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- started on June fourteenth, 1800

- Napoleon fought with 28,000 troops while 31,000 Austrian troops fought under General Michael Friedrich

- Although napoleon had won this battle, he was very over confident which could’ve resulted in a horrible outcome

- Napoleon’s Army of the Reserve secretly crossed the St. Bernard Pass, reaching the Po valley on 24 May with 40,000 men but only six guns.

- Napoleon moved into the alps and had placed his army squarely across the Austrian lines of communication. Because of this, General Michael von Melas, decided that his forces should leave from the Franco-Italian border to give battle to the French near the fortified town of Alessandria.

-Napoleon thought that the Austrians were about to retreat and he formed several formations to stop them evading his net. So when the Austrians decamped from Alessandria and crossed the River Bormida, the French were caught by surprise

- The Austrians went on in 3 columns, due to this the French were forced to retreat and left.

- After the French left, the Austrians had believed they had a victory but what the Austrians didn’t know was that the French reinforcements were beginning to arrive on the battlefield

- The whole French line went over to their offensive forcing the Austrians back into Alessandria. Due to this Melas was obliged the next day which led the loss of Lombardy to France.

-This was led to about 7,500 Austrians dead, wounded and thousands more captured; French, some 6,000 dead or wounded.

https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Marengo

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Table of Contents

Battle of Marengo, (June 14, 1800), narrow victory for Napoleon Bonaparte in the War of the Second Coalition, fought on the Marengo Plain about 3 miles (5 km) southeast of Alessandria, in northern Italy, between Napoleon's approximately 28,000 troops and some 31,000 Austrian troops under General Michael Friedrich von Melas; it resulted in the French occupation of Lombardy up to the Mincio River and secured Napoleon's military and civilian authority in Paris.

Although Napoleon considered Marengo to be one of his finest victories, his overconfidence prior to the battle almost led to disaster. His ultimate success owed much to the determination of the French infantry and the decisive interventions of his subordinate commanders.

French Revolutionary wars Events

Following his return from Egypt in October 1799, Napoleon exploited the muddled state of French politics and effectively seized power in France, naming himself First Consul in December. Turning his attention to the strategic situation in Europe, he decided to lead an army over the Swiss Alps to attack the Austrians in northern Italy, while French forces under General Jean Victor Moreau marched into southern Germany.

Napoleon's Army of the Reserve secretly crossed the St. Bernard Pass, reaching the Po valley on 24 May with 40,000 men but only six guns. One of the French aims of the campaign had been to relieve the French garrison besieged by the Austrians in Genoa, but the city fell to the Austrians on 4 June. Despite this, Napoleon's daring move through the Alps had placed his army squarely across the Austrian lines of communication. As a result, the Austrian commander, General Michael von Melas, withdrew his forces from the Franco-Italian border to give battle to the French near the fortified town of Alessandria.

Napoleon believed that the Austrians were about to retreat and he detached several formations to prevent them evading his net. Thus, when the Austrians decamped from Alessandria and crossed the River Bormida, the French were caught by surprise. Initially, Napoleon thought the Austrians were conducting a diversionary action, but it soon became clear that this was a full-scale assault; urgent dispatches were sent to the now dispersed French divisions to march to Marengo.

The Austrians advanced in three columns, Melas in the center with Generals Ott and O'Reilly attacking on the flanks. Major General Claude Victor's corps bore the brunt of the Austrian attack, but it fought a determined delaying action. Ultimately, Austrian numerical superiority forced the exhausted French to retreat to a new position at St. Guiliano Vecchio. French counterattacks were repulsed repeatedly, and it seemed that the Austrians would be victorious. This was certainly Melas's impression; he retired from the battlefield to have a minor wound dressed, handing over command to his chief of staff, General Anton Zach.

Unknown to the Austrians, French reinforcements were beginning to arrive on the battlefield and included the formations of Major Generals Louis Desaix and Jean Boudet. Desaix, one of Napoleon's most trusted lieutenants, spearheaded the counterattack. Supported by French artillery and the heavy cavalry of General François Kellermann, the French closed in on the Austrians. Although Desaix was killed, sustained French pressure and the chance explosion of an Austrian ammunition wagon provided Kellermann with an opportunity; his cuirassiers charged into the Austrian flank, causing confusion that turned into dismay when General Joachim Murat's light cavalry joined in the attack. The whole French line went over to the offensive, forcing the Austrians back into Alessandria with heavy losses. Bottled in by the French, Melas was obliged the next day to ask for an armistice, which led to the loss of Lombardy to France.

Losses: Austrian, some 7,500 dead and wounded and thousands more captured; French, some 6,000 dead or wounded.

Adrian Gilbert

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Battle of Marengo, (June 14, 1800), narrow victory for Napoleon Bonaparte in the War of the Second Coalition, fought on the Marengo Plain about 3 miles (5 km) southeast of Alessandria, in northern Italy, between Napoleon's approximately 28,000 troops and some 31,000 Austrian troops under General Michael Friedrich von Melas; it resulted in the French occupation of Lombardy up to the Mincio River and secured Napoleon's military and civilian authority in Paris.

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After Cristopher Columbus found an island the he called “La Isla Espaola,” the Spanish invaded and enslaved the indigenous people and forced them to mine for gold

By the end of the 16th century the indigenous people  became extinct through their working conditions and diseases brought from Europe by the colonists

The French while under Napoleon’s rule came and established their own settlements after all of the gold mines were deprived of their gold by the Spanish

They named their settlement “”Saint-Dominigue” and imported thousands of slaves from West and Central Africa

The affranchis wanted to be on the same level as the Europeans. They despised to be in the same social and economic class, but the white colonist usually discriminated against them

By 1789, most of the population were slaves who died from long back breaking working hours, tropical disease, malnutrition, and starvation

A series of conflicts starting at the early 1790s began the revolution. There were many things that led up to this, slave owners treating their slaves terrible, affranchitis becoming sick of the racism in society, and confusion in the colony about the French Revolution.

The French Revolutionary government gave citizenship to wealthy affranchis, but the law was ignored and instead spurred fighting between the two races. Later in the year a slave revolt also occured and the French Government decided to grant all affranchitis citizenship as an effort to calm them down so the slaves aso calm down

In 1793, commisioner Léger-Félicité Sonthonax who was sent to maintain order,eventually got rid of slavery complety

In 1801 a military leader namedToussaint Louverture who was a former slave conquered Santo Domingo and gave himself the title “Ruler for Life.” This is when Napoleon sent his brother in law to the island to bring back the old regime to maintain his control. Soon after Toussaint Louverture was imprisoned by Leclerc (Napoleon’s Brother in law)

Toussant’s old lieutenants and other mulatto leaders who were infuriated by the French bringing back the old system continued the war against the FRench

The situation for the French became completely hopeless with an outbreak of yellow fever and conflict between Britain and France

The Indigenous Army defeated the French at the Battle of Vertières and the French General surrendered and they were given 10 days to evacuate

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The Congress of Vienna was first established in 1814 by the four countries Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Britain, the four powers of Europe.

The four countries had asked many countries to send delegates to a congress being held in Vienna but only for show, they intended to keep all the decision making that happened to themselves.

Since the countries Sweden, Spain, Portugal, France had signed the treaties of peace with France to end the Napoleonic War they also wanted some rights in order to form the “eight.”

The four powers did not relent to giving any power to the other four countries because they feared that the delegate of France, Charles-Maurice Talleyrand, if he had the chance to appeal could gain the favor of the smaller powers.

In the end France had been ignored by the four powers from any congress work but eventually gained the trust of Castlereagh and Metternich who let France join the core group turning it from the “four” to the “five.”

Since France had become part of the core group making it the “five” that is when the committee became the real Congress of Vienna.

In January 7-February 13 of 1815 the territories north of the Alps and Italy had been settled firmly.

In the end the “eight” worked on general matters while all the representatives of Europe never met in the congress which never happened.

The decisions that involved the Congress of Vienna revolved much around how much land each country was to receive.

The final act of the Congress of Vienna was signed by the “eight”, except for Spain because of disagreements of decisions in the land given to Italy, on June 9, 1815 and would stay in peace for the next 40 years.

In the 19th century the Congress of Vienna had fallen since they could not keep up with international relations.

Source used:
- https://www.britannica.com/event/Congress-of-Vienna

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Scorched-earth policy and the Invasion of Russia By Adarsh Chandramouleeswaran

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Scorched-earth policy and the Invasion of Russia By Adarsh Chandramouleeswaran

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1. The scorched-earth policy is a military tactic that involves destroying anything that may be useful for the enemy.

2. The Russians used the scorched-earth policy to defeat Napoleon’s army by seizing and destroying their own resources, just so that Napoleon’s army would not be getting any extra food or shelter on the way.

3. On September 14, the French entered a deserted Moscow. All but a few thousand of the city’s 275,000 people were gone.  This hints at the scorched-earth policy as almost the whole city’s population exited the city.

4. At 2:00 A:M when everyone was in the middle of sleeping, Napoleon was informed that a fire had broken out in the city.  The fires started to grow and it was told to us that the Russians had started the fires.  This event confirms that the Russians are using scorched-earth policy to make sure Napoleon’s army runs out of resources and dies out by the time they even get close to the Russian army.

5. A few days later, the flames had stopped.  However, over half of the city was demolished.  This made Napoleon slightly tense as he knew that they were too committed to retreat; they would have to push towards the Russians and possibly run out of resources to survive.

6. Napoleon then wrote a letter to Alexander I about Moscow’s current state and a negotiation.  Alexander responded back saying that he will never negotiate with Napoleon and that he will always be against him.

7. Napoleon stayed in Moscow for a month, waiting for a reply from Alexander I of France about the negotiation.  As he was slowly but surely running out of supplies, he decided to head out of the ruined city.

8. While retreating from the battle at Maloyaroslavets, Napoleon’s army continuously suffered from the merciless Russian army.   The French army suffered from hunger, sub-zero temperatures, and the deadly lances of the Cossacks.   This continues the idea of scorched earth policy as the Russians lured Napoleon's army far into eastern Russia during the cold winter.  The natural weather would help suppress Napoleon from attacking the Russian army.

9. The decimated army reached the Berezina River late in November, near the border with French-occupied Lithuania. However, the river was unexpectedly thawed, and the Russians had destroyed the bridges at Borisov.  The Russians destroying the bridges resulted in more delay for Napoleon to get back to France.

10. The Russians largely abandoned their pursuit after that point, but thousands of French troops continued to succumb to hunger, exhaustion, and the cold. In December, Napoleon abandoned what remained of his army and raced back to Paris.  This tells us that the Russians stopped fighting the French; now there is no more scorched earth policy being used against the French.

End of the Invasion of Russia:

Six days after Napoleon’s return, the Grande Armée finally escaped Russia, having suffered a loss of more than 400,000 men during the disastrous invasion.  After the humongous defeat, Napoleon was forced to exile to Elba.

Source:

https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/napoleon-enters-moscow

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Napoleon’s divorce with wife Josephine, which was an example of women’s rights

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By Sarah Perlmutter
-When the Napoleonic Code came out in 1804, it took away many women’s rights and had a huge impact on how they would now be treated in society.

-Although the new civil code assured that all women in higher classes and lower classes were treated equally, they were all treated in the same unfair way.

-As long as the women were to obey everything their husband said, the men would protect them, as it stated, “a husband owes protection to his wife, a wife obedience to her husband”.

-A disloyal wife would have a much more serious punishment than a disloyal husband, as he would only get a small fine and she would get a couple years in prison.

-A man who catches his wife cheating could murder her with no punishment.

-Women are forced to live with their husbands and follow them wherever they go, no matter if it is convenient or fair to them.

-Women were prohibited from being in legal contracts and any property in a marriage lawfully belonged to the husband.

-Men were not responsible for taking care of or paying for an illegitimate child, it was the woman’s problem to solve on her own.

-The Napoleonic Code clearly reflected Napoleon’s own sexist ideas of life, as he said “women should not be looked upon as the equals of men”.

-The Napoleonic Code put control of the household in the husband’s hands and deprived women of any individual rights.

-Having no individual rights prevented women from being able to protect themselves or having any say in how they were governed, controlled, or punished.

-Due to Napoleon’s sexism in the Napoleonic code, women struggled to gain equality and independence from men for a very long time.

Sources:

https://www.tribstar.com/features/valley_life/the-sexist-napoleonic-code-was-established-in-1804/article_bffad258-1c54-567b-9c72-b2b90452b76b.html#:~:text=Women%20were%20forbidden%20from%20entering,which%20reflected%20Napoleon's%20own%20sexism.

https://rmschwartz.wordpress.com/women/feminism/napoleons-civil-code-women/

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The French military in the Napoleonic Wars

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The French military in the Napoleonic Wars

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Arav Kumar

Links:
https://www.history.com/news/napoleons-disastrous-invasion-of-russia

https://www.history.com/news/napoleon-bonaparte-downfall-reasons-personality-traits

https://books.google.fr/books?id=oigOAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&hl=fr&source=gbs_ge_summary_r#v=onepage&q&f=false

https://www.pbs.org/empires/napoleon/n_war/soldier/page_1.html

The military in the Napoleonic Wars

Entered Russia on June 24, 1812

There were 650,000 people who crossed the Niemen River with him to fight approximately 200,000 soldiers on the Russian side.

Eventually, Napoleon realized he needed to retreat out of Moscow on October 19, realizing the army could not survive the winter

The army was down to 100,000 troops by this time

The winter came fast that year, making the retreat even harder

The army was dying fast that winter from exhaustion and desertion.

The retreat back led to soldiers disappearing in the snow

In one of the letters from the book, we could see soldiers were also rushed into battle and had little time to contact their families

Soldiers were promoted based on merit in the military

The common infantry revolved around small units that would attack from as far as 100 yards

The French army had an Imperial Gaurd which was a small, elite army directly under Napoleon. Most honored soldiers.

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Claudia Cacha

1. The Continental System was Napoleon’s idea after he could militarily harm Britain, he wanted to economically harm them so he closed all his ports to trading with Britain.

2. Some people consider this the first step of his downfall since Britain had a stronger navy and was fitter at sea.

3. The Continental System ended up being a failure due to smugglers and uncooperative allies.

4. The Continental System led to the Peninsular War, which destroyed France's morale and prestige.

5. Napoleon used all his ships to control the blockade causing him loose focus on other regions, which then turned into a Russian invasion (1812)

6. France was more damaged by the Continental System than Britain, it ended up backfiring.

7. The Continental System caused an against unemployment protest movement in Britain.

8. The Continental System all started with Napoleon's Berlin Decree in 1806.

9. The Continental System fostered the development of beet sugar manufacturing and machine spinning textiles.

10. There were many different decrees that extended the Continental System, like the Warsaw Decree (1807), the Milan Decree(1807) and the Fontainebleau Decree (1810)

Sources:

https://library.brown.edu/cds/napoleon/time3.html

https://www.britannica.com/event/Continental-System

https://www.factmonster.com/encyclopedia/history/modern-europe/treaty-alliance/continental-system

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Eshwar Mohankumar
- Other than France, Britain was another superpower in Europe and Napoleon wanted to invade Britain.

-The British had a small army but a strong navy.

-The French fleet was already in bad condition after the Battle of Trafalgar.

-prepared to invade Britain in 1805 but couldn’t

-Napoleon waged economic warfare through Continental system

-closed European ports to British goods

-Britain responded by its own blockade of European ports

-Both nations seized ships of trading with other side

-war of 1812 was caused by British attacks on American ships

-whole system failed cause Britains navy kept important trade routes open to Americas and India as well as scarcity of goods in Europe which made prices soar

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1) Napoleon led the army of the Reserve across the Alps through the Great Saint Bernard Pass

2) The Austrians didn’t catch this one coming and continued to fall back against his offensive and Napoleon was determined to not let Melas escape to Genoa.

3)On the night of June 13, Melas attacked the French at Marengo and their goal was to roll them back northwards.

4) Napoleon dispatched La Poype’s division to the north and Desaix with Boudet’s division to the south to block the roads, to attempt to stop the Austrians from reaching Genoa.

5) At 7 AM on the morning of the 14th, the Austrian forces under General O’Reilly attacked the French outputs, pushing them back.

6) At 9 AM Berthier had ridden forward with the cavalry of the Consular Guard and realized the gravity of the situation.

7) After he found out about this, Napoleon dispatched Captain Bruyere to Desaix, with the orders allegedly saying, “I had thought to attack Melas”.

8) By 2 PM, Napoleon knew that he was in danger and ordered the Consular Guard to reinforce Watrin on the right and ordered Moniier’s diction forward to attack Castel Ceriolo to distract Ott’s flanking maneuver.

9) The Austrians had lost almost 6000 men killed or wounded , 8000 men captured, and 40 guns captured while the French had lost about 8000 men killed or wounded.

10) Napoleon had got the victory even though not exactly as he wanted to win.

Source: https://www.frenchempire.net/battles/marengo/

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Ahanna Sehgal

1) The Congress of Vienna assembly began because of the reorganization needed to Europe after the Napoleonic Wars. It was held between September of 1814 till June of 1815.

2)  Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Great Britain were the four powers that approved the overthrowing of Napoleon.

3) The first problem that was brought to attention was the lack of organization of the congress, as there was no precedent.

4) The four powers wanted to keep their management of these main problems in their own hands, but were unable due to the rashly summoned congress therefore forcing them to pay attention to it.

5)  The ministers of the four powers agreed that the four powers should be able to decide the future of all the conquered territories. They were then supposed to communicate these decisions to France and Spain. The full Congress was only to be summoned when all was ready.

6) Talleyrand denied that either the four or six was a legally constituted body and desired that congresses should be summoned to elect a directing committee.

7) Austria, Great Britain, Prussia, Russia, Sweden, Spain, and Portugal had signed the 1814 Treaty of Paris with France, which ended the Napoleonic Wars for the first time.

8) Talleyrand was thus excluded from the main work of the congress, but his protests on behalf of the smaller powers grew fainter as he realized that the “four” were not in agreement.

9) Russia was able to obtain Poland. Austria got to control the German Confederation.

10) The idea of nationality had been almost entirely ignored necessarily so because it was not yet ready for expression.

https://www.britannica.com/event/Congress-of-Vienna/Decisions-of-the-congress

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By: Avika Sancheti

- Dr. Antommarchi conducted Napoleon’s Autopsy
- Signs of TB (Tuberculosis) were found in Napoleon’s post mortem report but the Doctor refused to sign this page of the report as the final cause and overlooked it
- There was 3 ounces of the red pulmonary pleura found in his left lung and 8 ounces in the right lung
- Numerous evidence was found on Napoleon that he might of had stomach cancer such as a “cancerous ulcer”
- When the enlarged liver was opened the Doctor had found signs of disease Hepatitis but under pressure signed a report saying the liver was healthy
- The Governor of St. Helena wouldn’t accept the final diagnostic of Napoleon’s death be Hepatitis on his unaffected island
- Before Napoleon had died a Navy Surgeon was dismissed who was treating him for Hepatitis
- He was later found out to be a double spy leading many to believe he was there to have been speed up Napoleon’s death
- In Napoleon’s stomach a dis-colored coffee looking substance was found turning out to be Calomel which had been forcefully given my Dr. Antommarchi
- The doctors didn’t have any final diagnostics or conclusions on his death

Sources:
https://www.napoleon.org/en/history-of-the-two-empires/articles/napoleons-death-new-findings-from-his-autopsy/

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Shrihan Kodati

1. Napoleon was exiled to Elba on April 11, 1814 after he was forced to abdicate his throne

2. Napoleon was not actually completely stripped of his power, and he was allowed to have control over the entirety of Elba. He was considered the ruler of Elba.

3. On his time on the island, Napoleon revolutionized both the society and the economy of the island of Elba.

4. The title of ruler brought out the dictator in Napoleon to the point where the size of Elba did not sway his perspective at all. He was so confident that he believed that he had enough wisdom to teach law to lawyers, science to scientists, and religion to Popes

5. Napoleon was allowed to keep a small army, navy, and personal guard during his time on the island

6. Napoleon’s mother and sister had moved there with him at some point, and they even acquired several mansions and lived rather lavishly.

7. Napoleon did not actually dislike the island himself, and he even missed Elba to some extent after he left it.

8. Many Elbans seemed to think highly of Napoleon as their “Ruler of Elba”. They respected him so much to the point where they celebrated parades every year to mark the anniversary of his death

9. Napoleon wrote many letters in Elba. Noticeably, Napoleon referred to his 18 marines as “My Guard” and to his small boats as “the Navy”, conveying Napoleon’s excessive vanity

10. Less than a year on the island on February 26, 1815, Napoleon decided that it was his time to return to France. He set sail for France after eluding the British guards that kept him there

Sources: https://www.historyanswers.co.uk/history-of-war/lieutenant-frank-alexander-de-pass-hero-of-history/

https://time.com/3714089/napoleon-exile-history/

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By: Srinath Sundara

1. Napoleon was sent into exile after having a disastrous campaign in Russia and all the monarchs in Europe agreed to the decision.

2. Though Napoleon was abdicated from being emperor of France, he was still able to be emperor of Elba.

3. Napoleon ended up being in Elba for 10 months before he made his escape with his men.

4. Napoleon didn’t dislike the island and in fact, he even had company as his mom and sister moved to the island as well and they lived in lavish, luxurious mansions.

5. Napoleon was also able to make many improvements to the island such as their infrastructure.

6. Napoleon was able to boost Elba’s agriculture and he developed mines there.

7. Napoleon made sure that everyone was educated on Elba and he taught law to layers, science to scientists, and religion to Popes.

8. There were 18 marines that had accompanied Napoleon and he had many small ships with him which he had referred to as his navy and referred to the 18 marines as his guard.

9. The island’s school and their legal system were overhauled and improved by Napoleon so it was effective and efficient.

10. The people at Elba respected Napoleon a lot as he had done so much for them and the people conduct a parade every year during his anniversary for respect.

Links: https://time.com/3714089/napoleon-exile-history/

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Boats and boating--Equipment and supplies

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Ryan Prince

1. On April 11, 1814 Napoleon abdicates the throne and due to a treaty he signed is exiled to the Island of Elba in the Mediterranean.

2. His exile was caused by one of history’s greatest military humiliations

3. He was horribly embarrassed and plotted vengeance the entire time he was there, while also plotting an infamous prison break of sorts.

4. The exile was part of an agreement the other nations of Europe had come up with that he agreed to called the Treaty of Fontainebleau

5. He had to give up the throne, and his families right to rule, along with his royal property, but he was allowed to pick an island to rule over with the same Emperor title.

6. He ruled over the 12,000 inhabitants of the 86 square mile island and appeared content, but really he was plotting his way back to France every second of it

7. He raised a 2,000 man army on Elba and realized that France needed him and since it wasn’t technically required he stayed on Elba since the British had broken the treaty, he decided to return to France.

8. Campbell left Napoleon by himself for a bit to return to England, which was Napoleon’s perfect opportunity to escape

9. He put together a small fleet of ships and painted some to look like British vessels and led his loyalists to France once again.

10.  He left on February 26th with about 1,100 men and made it back to Paris as a hero.

Link to source: https://www.history.com/news/elba-exile-napoleon-escape

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Saharsh Medichalam

The whole point of Napoleon’s invasion of Russia was to get to Moscow in order to loot the city and capture officials as a display of power to force use of the continental system.

His arrival into the capital made it abundantly clear that his original idea for the invasion is not going to plan.

When the Grande Armée got there on September 14, the city was deserted by most of its 275,000 inhabitants.

Soon after midnight, it became clear that a fire had broken out in the city. Napoleon and his army could only watch as the flames spread.

The perpetrators were Russian patriots who started and stoked the fires themselves. This was a form of scorched earth policy or burning important resources in order to impede invaders.

This certainly worked as French forces were chased out of the city by the flames, leading them to the outskirts where they had to stay until the flames died out.

The fire lasted 3 days and more than 2/3s of the Russian capital was destroyed. This, as the patriots hoped, severely weakened Napoleon’s army. Supplies, food, and shelter were all but gone and morale was shattered.

Napoleon was left there waiting for a surrender from Czar Alexander but it didn’t come even after a month of holding these city.

Napoleon wrote to the czar about how he could burn the beautiful city of Moscow but Alexander’s reply was that it “illuminated his soul”, refusing negotiations.

The Grande Armée was spent and starving from a long period without a supply line and the limited stores in the capital being burnt or empty after desertion but horses were especially left hungry since no food was left for them in the quickly oncoming Russian winter.

On October 19, Napoleon started his retreat, cementing Napoleon’s first major loss. After a streak of French victory, their attempt at capturing Moscow and subjugating Russia was a complete failure that left over 400,000 of his soldiers dead and the start of his tumble form power is said to have begun here.

Www.history.com/this-day-in-history/napoleon-enters-Moscow

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The Battle of Waterloo, Napoleon's Last Stand

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The Battle of Waterloo, Napoleon's Last Stand

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- Wellington's army was a powerful force in command of the terrain with 67,661 men and 156 guns in his possession

- Napoleon's attacking force was made up of more troops with 71,947 men and 246 guns

- Wellington positioned his troops behind the reverse slope of a ridge in order to gain cover from the French artillery

- The rain before the battle had made the ground wet and muddy forcing Napoleon to start later

- The first shots were were fired at 11:35 am by Marshal Honore Charles who was a marshal under Napoleon

- Around an hour and a half into the battle Napoleon was notified about the incoming army of the Prussians

- The Prussians arrived at the battle at approximately 4:30pm with their army of 30,000 men

- Napoleon's French army lost 25,000 men that were killed and wounded and around 9,000 that were captured

- Wellington had lost 15,000 troops combined with the loss of 8,000 from Blucher adds up to 23,0000 troops on the opposing side

- Napoleon abandoned his army and fled to Paris where he was quickly abdicated and exiled to the island of Saint Helena

Source: Britannica - The Battle of Waterloo

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Picture of the Introduction to the Napoleonic Code

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The Approval of the Napoleonic Code - Abhinav Toti

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The Approval of the Napoleonic Code - Abhinav Toti

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Source: https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/napoleonic-code-approved-in-france

- The “Napoleonic Code” is the legal framework of France. It was created by Napoleon, and was extremely long and specific.

- The Napoleonic Code was France’s first set of civil laws after the French Revolution. It contained property laws, colonial affairs, family, and individual rights.

- in 1804, when Napoleon became the emperor of France, he was faced with fixing and restoring the disorganized French legal and political system.

- Napoleon was also tasked with controlling the military as the head general.

- Napoleon ordered a special commission, which was led and ordered by JJ Cambaceres.

- This commission resulted in nearly 80 sessions (with napoleon attended over half of them) in order to decide and create the laws and regulation that would decide France’s legal state.

- In March 1804, The Napoleonic Code was finally established.

- The code ended up establishing several branches of law, including commercial and criminal law, and divided civil law into categories of property and family.

- The code stated that men had more power, and authority over their entire family. Male citizens were granted equal rights, and the ability to participate in religious dissent.

- The Napoleonic code deprived women of many rights. Specifically, women had no individual rights. Children’s rights were also deprived.

- This code was applied to all territory under French regime.

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Banque De France; Founded by: Napoleon Bonaparte 

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By:Advait Baijulal

1. The Banque De France was created on January 18, 1800, in Paris, France, by Napoleon Bonaparte when he was named the Emperor of France.

2. The first reason why the bank was made was so it could help fund Napoleon’s military campaigns

3. The second reason is it would help stabilize and give control of the French financial system

4. The third reason he established the banking system was so he can have an efficient tax collection system

5. Some of the positive effects of the Bank was it was all founded by the gold and silver of Napoleon, leading to no shortage of money

6. Napoleon allowed the bank to give loans and banknotes at low interest, and suppress inflation using this

7. This new system put in by Napoleon helped to make sure everyone had common necessities, at a low price

8. The establishment of the bank lead to the breaking of one of the biggest recessions for France and helped the economy to recover

9. The last effect is that it improved paper money, gained security, and discourage counterfeiters

10. Overall the bank helped to stabilize the economy and help to prosper, and today it has a solid financial system

Resources/Links:
https://www.tourisme83.com/the-bank-of-france-established-by-napoleon-bonaparte/

https://www.britannica.com/topic/Banque-de-France

https://blog.napoleon-cologne.fr/en/creation-of-the-bank-of-france-by-napoleon-bonaparte-2-2/

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A diagram of the first practical submarine, created by Robert Fulton during the Napoleonic Era.

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Military Technology Which Resulted From the Napoleonic Era

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Military Technology Which Resulted From the Napoleonic Era

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By: Tanush Siva

The First Submarine:

An American named Robert Fulton went to France, and designed the first practical submarine, the Nautilus. The Nautilus could dive to a depth of 25 feet, and could place explosives under ships.

Before Fulton created the submarine, Napoleon was not interested in it. But, after Fulton created it, Napoleon wanted more demonstrations of it. By that time, Fulton dissembled it, since he wanted to make improvements on it.

Improvements in Long Ranged Weapons:

The French Army used muskets called Charleville muskets, which were inaccurate at long range, and took a long time to reload. The British were able to create a new type of rifle, called the Baker Rifle. These rifles were accurate and had increased range.

This rifle was used by the British 95th Regiment, who served in the Peninsular War and the Battle of Waterloo.

Food Preservation:

To improve the quality and quantity of food, Napoleon offered a prize of 12,000 francs to whoever found a better way of preserving food than salting/smoking it.

French chef Nicholas Appert found out that food could be preserved by bottling food, which is now known as canning food.

Ambulance Services:

French surgeon Dominque Jean Larrey believed that by giving fast attention to heavily wounded people could save their lives. To try and accomplish this, Larrey invented ambulance volantes to transport wounded to treatment centers.

Larrey said that no matter if someone was a hostile, or an ally, they would be treated through the volantes.

Semaphore Telegraphs:

Frenchman Claude Chappe and his brothers made a system of towers, so semaphore messages could be sent. This increased the speed of communications over long distances.

Napoleon expanded this system across France, and was able to communicate with his generals in the field. This system was very close to real time communication.

Source: https://www.toptenz.net/the-ways-the-napoleonic-era-changed-warfare-forever.php

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By: Ashwika Bodicherla

-The Battle of Trafalgar took place on October 21, 1805

-The Battle was fought between the combined fleets of France and Spain against the British Royal Navy

-It took place during the Napoleonic War which was from 1803 - 1815

-In 1805, Napoleon Bonaparte and his first French Empire dominated continental Europe, where as the British Royal Navy ruled the seas

-Napoleon was determined to rule all of Europe, including Britain, attempted an invasion in 1804

-Napoleon instructed the France-Spanish fleet, under the command of Vice-Admiral Pierre Villanueva

-Villanueva was order to sail from the port of Cadiz in Spain into the Mediterranean to support Napoleon’s operations

-On October 19th, 1805, 33 ships set sail for an attack on Naples

-this was to divert Austrian forces towards Italy and disrupt their campaign in Central Europe

-Nelson, on the British side, assembled his 27 ships for an attack

-the battle developed into a ferocious pounding match but the British had the advantage due to Nelson’s strategic pre planning

-The British had the victory

-The victory of the British led to destroy Napoleon’s plans to ever invade England

Sources:

https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Trafalgar-European-history

https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/topics/battle-of-trafalgar

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Battle of Trafalgar

1. Fought in October 21st, 1805.

2. Took place West of Cape Trafalgar between the Cádiz and the Strait of Gibraltar.

3. 33 ships, 18 French and 15 Spanish ships led by Admirable Pierre de Villeneuve on the French side.

4. 27 British ships led by Admirable Horatio Nelson.

5. Villeneuve was ordered to leave the Cádiz through the Mediterranean Sea to provide troops for the Southern Italian campaign.

6. Was caught by Nelson on October 21st and the larger group of ships led by Admiral Cuthbert attacked from the South side.

7. Admiral Nelson then attacked the central part of the line separating the line Admiral Villeneuve lead.

8. The second section of the fleet lead by admiral Dumanoir returned to help Villeneuve’s group but failed to do so and retreated.

9. Out of the 1,400 men in total half became prisoners of war.

10. 1,500 British men were captured, killed, wounded or lost at sea.
Link: https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Trafalgar-European-history

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Aditya Kaushik

Before the Exile:

1. Napoleon had a really bad campaign back in Russia, which was one of the reasons why he abdicated.

2. When he was banished, he offered to step down so that his son could be the leader, but was refused.

3. Before he was sent to exile, he had some demands, which other monarchs accepted.

4. Napoleon himself chose the island that he would be exiled to Elba, which he himself chose.

During the exile:

1. Napoleon was given the title of Emperor of the Mediterranean Islands

2. Ultimately ended up spending around 10 months on the island

After the Exile
1. Napoleon escaped on a British interception ship
2. As soon as Napoleon made it to the alps, he was plotting his return to France
3. When Napoleon came back, he was slowly but surely gaining followers again after a long time
4. When Napoleon was ruling Elba, he built things like roads which helped transportation, as well as boosted agriculture efficiency.

Sources: https://www.historyextra.com/period/modern/hundred-days-napoleon-elba-exile-escape/

https://shannonselin.com/2016/02/how-did-napoleon-escape-from-elba/

https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/napoleon-exiled-to-elba

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By Aditya Mote

1. Napoleon’s Russian campaign had ended in disaster.

2. The Russian campaign was one of his reasons for abdicating the throne.

3. European monarchs had accepted his demands for exile.

4. Napoleon was exiled to the island of Elba which he chose.

5. Napoleon was accompanied by 1000 men in his exile, which was another demand of his.

6. He was ruler of Elba and controlled its economy.

7. He traveled from France to Elba aboard a ship named the Undaunted.

8. Napoleon arrived on the island of Elba on May 3, 1814.

9. The population of the island was 12,000.

10. He spent his time in his palace, building a navy and army, and designing flags.

11. He was on Elba for about 10 months before his escape.

12. When the British general who was supposed to keep watch on him left for Italy, he sailed to the Alps along with 1000 men on 7 ships.

13. When he reached the Alps he started planning his return to France.

Links

- https://shannonselin.com/2016/02/how-did-napoleon-escape-from-elba/
- https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/napoleon-exiled-to-elba

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Napoleon and his first wife - who he divorced because she wasn’t able to have kids. 

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BY: Anvi Kumar

Napoleon respected his mother and put two of his sisters in charge of small territories (throne of Naples) but still he believed that women were generally inferior to men.

He thought women should play domestic roles, inside the family

Thought women were powerful as they could seduce men but didn’t think that women were intelligent

A woman’s place was in the home, as a wife and as a mother. She was expected to be there for her husband and to be modest and pleasing in her dress.

He believed women main person was to produce children (in an interview he said the best woman in the world, are those that born the greatest number of children)

Napoleon told his first wife, that “the wife was made for the husband, the husband for his country, his family, and glory.”

One of Napoleon’s companions in exile on St. Helena recounted an 1816 conversation in which Napoleon engaged in “playful warfare with one of the ladies present” by “affecting to declaim against women.”

Napoleon was rude and bossy toward women who did not conform to his expectations

Ecouen was one of several boarding schools established by Napoleon for the daughters of members of the Légion d’Honneur (curriculum was about religion and domestic skills)

He got rid of a lot of rights of women that were created after the revolution (like owning land)

In his Napoleonic code he made legal control over women’s lives and property firmly in the hands of fathers or husbands

Source:

https://shannonselin.com/2019/03/napoleon-view-women/

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These are the countries which were bordered by the continental system

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-  The continental system was a blockade designed by Napoleon to paralyze Great Britain through the destruction of British commerce
- The continental system hurt English industries and helped spur the Luddite protest movement against unemployed in England
- This system stimulated manufacturing in some parts of France, but the system damaged regions dependent on overseas commerce
- However, the British had an overwhelming superiority at sea, so the aftermath of this system was proved to be disastrous
- He took the blockades too far when using too many French soldiers and leaving an open invasion of Russia in 1812
- England responded to the Continental System with orders  in Council that subjected France and all countries in alliance with Napoleon to a counter blockade
- Many countries did not want others to join the Continental System such as when the British government tried to prevent Denmark from joining Napoleon’s system
- The continent of Europe was to receive its commerce through Great Britain, and, up to the point where British shipping capacity proved insufficient, the license system ensured that this trade was carried in British vessels
- The agreement by the orders of council stated that any port closed to the British was to be regarded as under blockade, and if the goods are confiscated without license, there would be a fine
- When Napoleon took command of the 70,000 French in Spain north of the Ebro, the only solidly constituted force opposing him was that of the 20,000 British under Sir John Moore

Sources:
-  https://www.britannica.com/event/Continental-System
- https://www.britannica.com/event/Napoleonic-Wars/The-Peninsular-War-and-the-Congress-of-Erfurt-1808

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By Hersh Bindra

Napoleon witnessed this first hand.

Scorched Earth can be done in 2 ways.

1st being burning the land as you enter it.

2nd being burning the land as you retreat.

This tactic really effected napoleons army in many ways.

1 of which being starvation, and the other is freezing to death.

Napoleon could have survived but it was too late because  they had set camp in the scorched territory, leaving them with no Resources.

The Scorched Earth tactic was used a lot by the Russians during Napoleon’s lifetime.

Russians would commonly camp the scorched grounds to kill off any people who are food deprived.

This tactic also started the downfall of Napoleon.

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The Relationship Between Poison and Napoleon’s Death By Karan Vijayakumar

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The Relationship Between Poison and Napoleon’s Death By Karan Vijayakumar

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Links:

-https://www.amnh.org/explore/news-blogs/on-exhibit-posts/was-napoleon-poisoned
-https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/poison-toxic-tales

Conclusions: Napoleon was around many toxic substance. Examples include hydrocyanic acid, tarter emetic, mercurous chloride, and last but not least, arsenic. His degrading health may have been caused by any or all of these toxins.

Information:
-The most Plausible theory for Napoleon’s death is Arsenic poisoning
-Arsenic-based pigments we’re widely used in create brilliant greens in the 19th century. In fact, arsenic was a common ingredient in a number of household products at the time. Arsenic based pigments were used in plants, candles, paper products, soap, and more.
-Napoleon may have been exposed to the toxic Element Arsenic which was found to be contained by the wall paper at Longwood, his prison home
-In a hot and damp room, the wallpaper would give off arsenical vapors, enough to account for for what was found in his hair , though perhaps not enough to kill him.
-A sample of wallpaper has been found tucked into a family scrapbook in the 1820s. It surfaced in Norfolk, England in the 1980s and, when tested by British scientists in the 1990s, was found to contain arsenic.
-Evidence suggests Napoleon’s exposure to arsenic was likely life-long. This was found by a study in 2008, when an Italian team of scientists found that samples from Napoleon and his family had high arsenic levels, roughly 100 times that of living people.
-While arsenic was prevalent in healing potions, it’s potency as a poison was well-established in the 19th century. When processed into arsenic trioxide, it was odorless, tasteless, and deadly. Arsenic trioxide was a notorious weapon of choice for many.
-Mixtures of poison involving arsenic were very involved with crime. Arsenic was implicated in almost 40 percent of poison murders between 1835 and 1880, according to a study performed.
-La canterella, thought to be a lethal mix of arsenic and cantharidin, was favored by the murderous Borgia family of Renaissance Italy.
-Napoleon was subjected to many other toxic substances beside arsenic. He was said to consume large amounts of a sweet apricot-based drink containing hydrodynamic acid. Two days before his death, his British doctors gave him mercurous chloride which made him collapse into stupor (so intense it was much like a coma)
-When his autopsy was carried out, it was revealed that he had ulcerating stomach cancer. It was probably caused by the mercurous chloride he drank.

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By Nirnay Bhattacharya

- While Britain was fighting against Napoleon in mainland France, the British were also conquering French colonies in the new world.

- In 1791, slaves in Saint Domingue led a massive revolt which led to the Haitian Revolution. The island gained its independence to be free of slavery.

- To stop more revolts, the National Convention voted to abolish slavery in 1794 and Napoleon agreed to stop slavery in France and its colonies.

- In 1802, major European powers signed the Treaty of Amiens for peace during the Napoleonic Wars. The terms were in favor of Britain, and France had to keep them happy to stop war.

- Britain did not want slavery to be abolished, and Napoleon had to agree to bring slavery back to keep peace.

- The Law of May 20 was made to reinstate slavery in French colonies in 1802. It revoked the law that abolished slavery and led to more forced labor in colonies like Martinique, Tobago, and Saint Lucia.

- The law brought more than just slavery, it restarted the slave trade in the Caribbean.

- Later in 1803, Napoleon wanted Haiti back to control the population and captured the people's leader. However, a disease caused many french troops to die and leave the island.

- The push for anti-slavery in Haiti eventually created a republic by 1804.

- Ironically, slavery was only reinstated to keep peace in Europe but the Napoleonic wars started again a year after the treaty was signed. It shows how Napoleon's fear of the British caused him to take away the rights of many men and eventually result in the slave trade running for many more years.

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-worldhistory2/chapter/napoleon-and-the-new-world/

https://www.napoleon-series.org/research/government/legislation/c_slavery.html

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Aarav Patel
- Napoleon offered to stop down for his son but was banished to Elba
- He still had the title Emperor but of Mediterranean islands
-  spent 9 months and 21 days at Elba
- Napoleon escaped Elba during a masquerade carnival party
-  Elba was ruled by Napoleon and he boosted agriculture, developed mines, and built roads
- When in Elba Napoleon lived in Villa San Martino
- In Elba there are many artifacts that napoleon has left behind
- Napoleon gained supporters on the way to Paris after escaping Elba
- Escaped by interception by a British ship
Elba was located 160 miles(260km) south of France.

https://shannonselin.com/2016/02/how-did-napoleon-escape-from-elba/

https://time.com/3714089/napoleon-exile-history/

https://www.elbaworld.com/en/elba-history/p-387-napoleon-elba.html

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By: Gwendolyn Singer

Napoleon constructed a plan to try and defeat Britain economically.

This economic block was put all over the west coast of Europe but stops right after Italy.

Britain also blocked its own European ports from the French empire.

This system stopped supplies from going in and out of Great Britain (France’s enemy).

The two forces attacked neutral ships to try and stop any attempts at trading.

At the end this system did not make Britain very weak.

Britain was able to maintain trade through there Navy.

With limited trading happening all items in Europe became more scarce which created resentment against the French empire.

This system was one of many attempts to bring down the British.

The continental system created a lot of pirates and crime.