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personalized learning tool - Google Search

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Special Education: Everything You Need to Know

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Free Printable for staff and parents! The Special Education Process | Special education, Educational infographic, Education

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Feb 12, 2020 - The special education process can be bewildering. We created this infographic to help guide families and school staff through the process.

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Special Education Article (Definitions, Statistics, and Trends)

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Special Education Article (Definitions, Statistics, and Trends)

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Definition of special education

What is an IEP?

An Individualized Education Program, or IEP, is a program tailored to meet the individual needs of students with disabilities. The program is written in collaboration with a child's school district, their parent or guardian, and sometimes, the student.
The document outlines the special educational needs based on the student's identified disability. Read more.

How many students are in special education?

In the U.S. overall, 14.7 percent of all students were special education students (ages 3-21) in 2021-22. The percentage varied by state from 11.3 percent in Hawaii to 20.5 percent in New York.

Share of special education students by state

See the percent of special education students by state in the map below:

Has the number of students served in special education increased?

Special education statistics by race

Are schools overidentifying minority students with disabilities?

Federal law requires that states monitor their districts for overidentifying students with disabilities. Several studies have found that minority students are actually being under identified for disabilities.

What are the demographics of special education teachers?

Although research has shown that students often do better in school when they have a teacher of the same race, just over 81.8 percent of special education high school teachers in public schools are white, higher than the teaching population as a whole, according to the most recent data available. But under half of all students receiving special education services are white, according to 2021-2 2 data.

Inclusion statistics

Learning disabilities statistics

Autism statistics

Which disability categories have grown the most?

The percent of students with disabilities who had a specific learning disability, like dyslexia, decreased from 36 percent in 2011-12 to 32.4 percent in 2021-22. And the percent of students with disabilities with autism grew from 7.1 percent to 12.2 percent over the same period.

How much money is spent on special education by the federal government?

In fiscal year 2018, the federal government earmarked $12.3 billion for the education of children ages 3-12 with disabilities. That's only about 15 percent of the excess cost of educating students with disabilities, compared with the cost of educating a general education student. The federal government under the 1975 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act set a goal to pay states up to 40 percent of the excess cost. It never reached that goal.

What is the student-teacher ratio for special education students?

In 2016, there were 17.1 special education students for each special education teacher in the United States. That's higher than the overall student-teacher ratio of 16.2 students per teacher.

For more information on special education, check out our Special Education topics page.

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Special Education: Definition, Statistics, and Trends

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What is special education and what do we know about the student special education population and the teachers who educate them?

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Family Guide to Special Education Services

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Family Guide to Special Education Services

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Browse resources on Teachers Pay Teachers, a marketplace trusted by millions of teachers for original educational resources.

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Best Games, Apps, and Sites for Personalized Learning | Common Sense Education

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Best Games, Apps, and Sites for Personalized Learning is a list of 30 apps, games, and websites curated by Common Sense Education editors.

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That phrase should be kept top of mind when discussing any aspect of STEM, whether in regard to certification or in the classroom. However, many institutions still keep each of the STEM disciplines (science, technology, engineering, and math) in rigorous silos, with very little - if any - integration between them. This is in spite of the growing trend of making STEM transdisciplinary. I like to think of the difference between these two approaches as STEM vs. S.T.E.M.

Taking a Transdisciplinary Approach

As a scientist, I prefer the transdisciplinary, or STEM, approach, which goes a step beyond even interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary approaches. Here's what each of these terms means.

A multidisciplinary approach is one where several disciplines work independently - with little to no collaboration - toward a solution. Climate change, for example, is a problem often tackled by disciplines as diverse as engineering, chemistry, policy, and finance. Because each discipline works within its own silo, they often develop solutions that are not feasible when considered through the lens of another discipline. For example, while carbon capture may be a feasible solution from a chemistry perspective, it may not be a viable financial option due to the high capital costs for the technology.

On the other hand, an interdisciplinary approach uses a level of integration between disciplines, who share a common language and techniques. Using the carbon capture example, an interdisciplinary team would seek a solution that is viable both financially and scientifically. Information from the finance team could be used to guide the scientific developments of the technology, and vice versa.

A transdisciplinary approach integrates disciplines even further, transcending the traditional boundaries to solve a problem regardless of the disciplines involved. Each discipline is fluent in the tools, techniques, and language of the others, and together they all share a general framework for thinking about problem-solving. A transdisciplinary approach would tackle the carbon capture problem by creating a constant flow of information between the disciplines, with no traditional discipline boundaries to impede it. In fact, the disciplines aren't even seen as individual groups; instead, everyone working on the problem is part of a single team, which continuously iterates to understand the drivers that contribute to the cost and functionality of carbon capture.

Benefits of a Transdisciplinary Approach

Simply speaking, a transdisciplinary approach is the notion that new ideas are often merely a combination of many old ideas. That's the basic premise behind Frans Johansson's The Medici Effect: What Elephants and Epidemics Can Teach Us About Innovation. In a post from my website Missing Data, I described the book this way:

Johannson's book revolves around the concept of forming new ideas by bringing together seemingly unrelated disciplines, which, as patrons of the arts and banking moguls, the Medicis unwittingly did, thus - many claim - spurring the Renaissance. In effect, says Johannson, the melding of old concepts to spawn innovation was due to the Medicis' patronage, which brought together unrelated industries and allowed for a then-unorthodox exchange of ideas.

So transdisciplinary problem-solving isn't really new. And if it worked for the Medicis (and Europe in general), it can work for education.

A slightly more modern example than Renaissance Italy is the California Water Data Challenge, which unites the data community in the quest to bring safe, clean, and affordable drinking water to the citizens. In the words of the challenge's organizers:

Data has the power to help us see challenges through different lenses, discover solutions that may not otherwise be evident, and put tools into the hands of those who need them most - empowering the community to work together in new ways.

That's pretty much the essence of a transdisciplinary approach. To further underscore that notion, the challenge provides a wealth of open data portals, which participants are encouraged to view through whichever lenses they wish - biological, economic, ecologic, or what have you. Just look at the breadth of the challenge's previous projects.

Binghamton University has found the transdisciplinary approach to be so successful that in 2013, it developed a new approach to hiring faculty and supporting research through its Transdisciplinary Areas of Excellence (TAEs). Binghamton believes that these six varied disciplines - ranging from citizenship to data science - "can best be addressed by teams of faculty employing the perspectives and methodologies of multiple disciplines." In other words, each of these world issues can best be tackled by team of experts with diverse areas of expertise. Some of the specific projects the TAEs are tackling include reducing the cost of solar power and enhancing energy efficiency, developing methods for efficiently operating electronic systems, and addressing watershed problems on local, regional and global scales.

As a scientist, I of course prefer the transdisciplinary, or STEM, approach, as it goes well beyond the other two approaches. But it's not just science that can benefit from transdisciplinary methodology.

In my guest post for Teach STEM in Hawaii, I discuss how [teacher certification can benefit from the transdisciplinary approach] .

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That phrase should be kept top of mind when discussing any aspect of STEM, whether in regard to certification or in the classroom. However, many institutions still keep each of the STEM disciplines (science, technology, engineering, and math) in rigorous silos, with very little - if any - integration between them.

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sample lesson plan videos - Google Search

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Instructors have many tasks to perform during the semester, including grading assignments and assessments. Feedback on performance is a critical factor in helping students improve and succeed. Grading rubrics can provide more consistent feedback for students and create efficiency for the instructor/grader.

A rubric is a scoring tool that identifies the different criteria relevant to an assignment, assessment, or learning outcome and states the possible levels of achievement in a specific, clear, and objective way. Use rubrics to assess project-based student work, including essays, group projects, creative endeavors, and oral presentations. Rubrics are helpful for instructors because they can help them communicate expectations to students and assess student work fairly and efficiently. Finally, rubrics can provide students with informative feedback on their strengths and weaknesses so that they can reflect on their performance and work on areas that need improvement.

How to Get Started

Step 1: Define the Purpose

The first step in the rubric-creation process is to define the purpose of the assignment or assessment for which you are creating a rubric. To do this, consider the following questions:

What is the assignment?

Does the assignment break down into different or smaller tasks?

Are these tasks equally important as the main assignment?

What are the learning objectives for the assignment?

What do you want students to demonstrate through the completion of this assignment?

What would an excellent assignment look like?

How would you describe an acceptable assignment?

How would you describe an assignment that falls below expectations?

What kind of feedback do you want to give students for their work?

Do you want/need to give them a grade? If so, do you want to give them a single overall grade or detailed feedback based on a variety of criteria?

Do you want to give students specific feedback that will help them improve their future work?

Step 2: Decide What Kind of Rubric You Will Use

Types of rubrics: holistic, analytic/descriptive, single-point

Holistic Rubric. A holistic rubric consists of a single scale with all the criteria to be included in the evaluation (such as clarity, organization, mechanics, etc.) being considered together. With a holistic rubric, the rater or grader assigns a single score (usually on a 1-4 or 1-6 point scale) based on an overall judgment of the student's work. The rater matches an entire piece of student work to a single description on the scale.

Advantages of holistic rubrics:

Place an emphasis on what learners can demonstrate rather than what they cannot

Save time by minimizing the number of decisions to be made

Can be used consistently across raters, provided they have all been trained

Disadvantages of holistic rubrics:

Do not provide specific feedback for improvement

Can be difficult to choose a score when a student's work is at varying levels across the criteria

Criteria cannot be weighted

Analytic/Descriptive Rubric. An analytic rubric resembles a grid with the criteria for an assignment listed in the left column and with levels of performance listed across the top row, often using numbers and/or descriptive tags. The cells within the center of the rubric may be left blank or may contain descriptions of what the specified criteria look like for each level of performance. When scoring with an analytic rubric, each of the criteria is scored individually.

Advantages of analytic rubrics:

Provide feedback on areas of strength or weakness

Each criterion can be weighted to reflect its relative importance

Disadvantages of analytic rubrics:

More time-consuming to create and use than a holistic rubric

May not be used consistently across raters unless the rubrics are well defined

May limit personalized feedback to help students improve

Single-Point Rubric. Similar to an analytic/descriptive rubric in that it breaks down the components of an assignment into different criteria. The detailed performance descriptors are only for the level of proficiency. Feedback space is provided for instructors to give individualized comments to help students improve and/or show where they excelled beyond the proficiency descriptors.

Advantages of single-point rubrics:

Easier to create than an analytic/descriptive rubric

More likely that students will read the descriptors

Areas of concern and excellence are open-ended removes a focus on the grade/points

May increase student creativity in project-based assignments

Disadvantages of analytic rubrics:

Requires more work for instructors writing feedback

Step 3: Define the Criteria

Ask yourself: What knowledge and skills are required for the assignment/assessment? Make a list of these, group and label them, and eliminate any that are not critical.

Helpful strategies for defining grading criteria:

Review the learning objectives for the course; use the assignment prompt, existing grading checklists, peer response sheets, comments on previous work, past examples of student work, etc.

Try describing A/B/C work.

Consider "sentence starters" with verbs describing student performance from Bloom's Taxonomy or other terms to indicate various levels of performance, i.e., presence to absence, complete to incomplete, many to some to none, major to minor, consistent to inconsistent, always to usually to sometimes to rarely

Collaborate with co-instructors, teaching assistants, and other colleagues

Brainstorm and discuss with students

Consider the effectiveness of the criteria:

Can they be observed and measured?

Are they important and essential?

Are they distinct from other criteria?

Are they phrased in precise, unambiguous language?

Revise the criteria as needed

Consider how you will weigh them in relation to each other

Step 4: Design the Rating Scale

Most ratings scales include between 3 and 5 levels. Consider the following questions:

Given what students are able to demonstrate in this assignment/assessment, what are the possible levels of achievement?

Will you use numbers or descriptive labels for these levels?

If you choose descriptive labels, what labels are most appropriate? Will you assign a number to those labels?

In what order will you list these levels - from lowest to highest or vice versa?

Step 5: Write Descriptions for Each Level of the Rating Scale

Create statements of expected performance at each level of the rubric. For an analytic rubric, do this for each particular criterion of the rubric. These descriptions help students understand your expectations and their performance in regard to those expectations.

Start with the top/exemplary work category -what does it look like when a student has achieved excellence in each category? Then look at the "bottom" category -what does it look like when students have not achieved the learning goals in any way? Then add the categories in between.

Also, take into consideration that well-written descriptions:

Describe observable and measurable behavior

Use parallel language across the scale

Indicate the degree to which the standards are met

Step 6: Create your Rubric

Develop the criteria, rating scale, and descriptions for each level of the rating scale into a rubric

Include the assignment at the top of the rubric, space permitting

For reading and grading ease, limit the rubric to a single page, if possible

Consider the effectiveness of your rubric and revise accordingly

Create your rubric in a table or spreadsheet in Word, Google Docs, Sheets, etc., and then transfer it by typing it into Moodle. You can also use online tools to create the rubric, but you will still have to type the criteria, indicators, levels, etc., into Moodle. Rubric creators: Rubistar, iRubric

Step 7: Pilot-test your Rubric

Prior to implementing your rubric on a live course, obtain feedback from:

Colleagues

Teacher Assistants

Students

Also, try out your new rubric on a sample of student work. After you pilot-test your rubric, analyze the results to consider its effectiveness and revise accordingly.

Best Practices

Use Parallel Language. Make sure that the language from column to column is similar and that syntax and wording correspond. Of course, the words will change for each section or assignment, as will the expectations, but in terms of readability, make sure that the rubric can be easily read from left to right or vice versa. In addition, if you have an indicator described in one category, it will need to be described in the next category, whether it is about "having included" or "not having included" something. This is all about clarity and transparency to students.

Use Student-Friendly Language. If students can't understand the rubric, it will not be useful for guiding instruction, reflection, and assessment. If you want students to engage in using the rubric, they have to understand it. Make sure the language is learning-level appropriate. If you use academic language or concepts, you will need to teach those concepts.

Use the Rubric with Your Students. You have to use the rubric with the students. It means nothing to them if you don't. For students to find the rubric useful in terms of their learning, they must see a reason for using it. Students should understand that the rubric is there to help them learn, reflect, and self-assess. If students use a rubric, they will understand the expectations and their relevance to learning.

Don't Use Too Many Columns. The rubric needs to be comprehensible and organized. Pick the right amount of columns so that the criteria flow logically and naturally across levels.

Common Rubrics and Templates are Awesome. Avoid rubric fatigue, as in creating rubrics to the point where you just can't do it anymore. This can be done with common rubrics that students see across multiple classroom activities and through creating templates that you can alter slightly as needed. Design those templates for learning targets or similar performance tasks in your classroom. It's easy to change these types of rubrics later. Figure out your common practices and create a single rubric your team can use.

Rely on Descriptive Language. The most effective descriptions are those that use specific descriptions. This means avoiding words like "good" and "excellent." At the same time, don't rely on numbers, such as a number of resources, as your crutch. Instead of saying, "find excellent sources" or "use three sources," focus your rubric language on the quality use of whatever sources students find and on the best possible way of aligning that data to the work. It isn't about the number of sources, and "excellent" is too vague for students. Be specific and descriptive.

Examples

Example of an analytic rubric for a final paper

Needs Improvement (1) Developing (2) Sufficient (3) Above Average (4)

Clarity (Thesis supported by relevant information and ideas)

The purpose of the student work is not well-defined. Central ideas are not focused to support the thesis. Thoughts appear disconnected.

The central purpose of the student work is identified. Ideas are generally focused in a way that supports the thesis.

The central purpose of the student work is clear and ideas are almost always focused in a way that supports the thesis. Relevant details illustrate the author's ideas.

The central purpose of the student work is clear and supporting ideas always are always well-focused. Details are relevant, enrich the work.

Organization (Sequencing of elements/ ideas)

Information and ideas are poorly sequenced (the author jumps around). The audience has difficulty following the thread of thought.

Information and ideas are presented in an order that the audience can follow with minimum difficulty.

Information and ideas are presented in a logical sequence which is followed by the reader with little or no difficulty.

Information and ideas are presented in a logical sequence which flows naturally and is engaging to the audience.

Mechanics (Correctness of grammar and spelling)

There are five or more misspellings and/or systematic grammatical errors per page or eight or more in the entire document. The readability of the work is seriously hampered by errors.

There are no more than four misspellings and/or systematic grammatical errors per page or six or more in the entire document. Errors distract from the work.

There are no more than three misspellings and/or grammatical errors per page and no more than five in the entire document. The readability of the work is minimally interrupted by errors.

There are no more than two misspelled words or grammatical errors in the document.

Example of a holistic rubric for a final paper

Articulating thoughts through written communication- final paper.

1. Above Average: The audience is able to easily identify the focus of the work and is engaged by its clear focus and relevant details. Information is presented logically and naturally. There are no more than two mechanical errors or misspelled words to distract the reader.

2. Sufficient: The audience is easily able to identify the focus of the student work which is supported by relevant ideas and supporting details. Information is presented in a logical manner that is easily followed. There is minimal interruption to the work due to misspellings and/or mechanical errors.

3. Developing: The audience can identify the central purpose of the student work without little difficulty and supporting ideas are present and clear. The information is presented in an orderly fashion that can be followed with little difficulty. There are some misspellings or mechanical errors, but they do not distract from the work.

4. Needs Improvement: The audience cannot clearly or easily identify the central ideas or purpose of the student work. Information is presented in a disorganized fashion causing the audience to have difficulty following the author's ideas. There are many misspellings and/or mechanical errors that negatively affect the audience's ability to read the work.

Single-Point Rubric

Moodle How-To Guides

Technology Tools: Rubrics in Moodle

Resources

Supplemental Tools with Rubrics in Moodle

DELTA - Rubrics: Making Assignments Easier for You and Your Students (2/1/2022)

DePaul University (n.d.). Rubrics. Retrieved from http://resources.depaul.edu/teaching-commons/teaching-guides/feedback-grading/rubrics/Pages/default.aspx

Gonzalez, J. (2014). Know your terms: Holistic, Analytic, and Single-Point Rubrics. Cult of Pedagogy. Retrieved from https://www.cultofpedagogy.com/holistic-analytic-single-point-rubrics/

Goodrich, H. (1996). Understanding rubrics. Teaching for Authentic Student Performance, 54 (4), 14-17. Retrieved from http://www.ascd.org/publications/educational-leadership/dec96/vol54/num04/Understanding-Rubrics.aspx

Miller, A. (2012). Tame the beast: tips for designing and using rubrics. Retrieved from http://www.edutopia.org/blog/designing-using-rubrics-andrew-miller

Ragupathi, K., Lee, A. (2020). Beyond Fairness and Consistency in Grading: The Role of Rubrics in Higher Education. In: Sanger, C., Gleason, N. (eds) Diversity and Inclusion in Global Higher Education. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-1628-3_3

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Rubric Best Practices, Examples, and Templates

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Instructors have many tasks to perform during the semester, including grading assignments and assessments. Feedback on performance is a critical factor in helping students improve and succeed. Grading rubrics can provide more consistent feedback for students and create efficiency for the instructor/grader.

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Explore reading basics as well as the key role of background knowledge and motivation in becoming a lifelong reader and learner. Watch our PBS Launching Young Readers series and try our self-paced Reading 101 course to deepen your understanding.

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Abstract

Background:

Reading scientific literature is mandatory for researchers and clinicians. With an overflow of medical and dental journals, it is essential to develop a method to choose and read the right articles.

Objective:

To outline a logical and orderly approach to reading a scientific manuscript. By breaking down the task into smaller, step-by-step components, one should be able to attain the skills to read a scientific article with ease.

Methods:

The reader should begin by reading the title, abstract and conclusions first. If a decision is made to read the entire article, the key elements of the article can be perused in a systematic manner effectively and efficiently. A cogent and organized method is presented to read articles published in scientific journals.

Conclusion:

One can read and appreciate a scientific manuscript if a systematic approach is followed in a simple and logical manner.

Keywords: Articles, journal, reading, research, systematic

INTRODUCTION

" We are drowning in information but starved for knowledge."

It has become essential for the clinicians, researchers, and students to read articles from scientific journals. This is not only to keep abreast of progress in the speciality concerned but also to be aware of current trends in providing optimum healthcare to the patients. Reading scientific literature is a must for students interested in research, for choosing their topics and carrying out their experiments. Scientific literature in that field will help one understand what has already been discovered and what questions remain unanswered and thus help in designing one's research project. Sackett (1981)[ 1] and Durbin (2009)[ 2] suggested various reasons why most of us read journal articles and some of these are listed in Table 1 .

The scientific literature is burgeoning at an exponential rate. Between 1978 and 1985, nearly 272,344 articles were published annually and listed in Medline. Between 1986 and 1993, this number reached 344,303 articles per year, and between 1994 and 2001, the figure has grown to 398,778 articles per year.[ 3] To be updated with current knowledge, a physician practicing general medicine has to read 17 articles a day, 365 days a year.[ 4]

In spite of the internet rapidly gaining a strong foothold as a quick source of obtaining information, reading journal articles, whether from print or electronic media, still remains the most common way of acquiring new information for most of us.[ 2] Newspaper reports or novels can be read in an insouciant manner, but reading research reports and scientific articles requires concentration and meticulous approach. At present, there are 1312 dentistry journals listed in Pubmed.[ 5] How can one choose an article, read it purposefully, effectively, and systematically? The aim of this article is to provide an answer to this question by presenting an efficient and methodical approach to a scientific manuscript. However, the reader is informed that this paper is mainly intended for the amateur reader unaccustomed to scientific literature and not for the professional interested in critical appraisal of journal articles.

TYPES OF JOURNAL ARTICLES

Different types of papers are published in medical and dental journals. One should be aware of each kind; especially, when one is looking for a specific type of an article. Table 2 gives different categories of papers published in journals.

In general, scientific literature can be primary or secondary. Reports of original research form the "primary literature", the "core" of scientific publications. These are the articles written to present findings on new scientific discoveries or describe earlier work to acknowledge it and place new findings in the proper perspective. "Secondary literature" includes review articles, books, editorials, practice guidelines, and other forms of publication in which original research information is reviewed.[ 6] An article published in a peer-reviewed journal is more valued than one which is not.

An original research article should consist of the following headings: Structured abstract, introduction, methods, results, and discussion (IMRAD) and may be Randomized Control Trial (RCT), Controlled Clinical Trial (CCT), Experiment, Survey, and Case-control or Cohort study. Reviews could be non-systematic (narrative) or systematic. A narrative review is a broad overview of a topic without any specific question, more or less an update, and qualitative summary. On the other hand, a systematic review typically addresses a specific question about a topic, details the methods by which papers were identified in the literature, uses predetermined criteria for selection of papers to be included in the review, and qualitatively evaluates them. A meta-analysis is a type of systematic review in which numeric results of several separate studies are statistically combined to determine the outcome of a specific research question.[ 7- 9] Some are invited reviews, requested by the Editor, from an expert in a particular field of study.

A case study is a report of a single clinical case, whereas, a case series is a description of a number of such cases. Case reports and case series are description of disease (s) generally considered rare or report of heretofore unknown or unusual findings in a well-recognized condition, unique procedure, imaging technique, diagnostic test, or treatment method. Technical notes are description of new, innovative techniques, or modifications to existing procedures. A pictorial essay is a teaching article with images and legends but has limited text. Commentary is a short article on an author's personal opinion of a specific topic and could be controversial. An editorial, written by the editor of the journal or invited, can be perspective (about articles published in that particular issue) or persuasive (arguing a specific point of view). Other articles published in a journal include letters to the editor, book reviews, conference proceedings and abstracts, and abstracts from other journals.[ 10]

WHAT TO READ IN A JOURNAL? - CHOOSING THE RIGHT ARTICLE

Not all research articles published are excellent, and it is pragmatic to decide if the quality of the study warrants reading of the manuscript. The first step for a reader is to choose a right article for reading, depending on one's individual requirement. The next step is to read the selected article methodically and efficiently.[ 2] A simple decision-making flowchart is depicted in [ Figure 1 ], which helps one to decide the type of article to select. This flowchart is meant for one who has a specific intent of choosing a particular type of article and not for one who intends to browse through a journal.

HOW TO START READING AN ARTICLE?

" There is an art of reading, as well as an art of thinking, and an art of writing."

At first glance, a journal article might appear intimidating for some or confusing for others with its tables and graphs. Reading a research article can be a frustrating experience, especially for the one who has not mastered the art of reading scientific literature. Just like there is a method to extract a tooth or prepare a cavity, one can also learn to read research articles by following a systematic approach. Most scientific articles are organized as follows:[ 2, 11]

1. Title: Topic and information about the authors.

2. Abstract: Brief overview of the article.

3. Introduction: Background information and statement of the research hypothesis.

4. Methods: Details of how the study was conducted, procedures followed, instruments used and variables measured.

5. Results: All the data of the study along with figures, tables and/or graphs.

6. Discussion: The interpretation of the results and implications of the study.

7. References/Bibliography: Citations of sources from where the information was obtained.

Review articles do not usually follow the above pattern, unless they are systematic reviews or meta-analysis. The cardinal rule is: Never start reading an article from the beginning to the end. It is better to begin by identifying the conclusions of the study by reading the title and the abstract.[ 12] If the article does not have an abstract, read the conclusions or the summary at the end of the article first. After reading the abstract or conclusions, if the reader deems it is interesting or useful, then the entire article can be read [ Figure 2 ].

THE TITLE

Like the title of a movie which attracts a filmgoer, the title of the article is the one which attracts a reader in the first place. A good title will inform the potential reader a great deal about the study to decide whether to go ahead with the paper or dismiss it. Most readers prefer titles that are descriptive and self-explanatory without having to look at the entire article to know what it is all about.[ 2] For example, the paper entitled "Microwave processing - A blessing for pathologists" gives an idea about the article in general to the reader. But there is no indication in the title whether it is a review article on microwave processing or an original research. If the title had been "Comparison of Microwave with Conventional Tissue Processing on quality of histological sections", even the insouciant reader would have a better understanding of the content of the paper.

ABSTRACT

Abstract helps us determine whether we should read the entire article or not. In fact, most journals provide abstract free of cost online allowing us to decide whether we need to purchase the entire article. Most scientific journals now have a structured abstract with separate subheadings like introduction (background or hypothesis), methods, results and conclusions making it easy for a reader to identify important parts of the study quickly.[ 13] Moreover, there is usually a restriction about the number of words that can be included in an abstract. This makes the abstract concise enough for one to read rapidly.

The abstract can be read in a systematic way by answering certain fundamental questions like what was the study about, why and how was the study conducted, the results and their inferences. The reader should make a note of any questions that were raised while reading the abstract and be sure that answers have been found after reading the entire article.[ 12]

Reading the entire article

Once the reader has decided to read the entire article, one can begin with the introduction.

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of the introduction is to provide the rationale for conducting the study. This section usually starts with existing knowledge and previous research of the topic under consideration. Typically, this section concludes with identification of gaps in the literature and how these gaps stimulated the researcher to design a new study.[ 12] A good introduction should provide proper background for the study. The aims and objectives are usually mentioned at the end of the introduction. The reader should also determine whether a research hypothesis (study hypothesis) was stated and later check whether it was answered under the discussion.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This section gives the technical details of how the experiments were carried out. In most of the research articles, all details are rarely included but there should be enough information to understand how the study was carried out.[ 12] Information about the number of subjects included in the study and their categorization, sampling methods, the inclusion criteria (who can be in) and exclusion criteria (who cannot be in) and the variables chosen can be derived by reading this section. The reader should get acquainted with the procedures and equipment used for data collection and find out whether they were appropriate.

RESULTS OF THE STUDY

In this section, the researchers give details about the data collected, either in the form of figures, tables and/or graphs. Ideally, interpretation of data should not be reported in this section, though statistical analyses are presented. The reader should meticulously go through this segment of the manuscript and find out whether the results were reliable (same results over time) and valid (measure what it is supposed to measure). An important aspect is to check if all the subjects present in the beginning of the study were accounted for at the end of the study. If the answer is no, the reader should check whether any explanation was provided.

Results that were statistically significant and results that were not, must be identified. One should also observe whether a correct statistical test was employed for analysis and was the level of significance appropriate for the study. To appreciate the choice of a statistical test, one requires an understanding of the hypothesis being tested.[ 14, 15] Table 3 provides a list of commonly used statistical tests used in scientific publications. Description and interpretation of these tests is beyond the scope of this paper. It is wise to remember the following advice: It is not only important to know whether a difference or association is statistically significant but also appreciate whether it is large or substantial enough to be useful clinically.[ 16] In other words, what is statistically significant may not be clinically significant.

DISCUSSION

This is the most important section of the article where the research questions are answered and the meaning of analysis and interpretation of the data are presented. Usually the study results are compared with other studies, explaining in what aspects they were different or similar. Ideally, no new data should be presented under discussion and no information from other sections should be repeated.[ 2] In addition, this section also discusses the various strengths and limitations/shortcomings of the study, providing suggestions about areas that need additional research.

The meaning of results and their analyses, new theories or hypotheses, limitations of the study, explanation of differences and similarities with other comparable studies, and suggestions for future research are offered in this section. It is important to remember that the discussions are the authors' interpretations and opinions and not necessarily facts.

READING THE CONCLUSION (AGAIN !)

Though conclusion part had been read at the beginning, it is prudent to read it again at the end to confirm whether what we had inferred initially is correct. If the conclusion had not made sense earlier, it may make sense after having perused through the entire article. Sometimes, the study conclusions are included in the discussion section and may not be easy to locate. The questions that can be asked under various sub-headings of an original research paper are presented as a simple questionnaire in Table 4 . It is assumed that one who is using this questionnaire has read and analyzed the abstract and then decided to read the entire article. This questionnaire does not critically analyze a scientific article. However, answers to these questions provide a systematic approach to obtain a broad overview of the manuscript, especially to a novice. If one who is new to reading articles, writing answers to these questions and taking notes will help in understanding most aspects of a research article.

CONCLUSION

" Let us read with method, and propose to ourselves an end to which our studies may point. The use of reading is to aid us in thinking."

It has become mandatory to read scientific literature to be well-informed of ever-expanding information and/or for better diagnosis, prognosis and therapy. Since there is an abundance of journals and articles, it is critical to develop a modus operandi for achieving a rapid, purposeful, effective and useful method to read these manuscripts. A simple but efficient and logical approach to scientific literature has been presented here for choosing articles and reading them systematically and effectively for a better understanding.

Footnotes

Source of Support: Nil.

Conflict of Interest: None declared.

REFERENCES

6. Hersh W. Information Retrieval: A Health and Biomedical Perspective (Health Informatics) 3rd ed. New York: Springer-Verlag; 2009. p. 68. 80, 85. [ Google Scholar]

13. International Committee of Medical Journal Editors. Uniform requirements for manuscripts submitted to biomedical journals: Writing and editing for biomedical publication. [Last accessed on 2011 Oct 10]. Available from: http://www.icmje.org/urm_main.html .

15. Das R, Das PN. Biomedical Research Methodology including Biostatistical Applications. New Delhi: Jaypee Brothers Medical Publications (P) Ltd; 2011. pp. 123-45. [ Google Scholar]

16. Riegelman RK. Studying a Study and Testing a Test: How to read the medical evidence. 5th ed. Philadelphia, USA: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins; 2005. p. 45. [ Google Scholar]

Articles from Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology : JOMFP are provided here courtesy of Wolters Kluwer -- Medknow Publications

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Art of reading a journal article: Methodically and effectively

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Reading scientific literature is mandatory for researchers and clinicians. With an overflow of medical and dental journals, it is essential to develop a method to choose and read the right articles.To outline a logical and orderly approach to reading ...

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Demonstration: How to Read a Research Article and Record the Salient Elements