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The Indian Military has fought in all four wars of the nation, three against Pakistan and one against the People's Republic of China. They also fought in the border war against Pakistan, better known as the Kargil war in 1999.

Latest war

The Kargil War was a conflict between India and Pakistan in 1999 in the Kargil district of Jammu and Kashmir. The Pakistani forces occupied key positions that led to intense military action. The war was fought at extreme altitudes, and both sides used heavy artillery. Air support from the Indian Air Force was crucial

The Indian- China war

The Indian discovery of the road and objection to the Chinese presence in the sector was one of the factors leading to sharp border clashes between the two countries in 1962. At the conclusion of the conflict, China retained control of about 14,700 square miles (38,000 square km) of territory in Aksai Chin.

International

Treaties

Abolition of Forced Labor Convention.

Agreement establishing the African Development Bank.

Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora.

Agreement Establishing the Advisory Centre on WTO Law.

Agreement for Establishment of the Global Crop Diversity Trust.

Defense policies

India's defense policy plays the most critical role in the country's national security management by addressing external and internal threats to national core values.

The three. Services are - ARMY – The Army is organized into six Commands – Western, Eastern, Northern, Southern, Central and Army Training Command – each under a General Officer Commanding-in-Chief of the rank of a Lieutenant-General. The Commands are divided into Areas and Sub- Areas.

Over the years the management of defense in India's national security system has acquired increasing importance. The importance of defense in India's national security policies is mainly due to the continuing and multiplying external threats - both military and non-military. In fact, the Kargil Review Committee Report and the Report of the Group of Ministers on National Security have emphasized the need for changes in national security system and better defense and strategic management.5 Both the reports have taken note of the gravity of the security environment. According to one observation of the Report of the Group of Ministers, "Indeed, in just the last decade, India's security scenario has witnessed nothing short of sea change as a result of the end of the Cold War, the proxy war in Kashmir, militancy fueled from abroad in many parts of the country, the Revolution in Military Affairs and the increasing nuclearization of the neighbourhood.”6 This observation highlights the importance of external threats in national security policy and the need for a credible defense.

National security service

Strategic experts are demanding that India should come out with its National Security Strategy (NSS).  Every nation has an NSS, whether it is formally articulated in a published document or indirectly conveyed through speeches by political leaders both in the parliament and outside. While this is not to suggest that there is no need for it, the intention is to indicate that India has a security strategy, which is not published in a formal document. Earlier attempts to have a formalized NSS were shelved. It was considered advantageous not to have a publicized document.

There are some advantages in having a published document. The objective of an NSS is to provide guidance to all agencies to act in a coordinated manner for the protection of national interests, which include inter-alia its citizens in India or outside, their welfare, territorial integrity, and sovereignty, and ensuring economic growth while maintaining strategic autonomy in external affairs to pursue an approach that will help in achieving its objectives. It aims at ensuring the whole-of-government approach to face future challenges both internal, external and a combination of the two.

It’s need in India

1) Era of Strategic Uncertainty:

2) Nuclear Security and Geopolitical Shifts:

3) Emerging Indo-Pacific Security Framework:

Advantages—

Comprehensive Approach: An NSS provides a comprehensive framework for addressing various security challenges, both internal and external, in a holistic manner.

Clear Objectives: It outlines clear security objectives, helping to define the assets and interests that need protection and the identification of potential threats.

Policy Guidance: An NSS offers policy guidance, helping the government formulate and implement strategies and policies to safeguard national security.

Prioritization: It helps prioritize security concerns, enabling the allocation of resources and efforts to the most critical issues..

Resource Allocation: It assists in resource allocation, enabling efficient use of financial and human resources to enhance security.

Deterrence: The strategy can help deter potential adversaries by demonstrating a clear and well-thought-out approach to national security

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The electoral system of India plays a pivotal role in shaping the democratic landscape of the country, providing a platform for citizens to participate in the governance process. India, the world's largest democracy, employs a complex and inclusive electoral framework designed to ensure representation at various levels of government.

Key features of the electoral system of India:

Universal Adult Suffrage: India follows the principle of universal adult suffrage, granting every citizen above the age of 18 the right to vote without any discrimination based on caste, creed, gender, or religion.

Federal Structure: The electoral system in India operates at both the national and state levels. Elections are held for the Lok Sabha (House of the People), the lower house of the Parliament of India, and for state legislative assemblies

First-Past-the-Post System: The electoral system primarily employs the First-Past-the-Post (FPTP) voting method for both parliamentary and state assembly elections.

Election Commission of India: The Election Commission of India (ECI) is an independent constitutional authority responsible for administering election processes. It conducts elections for the Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha, and State Legislative.

Reservation for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes:

To address historical social inequalities, the Indian electoral system incorporates reservations for Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST) in legislative bodies.

Political parties of India

Bhartiya Janata Party (BJP):

Ideology: Right-wing, Hindu nationalism (Hindutva).

Key Focus: Economic reforms, national security, cultural identity.

Indian National Congress (INC):

Ideology: Center-left, secularism.

Key Focus: Social justice, economic development, inclusive governance.

Aam Aadmi Party (AAP):

Ideology: Anti-corruption, participatory democracy.

Key Focus: Clean governance, citizen engagement.

Communist Party of India (CPI) and Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI-M):

Ideology: Left-wing, socialism.

Key Focus: Workers' rights, agrarian reforms, social justice.

Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP):

Ideology: Social justice, empowerment of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and Other Backward Classes.

Key Focus: Addressing caste-based inequalities.

The multi-party system in India is characterized by:

Diversity: It represents India’s diverse political perspectives and regional differences.

Evolution: It has evolved from a single dominant party to multiple national and regional parties.

Representation: It ensures every political viewpoint is heard, strengthening democracy.

Regional Influence: The rise of regional parties has significantly influenced Indian politics.

Electoral reforms of India:
Electoral reforms in India refer to changes and improvements made to the electoral system to enhance fairness, transparency, and efficiency. Some key reforms include:

Restrictions on Exit Polls: To prevent undue influence on voters.

Ceiling on Election Expenditure: Limits are set on the amount a candidate can spend during elections.

Use of Electoral Bonds: Introduced for election funding to ensure transparency.

Enhanced Punishment: Proposals are in place to increase the jail term for those furnishing incorrect details in poll affidavits.

Independent Election Commission: Ensures free and fair elections.

The election process in India is characterized by: -

Election Commission: An independent body established by the Constitution of India, responsible for ensuring free and fair elections.

Universal Adult Suffrage: Every Indian citizen above the age of 18 has the right to vote.

Secrecy: Voting is conducted through a secret ballot to ensure the confidentiality of voters.

First Past the Post: The candidate with the most votes in a constituency wins.

Prohibitions: No party is allowed to use government resources for campaigning or bribe candidates before elections.

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The Constitution of India is the supreme law of India, adopted by the Constituent Assembly on November 26, 1949, and came into force on January 26, 1950. It is a written document that lays down the framework demarcating fundamental basic code, structure, procedures, powers, and duties of government and its organizations and rights & duties of the citizen. The Constitution provides for a parliamentary form of government which is federal in structure with the President as the constitutional head of the Executive of the Union. The Constitution is considered federal in nature, and unitary in spirit. It has features of a federation, including a codified, supreme constitution; a three-tiered distribution of legislative powers; and a federal judiciary with powers to interpret the Constitution and to declare void any unconstitutional legislation. The Constitution of India is unique in both spirit and content, and it is the longest written national constitution in the world.

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Foreign Policy, Diplomacy and Global Participation 

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Foreign Policy, Diplomacy and Global Participation 

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Introduction:

India, a land of ancient wisdom and modern dynamism, stands tall on the global stage as a vibrant democracy and economic powerhouse with its foreign policy on its outright flourishing.

I. From Nehru's Non-Alignment to Pragmatic Engagement:

- Cold War: Under Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, India championed non-alignment, refusing to join either the US or Soviet bloc. This principle emphasized national sovereignty, non-interference, and peaceful resolution of international disputes.

- Post-Cold War Shift: Recognizing its burgeoning economic and strategic interests, India adopted a pragmatic and multi-aligned approach. The focus shifted towards building strategic partnerships with major powers like the US and Russia, fostering regional cooperation through SAARC and the Neighborhood First Policy, and actively participating in global governance initiatives.

II. Key Bilateral Relationships:

United States:

- Defense Cooperation: Both nations conduct joint military exercises and share critical defense technologies. The US is India’s second-largest defense supplier.

- Trade and Investment: Bilateral trade exceeds $150 billion, ranking the US as India’s third-largest trading partner. Indian companies have invested heavily in the US, creating thousands of jobs.

- Shared Interests: Collaboration on counter-terrorism, maritime security, cyberspace, and regional stability fosters a strong strategic partnership.

Russia:

- Long-Standing Ties: A historical and strategic partner, with cooperation spanning defense, energy, and space exploration. Russia remains India’s largest defense supplier.

- Multilateral Cooperation: Both nations collaborate in BRICS and the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), advancing common interests on matters like regional security and economic development.

- Balancing Relations: India navigates its relationship with Russia cautiously, balancing strategic cooperation with concerns regarding its Ukraine invasion.

China:

- Complex Interdependence: China is India’s largest trading partner, with bilateral trade exceeding $100 billion. Both nations are key players in the global supply chain.

- Territorial Disputes: Unresolved border disputes in the Himalayas create tensions, leading to occasional military standoffs.

- Dialogue and Management: Despite differences, both nations prioritize dialogue and border talks to manage disputes and maintain bilateral stability.

South Asian Neighbors:

- Neighborhood First Policy: India prioritizes cooperation with its South Asian neighbors through infrastructure projects, economic connectivity, and cultural exchanges.

- Trade and Development: Initiatives like the South Asian Free Trade Area (SAFTA) encourage intra-regional trade and development.

- Security Concerns: Addressing terrorism, cross-border infiltration, and water resource management remain key challenges to regional stability.

III. Global Governance and Multilateral Engagements:

United Nations:

- Founding Member: India actively contributes to peacekeeping missions, advocating for global reforms, and amplifying the voices of developing nations.

- Security Council Aspirations: India seeks a permanent seat on the UN Security Council, reflecting its growing global stature and commitment to multilateralism.

- Humanitarian Aid: India is a major contributor to UN humanitarian agencies like UNICEF and the World Food Programme, providing assistance to refugees and vulnerable populations worldwide.

World Trade Organization (WTO):

- Championing Developing Countries: India plays a leading role in advocating for fair trade practices and protecting the interests of developing nations within the WTO framework.

- Trade Negotiations: India actively participates in WTO negotiations, ensuring its voice is heard on issues like intellectual property rights and agricultural subsidies.

- Trade Facilitation Agreement: India’s ratification of the WTO Trade Facilitation Agreement has streamlined customs procedures and boosted its participation in global trade.

G20:

- Shaping Global Economy: As a member of the G20, India contributes to shaping global economic governance, addressing issues like financial regulations, climate change, and sustainable development.

- Leadership Opportunities: India hosted the G20 summit in 2018, showcasing its economic and diplomatic influence on the world stage.

- Promoting Inclusive Growth: India advocates for inclusive global economic growth that benefits developing nations and marginalized communities.

IV. Soft Power and Cultural Diplomacy:

- Bollywood: Indian cinema enjoys immense popularity across the globe, bridging cultural gaps and fostering understanding.

- Yoga and Ayurveda: These ancient practices have gained worldwide recognition for their health and wellness benefits, promoting India's cultural heritage and soft power.

- Festivals and Exchanges: Initiatives like the Festival of India and cultural exchange programs celebrate India's diverse cultural traditions, strengthening international ties and enhancing mutual understanding.

V. Security and Strategic Partnerships:

V. Security and Strategic Partnerships: Beyond Borders and Threats

India's foreign policy extends beyond diplomacy and cultural exchange, actively engaging in crucial security partnerships and initiatives on the global stage. Here are some key aspects to consider for this section:

A. Counter-Terrorism:

Regional Cooperation: India spearheads regional efforts to combat terrorism through South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) initiatives and bilateral collaborations with neighboring countries.

International Partnerships: Actively collaborates with global players like the US, Australia, and Israel in sharing intelligence, conducting joint training exercises, and developing counter-terrorism strategies.

Domestic Measures: Strengthens internal security through intelligence gathering, improved border security, and counter-radicalization programs.

B. Maritime Security:

Quad Alliance: A central member of the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad) alongside the US, Japan, and Australia, focusing on maritime security challenges in the Indo-Pacific region.

Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA): Plays a leading role in IORA, promoting maritime cooperation, disaster management, and sustainable development in the Indian Ocean region.

Navy Modernization: Investing heavily in modernizing its naval fleet, including aircraft carriers, submarines, and advanced warships, to project maritime power and secure vital sea lanes.

C. Cybersecurity:

National Cybersecurity Strategy: Developed comprehensive national cybersecurity strategy to address increasing cyber threats and vulnerabilities in critical infrastructure.

International Cooperation: Collaborates with global partners in sharing cyber threat intelligence, developing cyber security skills, and promoting responsible cyber practices.

Domestic Initiatives: Establishing cyber security agencies, conducting public awareness campaigns, and strengthening legal frameworks to combat cybercrime.

D. Space Security:

*Emerging Power: India's space program has made significant strides, becoming the fourth nation to successfully launch a lunar mission and developing advanced satellite technologies.

*Space Security Concerns: Collaborates with international partners to address growing concerns regarding space debris, weaponization of space, and ensuring responsible use of space technology.

*Promoting Peaceful Space Exploration: Advocates for peaceful exploration and utilization of space, promoting international cooperation and scientific advancements.

E. Climate Change and Environmental Security:

* International Leadership: Championed the International Solar Alliance (ISA) initiative to promote renewable energy solutions in developing countries.

* Domestic Commitments: Set ambitious targets for reducing carbon emissions and investing in clean energy technologies to address climate change challenges.

* Vulnerability and Adaptation: Takes proactive measures to adapt to the impacts of climate change, addressing issues like water scarcity, food security, and natural disasters.

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 Fundamental rights and Directive principles 

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 Fundamental rights and Directive principles 

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The Indian Constitution enshrines Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles of State Policy. Fundamental Rights, outlined in Part III (Articles 12-35) of the Constitution, guarantee civil liberties such as equality, freedom, and protection against exploitation. They are enforceable by the courts and are essential for the welfare of individuals. On the other hand, Directive Principles of State Policy, specified in Part IV (Articles 36-51), provide guidelines for the state to establish a just society. They cover social, economic, and political matters and are not enforceable by the courts but are fundamental in the governance of the country. While Fundamental Rights focus on individual welfare, Directive Principles aim at the welfare of the entire community and the establishment of economic and social democracy. The Constitution of India emphasizes the harmony and balance between Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles, with both being integral to the commitment to social revolution

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Central and State government structures 

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Central and State government structures 

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India is a federal democracy with a parliamentary system of government. The government structure of India consists of three primary branches: the legislative, the executive, and the judiciary. The central government is the national authority of the Republic of India, and the state governments are the governments ruling the states of India. The central government is mainly composed of the executive, the legislature, and the judiciary, and powers are vested by the constitution in the prime minister, parliament, and the supreme court, respectively. The president of India is the head of state and the commander-in-chief of the Indian Armed Forces, while the elected prime minister acts as the head of the executive and is responsible for running the government. Similarly, in states, there is a council of ministers with the chief minister as its head, who advises the governor. The state legislature is bicameral in five states and unicameral in the rest. The lower house is elected with a five-year term, while in the upper house, one-third of the members in the house get elected every two years with six-year terms. Local governments function at the basic level.

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Federalism :

Federalism is a mode of government that combines a general government with regional governments in a single political system, dividing the powers between the two.

Federalism differs from confederalism, in which the general level of government is subordinate to the regional level, and from devolution within a unitary state, in which the regional level of government is subordinate to the general level. It represents the central form in the pathway of regional integration or separation, bounded on the less integrated side by confederalism and on the more integrated side by devolution within a unitary state.

Examples of a federation or federal province or state include Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Bosnia, Brazil, Canada, and India.

Modern federalism is a political system based upon democratic rules and institutions in which the power to govern is shared between national and provincial/state governments. The term federalist describes several political beliefs around the world depending on context. Since the term federalization also describes distinctive political processes, its use as well depends on the context.

Division of powers

In a federation, the division of power between federal and regional governments is usually outlined in the constitution. Almost every country allows some degree of regional self-government, but in federations the right to self-government of the component states is constitutionally entrenched. Component states often also possess their own constitutions which they may amend as they see fit, although in the event of conflict the federal constitution usually takes precedence.

In almost all federations the central government enjoys the powers of foreign policy and national defense as exclusive federal powers.

Bicameralism

The structures of most federal governments incorporate mechanisms to protect the rights of component states. One method, known as 'intrastate federalism', is to directly represent the governments of component states in federal political institutions.

Intergovernmental relations

In Canada, the provincial governments represent regional interests and negotiate directly with the central government.

Constitutional change

Federations often have special procedures for amendment of the federal constitution. As well as reflecting the federal structure of the state this may guarantee that the self-governing status of the component states cannot be abolished without their consent. An amendment to the constitution of the United States must be ratified by three-quarters of either the state legislatures, or of constitutional conventions specially elected in each of the states, before it can come into effect. In Australia, this latter requirement is known as a double majority.

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A state is a political entity that regulates society and the population within a territory. Government is considered to form the fundamental apparatus of contemporary states. Most often, a country has a single state, with various administrative divisions. It is a unitary state or a federal union; in the latter type, the term "state" is sometimes used to refer to the federated polities that make up the federation.

Definitions of a state are disputed. According to sociologist Max Weber: a "state" is a polity that maintains a monopoly on the legitimate use of violence, although other definitions are common. The degree and extend of governance of a state is used to determine whether it has failed.

Theories for the emergence of the state:

->Earliest state

->Modern state

Theories of state function:

->Anarchist perspective

->Anarcho-capitalist perspective

->Marxist perspective

->Pluralism

->Contemporary critical perspective

->Structural universe of the state

->State autonomy within institutionalism:

State autonomy theorists believe that the state is an entity that is impervious to external social and economic influence, and has interests of its own.

"New institutionalist" writings on the state, such as the works of Theda Skocpol, suggest that state actors are to an important degree autonomous. In other words, state personnel have interests of their own, which they can and do pursue independently of (at times in conflict with) actors in society. Since the state controls the means of coercion, and given the dependence of many groups in civil society on the state for achieving any goals they may espouse, state personnel can to some extent impose their own preferences on civil society.

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The flow of news from the government to the public 

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Political communication Political communication can be defined as the connection concerning politics and citizens and the interaction modes that connect these groups to each other. Whether the relationship is formed by the modes of persuasion, Pathos, Ethos or Logos. Public opinion Public opinion, or popular opinion, is the collective opinion on a specific topic or voting intention relevant to society. It is the people's views on matters affecting them. Role of media The media plays a vital role indemocracy, informing the public about political issues and acting as a watchdog against abuses of power. In the mid-20th century the government exercised considerable control over the media – but by the early 2000s media independence and access to government information was protected by a number of laws. How does the media affect the formation of public opinion? Firstly, public opinion is nothing but an amalgamation of opinions, views, beliefs, and attitudes of individuals which can be on a particular subject matter, voiced by a comparatively significant segment of the society.

[1]-Human nature is such that it makes them eager to know about their surroundings, the tendency of being informed, such an atypical nature makes them prone to relying upon and getting influenced by the information that they receive without critically thinking about the authenticity of the information. It can be observed that sometimes the information providers not only tell the bare information but also state their opinion along with it. Mass Media including news channels, internet (social media), newspapers, etc. have the power of changing people's perspectives on an issue in hand. [2]-All such instances combined help in the formation of public opinion, depending on the authenticity of the news and how the people wish to interpret it.

Public opinion matters as with the help of public opinion, several policy decisions can be taken by the government.