawn and used again to replenish plant populations.

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Bentsink, L., & Koornneef, M. (2008). Seed Dormancy and Germination. The Arabidopsis Book, 6. https://doi.org/10.1199/tab.0119

Csontos, P. (2007). Seed banks: Ecological definitions and sampling considerations. Community Ecology, 8(1), 75-85. Retrieved May 23, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/24113365

Hadas, A. (2004). Germination and Seedling Establishment. In Encyclopedia of Soils in the Environment (Vol. 4, pp. 130–137). Elsevier Inc. https://doi.org/10.1016/B0-12-348530-4/00149-1

Hamilton, L., & Dennis H. Murphy. (1988). Use and Management of Nipa Palm (Nypa fruticans, Arecaceae): A Review. Economic Botany, 42(2), 206-213. Retrieved May 26, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/4255066

Kathare, P. K., & Huq, E. (2020). Light Signaling in Plants. In Reference Module in Life Sciences. Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-819460-7.00085-2

Vandana, U. K., Singha, B., Gulzar, A. B. M., & Mazumder, P. B. (2020). Molecular mechanisms in plant growth promoting bacteria (PGPR) to resist environmental stress in plants. In Molecular Aspects of Plant Beneficial Microbes in Agriculture (pp. 221–233). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-818469-1.00019-5

Yildiz, M., Beyaz, R., Gursoy, M., Aycan, M., Koc, Y., & Kayan, M. (2017). Seed Dormancy. Advances in Seed Biology. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.70571

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Araral, R. K. (2017). DOST-FPRDI HELPS SAVE ALMACIGA TREES. DOST. https://fprdi.dost.gov.ph/239-dost-fprdi-helps-save-almaciga-trees.

ESF (n.d.). Attenborough's Pitcher Top 10 New Species of 2010. Attenborough's Pitcher |2010 Top 10 Species | ESF Top 10 New Species. https://www.esf.edu/top10/2010/01.htm.

Giant taro. The Living Rainforest. (2021). https://livingrainforest.org/learning-resources/giant-taro.

No Record - Useful Tropical Plants. (n.d.). http://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Sonneratia%2Balba#:~:text=The%20tree%20is%20sometimes%20harvested,the%20land%20behind%20from%20erosion.

Organic Seed Bank Establishment in Philippines. GlobalGiving. (n.d.). https://www.globalgiving.org/projects/organic-seed-bank-establishment-in-philippines/.

Parts of a Seed, Their Structure, and Functions with Diagram. Retrieved 26 May 2021, from https://www.sciencefacts.net/parts-of-a-seed.html

PLANT EMBRYOGENESIS. Retrieved 26 May 2021, from https://learning.uonbi.ac.ke/courses/SBT403/scormPackages/path_2/lecture_3_plant_embryogenesis.html

Saw, B. Epicotyl and hypocotyl in seed differences, function and definition - Biologysir. Retrieved 26 May 2021, from https://biologysir.com/epicotyl-and-hypocotyl-in-seed-differences-function-and-definition/

WWF. (2021). Philippines: Islands of Palawan, Balabac, Ursula, and the Calamain Group. WWF. https://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/im0143.

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The Philippines have a fair share of its seed banks across the country. Several private institutions such as ENCA Farm,  are trying to fund seed banks with the hopes of preserving the Philippine's flora biodiversity. Although many are trying to create seed banks, the cumulative effort is still not enough. It would however, be a big step forward for the Philippines, if a government funded effort in making a seed bank is done. This, paired with proper promotion and educational programs for local farmers would benefit the Philippines and its farmers both in the present and in the long run.

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Locally known as Polo de Hiero, the wood of this tree is known to be one of the hardest. Its wood is said to be durable and casts an attractive shine. In addition to providing top quality lumber, this towering tree that stands up to 30 feet tall serves as habitat for nesting wild species of birds (Fernandez et al., 2002).

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Kabugaw is a small tree from the Citrus family. Its fragrant and zesty fruits are used by the locals for many different things such as cooking, and traditional medicine (Fernandez et al., 2002).

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Nipa palms thrive in brackish swamps and grow close to mangroves. These clusters of nipa provide habitat for land and aquatic animals that live near the mangrove forests (Fernandez et al., 200). Locals living in rural areas swear by the effectivity of using nipa leaves in making huts. The leaves are also used in making concoctions as traditional medicine (Hamilton & Murphy, 1988).

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The Manila Palm that is commonly used as ornamental plants in parks and around buildings is actually an indigenous plant found in the Calamian Group of Islands in Palawan. This tree is introduced to other parts of the country and also abroad and has then grown into popularity. Its fruit is used for making chewing paan or "buyo" as referred to by the locals (Fernandez et al., 2002).

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Palawan is full of fascinating endemic plant species. One of these is the Palawan pitcher plant. One of the largest pitchers in the world, this plant is endemic to Mount Victoria in Palawan. This is valuable because of its rarity. It is also considered endangered, thus its conservation is of the highest priority (ESF, n.d).

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Almaciga is a commonly growing tree in the secondary and primary forests of Palawan. Its chief importance lies on its resin, which is used in several religious ceremonies as incense. In addition to this, its resin is also used as fire starters, and mosquito smudge (Fernandez et al., 2002).

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Molave is an indigenous plant found in Palawan. Its lumber is used as wood for construction as it is very sturdy and resistant to termites (Fernandez et al., 2002). Its wood and bark reportedly possess curing effects on wounds and poisonous bites. However, this tree is considered to be endangered due to too much logging. Many conservation efforts are now being done in hopes of saving this tree species (Araral, 2017).

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Badyang or giant taro has been growing in popularity nowadays as an ornamental plant due to its big and beautiful leaves that resemble elephant ears. However in Palawan, badyang grows in abundance in forests. Since its boom in popularity, its prices have increased greatly, having plant enthusiasts searching far and wide just to acquire a badyang plant for themselves. Additionally, the root of giant taro is cooked and eaten as a vegetable that is high in minerals and nutrients (The Living Rainforest, 2021)

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Narra is one of the most commonly used wood for making furniture such as cabinets, chairs, tables, and dressers. Its wood is valuable in particular because of its durability (Fernandez et al., 2002). Additionally, it is the national tree of the Philippines, and its symbolic importance must be valued which is why it is important to us that it is preserved through depositing its seeds in a seed bank.

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The coastal areas of Palawan are abundant with many different species of mangroves. Among these, are Sonneratia alba or the apple mangrove. These mangroves grow taller compared to other mangrove species and were used to make firewood. However due to too much logging and other human activities, natural growing apple mangroves have been disappearing much like other mangrove species. In addition to this, this mangrove species also contributes a lot to the mangrove ecosystem by providing brooding areas for many fish species and habitat for coastal birds, thus conservation efforts must be raised and implemented.

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Generally there are two types of seed dormancy. These are 1) primary dormancy and 2) secondary dormancy.

1. Primary Dormancy
Primary dormancy is usually exhibited by newly dispersed, mature seeds that fail to germinate under normal conditions. This is mainly due to abscisic acid or ABA, which induces that initial seed dormancy. Plants that usually exhibit this type of dormancy are Norway maple (Acer plantanoides), apple (Malus pumila), and white ash (Fraxinus americana) (Yildiz et al., 2017)

2. Secondary Dormancy
Once the dormancy is broken among seeds under primary dormancy, secondary dormancy may follow. Secondary dormancy is induced when seeds are exposed to unfavorable conditions that inhibit the germination of the seed for extended periods of time (Taiz et al., 2015)

Besides this, plants may undergo dormancy due to the surrounding tissue. Such dormancy is called coat-imposed dormancy. This can be induced due to different factors such as water impermeability, mechanical constraint, interference with gas exchange, and retention of inhibitors. Physiological or morphological factors may also play a role in dormancy. This is referred to as embryo dormancy (Taiz et al., 2015)

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There are many different ways to release a seed from dormancy. Light, chemicals, and different types of scarification done on the seed coat are all ways in breaking seed dormancy.

Natural Breaking of Seed Dormancy
Naturally, seed dormancy may break due to moisture and temperature. Other ways of natural breaking of seed dormancy is the decomposition of the seed coat due to decomposers found in the soil.

Artificial breaking of seed dormancy
There are also other ways to break seed dormancy artificially. Some of these are 1) using hot water, 2) manually scarifying the seed coat through mechanical means, 3) exposure to cold, heat, or light and 4) treating the seeds with sulfuric acid (Yildiz et al., 2017)

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The COTYLEDON is the leaf part of the embryo which nourishes the developing plant. It may exist either singly, hence "monocotyledons", or doubly, hence "dicotyledons" in plants (Parts of a Seed, Their Structure, and Functions with Diagram, n.d.). The EPICOTYL is positioned above the cotyledon and is in between the plumule and cotyledonary node. This is the one responsible for the rising of the shoot system and extends above the soil surface. On the other hand, the HYPOCOTYL is found below the cotyledon and lies between the radicle and cotyledonary node. This gives rise to the root system of the plant, terminating in the plumule which gives rise to the first true leaves of the plant (Saw, n.d). The RADICLE is the part of the plant that emerges first during seed germination. This grows towards the bottom of the soil and passes through the micropyle (Schiltz et al., 2015; Taiz et al., 2015).

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The single-celled zygote splits into two parts, the apical cell, located on the top, and the basal cell that is located on the bottom, through asymmetric cell division (PLANT EMBRYOGENESIS, n.d.).

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This stage portrays a circular or round shape of the embryo and is radially symmetrical. This is the stage where the dermal, ground, and vascular tissue systems are recognized (PLANT EMBRYOGENESIS, n.d.).

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3. Heart stage (DICOT); Coleoptile stage (MONOCOT)

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3. Heart stage (DICOT); Coleoptile stage (MONOCOT)

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The heart-shape is formed when two groups of cells divide producing two cotyledon lobes exhibiting bilateral symmetry. This is the stage where the two plant embryonic organ systems (cotyledons and the shoot axis) are exhibited, as well as where most tissue systems are differentiated (PLANT EMBRYOGENESIS, n.d.).

The coleoptile stage  is where the specialized tubular first leaf, shoot apical meristem (SAM), root apical meristem (RAM), and radicle (embryonic root) of monocots are formed (Taiz et al., 2015)..

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Fernandez, J., Fernandez, F., & Legaspi, E. I. (2002). Palawan Flora and Fauna (2nd ed.). Palawan Tropical Forestry Protection Programme .

Taiz, L., Zeiger, E., Møller, I. M., & Murphy, A. (2015). Plant physiology and development (No. Ed. 6). Sinauer Associates Incorporated

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Seed germination is the manner in which a seed grows the embryonic axis through water uptake of the dry seed (Taiz et al., 2015). This is considered as the first phase of the growth cycle in plants (Vandana et al., 2020). This can be considered as a vital phase in terms of plant growth and development which is maintained by two major hormones, the  abscisic acid (ABA) and gibberellic acid (GA) (Kathare & Huq, 2020).

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This Plant Area is in shelf format. Each column includes a topic and all the necessary information and figures that you need. Scroll down each column to learn more. Happy scrolling! <3

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4. Torpedo stage (DICOT); Juvenile-Vegetative stage (MONOCOT)

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4. Torpedo stage (DICOT); Juvenile-Vegetative stage (MONOCOT)

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The torpedo stage of dicots is where the suspensor starts to degenerate at this stage of embryogenesis, and the shoot apical meristem (SAM) and the root apical meristem (RAM) have completely formed (PLANT EMBRYOGENESIS, n.d.).

The juvenile vegetative stage of monocots is the stage where the shoot apical meristem (SAM) starts to grow the first several vegetative leaves (Taiz et al., 2015).

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Continuous cotyledon growth leads to this stage. Embryogenesis is almost done, while the mature seed is desiccated and dormant until germination (PLANT EMBRYOGENESIS, n.d.).

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B. Establishment of the apical-basal and radial axis 

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B. Establishment of the apical-basal and radial axis 

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Seeds are able to tell which germinating parts of it are supposed to go to the top (apical) and the bottom (basal) which can be explained by the genes and hormone/s acting on the seed.

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1.  GURKE (GK) - this gene greatly contributes to the apical part of the embryo. It reduces SAM and cotyledons, as well as encodes acetyl-CoA carboxylase for sphingolipids and very-long-chain fatty acids (VLCFA) synthesis (Taiz et al., 2015).

2. FACKEL (FK) - this exhibits defects such as malformed cotyledons, short root and hypocotyl, as well as numerous  shoot and root meristems. It also encodes a sterol C-14 reductase, an indication of the sterols' role in embryogenetic pattern formation (Taiz et al., 2015).

3. MONOPTEROS (MP) - this gene is purposed in the formation of basal elements including the hypocotyl and root. It encodes an auxin response transcription factor (ARF) (Taiz et al., 2015).

4. GNOM (GN) - this gene encodes  guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) which is responsible for auxin and its directional transport (Taiz et al., 2015).

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Auxin - being the only hormone to be transported from one cell to another in utilization of energy, this plant hormone is purposed to be the mobile chemical signal during embryogenesis. Its synthetic analogs are morphogens, which are substances that are known to be crucial among positional cues. This is able to initiate somatic cell embryo growth, and some concentration-dependent responses among target tissues. Its has further embryonic development participation through the polar auxin transport (Taiz et al., 2015).

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Seed germination, in terms of water uptake, has 3 phases: Phase 1 or imbibition process; Phase 2 or the decline of water uptake by imbibition; and Phase 3 resumption of water uptake.

Water imbibition during phase I is initiated by the rapid water uptake at the start of germination. This differs from phase III in the manner by which the gradient in this phase lowers the water potential via the matric potential, which came from the combination of water and solid surfaces via binding to it in creation of the gradient among dry seeds. Respiration, transcription, an translation are initiated once rehydration occurs (Taiz et al., 2015). This phase is said to be temperature-dependent and affects the respiration rate and the sensitivity of seeds to light, making it an active process (Hadas, 2004).

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The major mobilization of food reserves occurs after germination, where it is the one responsible to provide plant nutrition until such time that it has grown enough to photosynthesize. Such food reserves among angiosperms are often in cotyledons and endosperms. These food reserves are in the form of carbohydrates (starches), proteins, and lipids which are stored in certain tissues, such as amyloplasts which is specific to starch. In addition, amino acids are usually supplied by protein storage vacuoles in order to synthesize new proteins. This contains phytin that aids in seedling growth. Furthermore, storage of lipids occurs in the form of lipid or oil bodies (Taiz et al., 2015).

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Tropism is the response of plants to stimuli resulting in directional growth via an asymmetric growth of the apical or basal axis. This exists in two forms: positive, or plant growth towards the stimulus; and negative, or plant growth away from the stimulus. Stimulus affecting the growth of a plant also exists in two forms namely, gravity, light, and touch, hence the existence of three types of tropism in response to these three stimuli.

Gravitropism is the first response of newly growing plants towards gravity. This makes the plant shoots grow in an upward direction, specifically towards the sun, mainly for photosynthetic purposes. This however, grows its roots downward the soil to get nourishment and water. Once the plant grows above the soil, it now grows either towards or away from the light stimulus. This is phototropism, where photosynthetic benefits are more utilized. Lastly, thigmotropism is the resulting growth of plants in response to touch, which is advantageous in terms of going around obstacles. Taiz et al., 2015