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Robert Bullard’s "Environmental Justice in the Twenty-First Century" text helps to understand the concept of slow violence. This text speaks of the unequal distribution of environmental burdens on marginalized communities. The concept of slow violence suggests that environmental harms occur gradually and go unnoticed. Bullard's work aligns with this concept by illustrating how certain communities, specifically those with limited resources and political power, have long-term environmental injustices. Bullard speaks about a case in North Carolina, in which “more than 84 percent of [residents] whom are black – had lived with the legacy of 142-acre PCB-filled waste dump” (Bullard 38). It took “more than two decades” for this community to finally have detoxification begin on the waste dump (Bullard 38). The reason for the delay can be attributed to how environmental injustice occurs when one finds out that Warren County “is not only mostly black, but it is also mostly populated by people who are poor, rural, and politically powerless” (Bullard 40). This shows just how little regard there is for certain communities especially based on income level and skin color. There was no sense of urgency to remove this toxic danger from Warren County and it was a grueling fight for the activists in the area. The continued danger they were put in will lead to long term health effects for the people in this country since the first attempt at detoxification the county decided to do was a cheaper method but one in which PCB still continued to leak into the soil. This underscores the idea of a slow violence due to environmental injustices.

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Tommy Pico's "Nature Poem" refers to the concept of essentialism in the context of Indigenous identity and stereotypes. Pico talks about how people try to oversimplify and romanticize Indigenous people and their connection to nature. Essentialism basically reduces a complex culture to a set of assumed traits. Pico fights the notion that Indigenous people are expected to conform to a stereotype that perceives them as living in harmonious unity with the natural world. He urges readers to reconsider preconceived notions about Indigenous identity and the nature-culture dichotomy. For example, he says “This white guy asks me do I feel more connected to nature / bc I’m NDN / asks did I live like in a regular house / growing up on the rez / or something more salt / of the Earth, something reedy” (Pico 15). This type of question reflects the patronizing assumptions that essentialism contains and he expresses his frustration with the absurdity of such expectations.Through his works, he pushes people to try to have a more diverse understanding of Indigenous communities.

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One aspect of this paradigm is the concept of direct vs. indirect effects. The explicit, exemplified by a California consulting firm, strategically places hazards in low-class communities, which shows how the government is aware of power imbalances and historical patterns of discrimination (Merinsky). They are aware that those in lower income communities have less resources to fight back such changes, so there is purposeful placement of such hazards (Merinsky). The indirect effects are shown through an example of “Louisiana's Cancer Alley”, where decades of toxic releases cause systemic issues, intertwining socio-economic and environmental disparities (Merinksy). This concept shows environmental classism and how environmental and social injustices tend to overlap. This is important as it clarifies how writers need to address both direct and indirect dimensions for a comprehensive understanding of environmental disparities.

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As stated by Rob Nixon, the concept of “slow violence” has a challenge of finding a way to show the pervasive nature of delayed environmental harm. Evident by the number of fallout-related cancers and “excess deaths” stated in a CDC study, slow violence unfolds gradually so it is not immediately noticed (Merinsky). The fact that “some people live more downstream than others” and because these “unequal effects are hard to represent” requires writers to find a way to convey this subtle but profound violence in an effective manner (Merinsky). This concept is necessary to understand the unequal impacts of environmental injustices which is why writers of this paradigm must deeply understand this concept to be able to represent it accordingly.

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A sacrifice zone is an example of how certain environmental injustices are typically targeted towards specific, smaller, marginalized regions. It is “a geographic area that has been permanently impaired by heavy environmental alterations and/or economic disinvestment, typically through unwanted land use such as mining, heavy industry, and waste disposal” (Merinsky). It shows how these injustices target regions with little resources to resist changes causing unequal consequences of environmental damage (Merinsky). The Four Corners region, which is part of the uranium mining industry, is an example of a national sacrifice zone (Merinsky). This deliberate targeting deepens the existing disparities and amplifies the unequal consequences of environmental damage which reinforces broader patterns of social and economic injustice.

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Ecofeminism adds to the environmental justice paradigm as it asserts that patriarchal attitudes are foundational to ecological crises, emphasizing the overlap of gender and environmental degradation. This idea can be defined through an empirical frame as “environmental health risks manifest impact women in different (and more arguably) ways than men” (Merinsky). So, ecofeminism advocates for feminists and environmentalists to fight together as they are interconnected. Ecofeminism's critique of value dualisms aligns with the paradigm's examination of power structures. Since women and nature are viewed as passive subjects, and men and society are viewed as active subjects, it leads to the nonchalant attitude towards environmental issues, which can have dangerous outcomes because of “the way in which they are used” (Merinsky).

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Essentialism is another concept related to the environmental justice paradigm which is necessary to understand the social dynamics involved. Essentialism is “the perspective, argument, or belief that social categories of people – such as women or men, or different races – naturally possess certain intrinsic qualities, dispositions, and/or behaviors'' (Merinsky). It shows how the perception of certain groups having inherent traits can influence how environmental impacts are distributed. Apparently, any deviation from these expectations or the mere identity itself might be deemed "unnatural," thereby potentially justifying unequal treatment (Merinsky). Essentialism unveils the interplay between social constructs and environmental disparities, which can lead one to realize how this could’ve possibly been a method of “purification” of humans.

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Robert Bullard’s "Environmental Justice in the Twenty-First Century" text also mentions the concept of zoning laws and redlining and its attribution to targeted environmental injustices. When exploring who exactly is involved in creating and promoting these laws, Bullard mentions how a 2003 report from the National Academy of Public Administration found that “more than nine out of ten members are white; and most members are 40 years old or more” (Bullard 32). There is a lot of difference in the type of environment a black community vs a white community has and it can be attributed to how environmental racism occurs due to institutional racism. Bullard mentions how this type of discrimination is very subtly done by the government. This shows how power dynamics and structures are involved in the unequal environmental injustices in communities.

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Another aspect of this paradigm to note is the effect of governmental policies such as zoning laws. The idea of restrictive covenants which was promoted by the federal government had a continued after effect on real estate through zoning laws and redlining (Merinksy). They had a dangerous effect on contributing to discrimination as zoning became intertwined with racial politics which only furthered socio-economic disparities. Redlining promoted this even more by categorizing populations into green or red zones (Merinksy). This concept began to intersect with industry and waste disposal which led to many industrial facilities being disproportionately placed in lower-income areas, because they were “fourth grade or D or red” zones (Merinksy). This is an important concept to understand so one can see how there was and still is little regard for lower income communities and people of color.

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The environmental (in)justice paradigm focuses on how environmental damage is due to social inequalities and damages certain communities more than others. This sort of nature writing emphasizes that there is no universalness. Instead, it focuses on how multiple factors, such as government policies, history, and societal norms, are what contribute to the disproportionate environmental experiences of communities. This phenomenon is rooted in environmental racism, classism, ableism, and sexism (Merinsky). As expressed by environmental justice advocate Robert Bullard, it illustrates how certain groups suffer environmental burdens, while conferring benefits to white people. This is a necessary paradigm that writers can use to allow readers to understand how there are many layers to environmental impacts and it is strategic and not a coincidence. Various social, political, and historical factors contribute to environmental injustice.

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Simon Ortiz’s selection from Woven Stone refers to the idea of sacrifice zones. His work mentions how Spanish colonization deliberately disrupted pueblo oral traditions, severing the community's ties to the land. The suppression of oral tradition becomes a tool of destruction. There was also “diversion and pollution of water resources, rendering community subsistence and self-determination impossible” (Merinsky). For example, Ortiz says “My mother said the people / drank / from the nearby river / when she was a girl. / But when I was a boy, / we used it only for washing clothes. We could not drink it” (Ortiz 343). This shows how historical and structural injustices have turned Indigenous lands into areas where environmental and cultural sacrifices are made for the benefit of others. This is tied to the concept of sacrifice zones and how the area was ruined due to these disproportionate environmental burdens.

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Robert Bullard’s "Environmental Justice in the Twenty-First Century" text also refers to the concept of sacrifice zones and the type of work that is attempted at fixing such injustices. One example of this was Executive Order 12898 “which prohibits discriminatory practices in programs receiving federal funds [and] focuses the spotlight back on the National Environmental Policy Act [which] set policy goals for the protection, maintenance, and enhancement of the environment” (Bullard 21). It was required so that agencies had to disclose any potential effect by “proposed federal actions” on the quality of human health and the environment (Bullard 21). Bullard's exploration highlights how policy interventions seek to mitigate the consequences of sacrifice zones and promote environmental justice.

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In this article that is a conversation with Boston College professor Dr. Lacee Satcher, the intersection between redlining and environmental injustice is the focus. Dr. Satcher talks about the disproportionate risk of exposure to environmental hazards faced by communities of color, particularly within Massachusetts' inner cities. The rising asthma rates and the emergence of "urban heat islands'' in East Boston indicates the challenges faced by this community (Alston). Dr. Satcher mentions how the historical processes of zoning and segregation pushed Black Americans and communities of color to more polluted and less desirable areas. This led to lowered residential status and a lack of resources and upkeep. This article ties to environmental injustice as it pushes for policymakers to intervene and address these environmental injustices in order to take down these systemic biases embedded in the societal framework.

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How environmental racism is hurting communities of color in Boston

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A preview of State of Race: Environmental Justice.

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This article also somewhat ties into the concept of sacrifice zones as the Professor mentions that rising asthma rates are due to East Boston’s location near the airport. She mentions that while they can't just get rid of the airport, there has to be policy and change focused on attempting to minimize these effects as much as possible. She mentions it can be done by planting more trees and working ahead of the issue. “If asthma is going to be an issue, giving communities access to care when it comes to asthma and managing asthma” (Alston). This is a time where you can see that since it is a community of mostly color, there is not much priority towards helping avoid these issues, and is more of something that the community should deal with, even though society has constructed their community to this region over time, either directly or indirectly.

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How environmental racism is hurting communities of color in Boston

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A preview of State of Race: Environmental Justice.

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This tool can be used to understand the concept of slow violence. With this tool, one can use demographic factors such as race and income to show the disproportionate impacts faced by specific communities. This resonates with how communities characterized by lower income and communities of color are more downstream in terms of environmental concerns. The tool can be used to analyze cumulative environmental impacts on communities. The mapping feature can be used to see the spatial distribution of environmental hazards. This can show how certain communities tend to more likely be the victim of slow violence. One example of the use of this tool is how it can map the historical presence of brownfields. These are areas with a legacy of environmental contamination, so you can see over time how these sites have grown and contributed to a slow violence in communities. Then by overlapping demographic data, it can show how certain low-income or marginalized communities suffer the brunt of this slow violence.

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Alston, Paris. “How Environmental Racism Is Hurting Communities of Color in Boston.” GBH,

GBH, 13 Apr. 2023,

www.wgbh.org/news/local/2023-04-13/how-environmental-racism-is-hurting-communitie

-of-color-in-boston.

‌Bullard, Robert D. The Quest for Environmental Justice : Human Rights and the Politics of

Pollution. First ed., Sierra Club Books, 2005.

"EJScreen: Environmental Justice Screening and Mapping Tool." United States Environmental Protection Agency, 26 Jun. 2023, www.epa.gov/ejscreen/ej-and-supplemental-indexes-ejscreen.

Menrisky, Alexander. ENGL 2635E Lecture, [10/16/23]

Menrisky, Alexander. ENGL 2635E Lecture, [10/18/23]

Menrisky, Alexander. ENGL 2635E Lecture, [10/23/23]

Menrisky, Alexander. ENGL 2635E Lecture, [10/25/23]

Ortiz, Simon J. Woven Stone. The University of Arizona Press, 1992

Pico, Tommy. Nature Poem. Oregon, Tin House Books, 2017.