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Describe one model of memory.

Outline one study related to one model of memory.
Outline the multi-store model of memory.
Describe the working memory model.

Explain how one study supports the working memory model.

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Contrast two models of memory.

Evaluate one model of memory.

Evaluate one study related to one model of memory.

Discuss models of memory.

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Explain schema theory.
Describe how one study relates to schema theory.
Explain one study related to cognitive schema.

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Explain one theory or study related to  thinking and decision-making.
Describe one theory of thinking and decision making.

Describe one example of rational (controlled) thinking.

Outline one example of intuitive (automatic) thinking.

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Outline one study on the reliability of one cognitive process.
Explain one theory or study relevant to reconstructive memory.
Describe how one study demonstrates reconstructive memory.

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Explain the influence of emotion on one cognitive process.

Explain how one study demonstrates the influence of emotion on cognition.

Explain how emotion may affect one cognitive process.

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Outline one research method used to study cognitive processes.

Describe the use of one research method used to study cognitive processes.

Explain how and why one research method is used to study the reliability of one cognitive process.

Explain the use of one research method used in the cognitive approach to understanding human behaviour.

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Outline one ethical consideration related to studies on cognitive processes.

Explain one ethical consideration relevant to studies on the effects of emotion on cognition.

Explain one ethical consideration relevant to one study on the reliability of cognitive processes.

Outline one ethical consideration related to studies in the cognitive approach to understanding human behaviour.

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Murdock asked participants to learn a list of words that varied in length from 10 to 40 words and free recall them. Each word was presented for one to two seconds.He found that words presented either early in the list or at the end were more often recalled, but the ones in the middle were more often forgotten. This is known as serial position effect.Murdock suggested that words early in the list were put into long term memory because the person has time to rehearse each word acoustically. Words from the end of the list went into short term memory

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1) We store information in our memory as schema.
2) When we receive new information, we try to understand it using our existing schema. If we can, then it is called assimilation. This takes no effort
3) If we cannot assimilate new information, then we change our schema or create new schema to fit the new information. This is called accommodation, and takes effort.
4) When we are able to assimilate all new information we are currently receiving, then we are in equilibrium. If we need to accommodate, we are in disequilibrium.

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Explain one bias in thinking and decision making.

Explain how one bias in thinking and/or decision making can be shown in one study.

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Discuss the influence of digital technology on one or more cognitive processes.

Discuss the influence of digital technology on the reliability of one or more cognitive processes.

Discuss the positive and negative effects of modern technology on one or more cognitive processes.

Discuss positive effects of digital technology on one or more cognitive processes.

Discuss one or more negative effects of digital technology on cognitive processes.

To what extent does technology have a positive effect on cognitive processes?

Evaluate one or more methods used to study the interaction between technology and cognitive processes

Contrast the positive and negative modern technology has on one or more cognitive processes.

Discuss the use of one method used to study the influence of technology on cognitive processes.

Discuss the use of one method used to study the influence of technology on the reliability of cognitive processes.

Discuss positive and/or negative effects of digital technology on emotion and cognition.

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The study of Peterson and Peterson(1959) let 24 students repeat loud of a trigram. Immediately afterward, they were asked to say out loud a three-digit number read to them by the experimenter, and then count backward in threes or fours from that number. This study shows that the longer each student has to count backward, the less able they were to accurately recall the trigram. When asked to count backward after 3 seconds, they remembered over 80% correctly, but after 18 seconds, they only remember less than 10% correctly. If someone connects the information with other information or repeats it for variable times the short-term memory may turn into long-term memory. The last one is long-term memory. The capacity and duration are all unlimited. Just like we all know 1 plus 1 is 2. If a short-term memory gives meaning, also called elaborative rehearsal, it can turn into long-term memory.

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Sparrow et al. Negative effect of digitial technology on semantic memory

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Sparrow et al. Negative effect of digitial technology on semantic memory

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aim: whether being told to remember an information would affect later memory recall
participants were sfirst asked to type 40 trivial facts into the computers, and were separated into four conditions, either being told that the computer will or will not remember the information, and they were either told as remember or were not asked to remember it.
Result: whether the participants were being to told to recall or not made no effect on their memory recall; but memory recall improved 50% when they ere told the computer will not store the information
conclusion: transactional memory has an adverse impact declarative memory; confidence in computer reduce motivations to encode sensory information

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The study by Alter et al.( 2007) aimed to find out whether decreasing the legibility of the font in a standard cognitive test would produce more accurate responses, which means he wanted to test if the system2 thinking can lead to more accurate answers. The difficult-to-read font would engage system-2 thinking because they require more thinking to decipher their meaning. The participants were 40 undergraduates students from Princeton University, USA, who were required to complete a standard cognition reflection, they were randomly assigned to the condition of ‘fluent’ and ‘non-fluent’, and the IV is the type of the font, the DV is the number of errors made in the test. The result shows that the degree of accuracy among the non-fluent condition participants was much higher than the fluent condition participants. 65% participants of the participants in the non-fluent condition got all answers correctly. This shows the conclusion that difficult tasks prompt the use of the more reasoned system2 rather than the more heuristic system1 thinking. This leads to more precise thinking and involves less attention to detail.

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In order to check if people really changed their memory based on their minds. Bartlett did a study, which let these participants read the story that are different from their culture. So that they can have chances to change their memory based on their ideas about the culture. They find participants. Let them read a native American folk called the war of the ghost,  then let the first person read the story for 15min, and rewrite or retell the story after the 15min, then let the next person repeat the same procedure. They were asked to write this story 1 day later, 3 days later, one month later ad years later. The result shows that the main themes of the story were largely understood, and the details reproduced, employing effort after meaning, tended to be the ones that Western cultural schemas could most readily relate to. Because the person has different cultures from the story. He changed the story based on his culture. For example, these men go hunting seals in the organ story, however, these people changed “hunting seals” into “ Fishing” because, in their culture, they go fishing more than hunting seals. They changed the details which are more suitable in their memory. Also, they changed and forgot more and more details as time goes by. They get more wrong in the details of the story.

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In order to check the nature of confirmation bias, and the degree that which such a bias would lead to inconsistencies in assessing supporting and contradictory evidence, Lord et al.(1979) did a study. There are 48 participants divided into two groups that are in favor of or against the death penalty research. Then they were given a series of cards on the death penalty research, some are supportive and some are opposed. Then they fill in a questionary to check if there are any changes on their attitudes. Then they got all the details of the research and judge them. In the end, they saw another study that was on the opposite side and fill in the questionary. The result shows that even though their attitudes changed a little during the questionary, they were still convinced of the initial one they got. According to this research, we can see that confirmation bias occurs in rational thinking within academic circles, where different standards are applied to the evidence supporting their personal standpoint and the evidence contradicting. Even though some of the participants thought carefully and took wary steps. They still chose the initial one, which shows the conformation bias that they focused on the pre-existing opinions more than the other.

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transactional memory is where the human encoding, storage and recall on command is delegated to a digital device. Digital technologies haveb been found as having profound effect on our memory and cognitive proces, especially negative effects. Negative effect of transactional memory by digitial technology on cognitive process include reducing attention span and a lack of motivation to encode semantic memory. Many studies accurately supported the negative effect of digital technology on cognitive process. Although there are also positive effects being found, such as enhance neural circuity, still, digital technology can affect our cognitive process negatively.

Sparrow et al. 2011
Haier et al. 1992
Swing et al. 2010

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whether can computer game increase visuaol-spatial and motor coordination skills
Participants have their brain scanned while playing 'Tetris'; glucose level decrease after playing for a week compared to starter, negative association between individual standard of play and level of glucose metabolised.
Conclusion: decrease in glucose metabolism indicate learning and skill mastery can promote more effective utilization of neural circuity, which, in this case can be transfer into spatial skill from due to game practice

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Loftus and Palmer 1974
One leading research in field of eye-witnessing testimony was done by Loftus and Palmer in 1974.
Wording questions used can affect memory recall: those given  stronger word such as 'smashed' gave a faster estimation of the car speed; whereas those with a less intense word gave a slower estimation. Also, those with a faster estimation agreed more that they saw a broken glass
Conclusion: wording questions can affect our memory recall, leading to a less accurate reconstructive memory, also unreliable EWT due to the ability of our memory to reconstruct events.
However since it was tested through a car crashing video instead of a real/life event, it is possible participants' answer will be different if it was in real life EWT situation.

Yuillle and Cutshall 2011
EWT are actually highly accurate in real-life event: In a shooting event with police involved, participants gave EDT of 80% accurate to the police's account.
EDT can be accurate in real life situation if there are no wording questions used and no other outside factors present

Shaw and Palter 2015
However, though the two studies about showed different result regarding the role of wording wording on memory and EWT, none of them investigate whether it is possible that people can separate real memory from false memory.
Show and Palmer aimed to investigate whether can people separate real memory from false memory.
3 rounds of interview with 2 real memory and one real memory to ask participants to recall both of them.
Result showed, 80% participants considered the false memory as their real ones and gave false memory recall of it.
Conclusion: people can easily came up with reconstructive memory under outside factors such as wording questions, leading to a less accurate and even unreliable EWT

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children between 8-11 self-report TV and game routines, compared with parents' descriptions; school teachers gave info about attention span in class for each student, compare to another group of 210 college students.
result: children who spend more than 2hours on TV and video games were more likely to have attention difficulties. Similar results were also found among college students
Video game stimulations, coloful flashing lights and rapid-changing movements make the brain's cognitive function depend upon it

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Deception-
1. Sacks 2007- deceived the patient about both the purpose of the study and the fact that he was being studied (due to his memory loss)
Informed consent should be obtained and record to make sure the patient agreed and if he forgot his agreement

2. Alter 2007
deceived participants about the purpose of the research of testing the working of the thinking system
If the researchers told participants about the purpose of the research, participants will show participants bias that may bias the result, which is important for cognitive approach where all finding are based on participants own thinking and interpretations that are all highly susceptible to bias and personal feelings.
Deceived them about the purpose first to obtain the most accurate answer but then debrief the participants to protect their rights of deception

Harm: Yuille and Cutshall 2011
Psychological harm- let people recall their past, highly emotional memory will cause them high level of mental stress even deteriorate into serious harms such as depression, even suicidal thoughts.
Therefore, the researchers should ask participants whether they are willing to participate and gain informed consent before real research to minimize possible harms.
This is is important because it is

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Brown and Kulik 1977
Participants- 40 Caucasian Americans and 40 African Americans were asked to answer questions about accessination of  famous personalities such as MLK and JFK. Also their personal memory
90% gave detailed memory of heir own event, mostly death of their relative or family mambers, and African Americans have more memory about MLK than American Caucasian
Conclusion: both event importance of how personally important the event is to an individual, and event emotionality, the intensity of individual’s personal feeling of the event, can determine whether a memory can become a FBM. Also, emotion can affect memory through enhance it and encode as FBM with personal emotion involved, making it being more likely to be recalled and accurate.

2. Sharot 2007
Participants were asked to remember both 911 and their past summer holiday
fMRI showed they engage more working in hippocampus while remembering past holiday but more working in Amygdala while remembering 911
Conclusion: FBM is a separated memory from LTM that is highly emotional since it passed through the shorter oath through Amygdala that is such more emotional. Thus since FBM exist, it can explain how can emotion affect memory through enhancing it
However: only correlation, it is possible the brain activation is because of their mood instead of it is really an emotional event.

3. Hartsch 2008
Participants were asked recall 'challenger' event both 2 days and 2 and a half months after the event
Result: significant memory decay- 90% remembered after 2 days, only 45% remembered after 2 and a half month
conclusion: Therefore, FBM don't exist but are just normal memiry, and so it can't explain how can emotion enhance memory
Evaluate: 'challenges event is not personal memory did not meet the criteria of highly personally emotional, so the existence of FBM and the effect of emotion in enhancing memory is still unsure.

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Bartlett 1932
Discovered the role of socio-cultural schema on people's memory recall of stories- that people rationalized the story into their familiar socio-cultural schema leading to a less accurate, more schema based and familiar memory recall.
Conclusion: existing sociao-cultural schema can affect our memory reconstruction, make it less accurate and more schematically-based.
Eva: the task on memorizing story is really commonly-seen and can be generalized to many other similar tasks on story recall.

Anderson 1978
Aim: how can perspective and personal schema affect the way people remember and interpret information
Measure: participants (both music and PE students) we're asked to recall two stories: one music related passage with some professionals musical words such as instruments involved; one prison - wrestling story with some physical actions involved
Result: music students did a better job in recalling the musical passage, PE students did a better job in the prison passage.
Conclusion: people's own perspective and personal schema affect the way they remember and recall information
Build on Bartlett's study since it separate participants base on their experiences and existing schema instead of assume everyone has the same socio-cultural schema; also use stories that reflect their own personal schema to obtain a more accurate measure on schema.

Brewer 1981
Aim: how can stereotypical schema affect the way people remember and recall information
measure: participants in an office for 30 seconds and asked to recall what they see
Conclusion: all participants recalled to what they think a typical office should look like and so left out items such as basket and wine even though they were there in the office
Conclusion: Stereotypical schema can affect the way people recall information since they recall based on their existing schema of what a typical office should like, and so left out details they think that are not related to that schema in a short memory interval.
Build up upon the previous studies on story recall since participants were asked to visualize information and describe a real-life scenario instead of simply verbally recall stories, but still showing the effect of schema on memory recall
Plus, it is easy for people to form stereotypical schema, since stereotypes can be easily formed, people can easily make later memory recall base on their existing schema, leading to a less accurate memory recall

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Piaget 1954
He has incorporated the schema theory with his own theory of cognitive development trying to understand the nature of schema further. In his theory of cognitive development, children development will occur through four stages, with schema development opearet at each of the cognitive-determined level of development. Children will first encode info from environment, encode as their own schame; then they will incorporate new info into this existing schema. If new info fits in their existing schema, they will assimilate that info; if it did not fit in their schema, they will accomodate that new info by changing their exiting schema. When new info cannot be accomodated but only assimilated, children will reach a mental eq by creating a new schema

Anderson 1978
Aim: how can perspective and personal schema affect the way people remember and interpret information
Measure: participants (both music and PE students) we're asked to recall two stories: one music related passage with some professionals musical words such as instruments involved; one prison - wrestling story with some physical actions involved
Result: music students did a better job in recalling the musical passage, PE students did a better job in the prison passage.
Conclusion: people's own perspective and personal schema affect the way they remember and recall information
Build on Bartlett's study since it separate participants base on their experiences and existing schema instead of assume everyone has the same socio-cultural schema; also use stories that reflect their own personal schema to obtain a more accurate measure on schema.

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MSM
Attkinson and Shiffrin 1968
3 memory store in whole memory process: sensory-register, STM store and LTM store. Incoming information from 5 sense first enter the sensory register for 2-5 seconds, then practiced into the STM for further duration and storage. Then, memory can be encode into he LTM if one continues to practice and rehearse. In theory, LTM has no limit and memory can store there forever.

Murdock 1962
This finding on MSM is important because it synthesized any theory and finding from previous studies.
Murdock demonstrated the role of practice and rehearsal in enhancing memory, that students showed primacy and decency effect while recalling a list of word: all tend to recall more for those on the top and bottom part of the list than those in the middle, because they have more time to practice those on top and bottom, enhance it into LTM whereas those in the middle stay in STM still.

Sacks 2007
Case study- a musician with a brain damage in hippocampus, have both Anterogade and retrograde amnesia, can neither remember past memory or form new memory. However he still retained the ability to read write and play instruments, because they have already became his LTM that, according to the MSM will never lose. Also, his STM duration can stay 30 seconds, but lose the ability to encode them into LTM, supporting the mechanism of the MSM that the STM and LTM are in separated memory stores with no direct access to achieve other.

However: Oversimplification of memory, that it only suggested that each of memory stores operate a single, unified fashion, but it has become more apparently that memory process is far more complicated than previously thought.

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This experiment involved 45 participating university students who were shown a series of seven movie clips of traffic accidents. After each clip, all participants answered questions designed to recall details of the accident. The critical question was the speed of the cars when the accident took place. It is not easy for an onlooker to estimate the speed of a moving car with accuracy.

The results of both experiments indicated a significant support for the hypothesis. In the first experiment, ‘smashed’, ‘collided’ and ‘bumped’ got a significantly faster speed estimate than ‘hit’ and ‘contacted’. The conclusion was that different words activate different schemas in the memory. Hearing the word ‘smashed’ caused the memory to reconstruct a more severe picture than hearing the word ‘hit’ or ‘contacted’.

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Baddeley et al. (1973) gave participants a simple tracking task which involved holding a pointer in contact with a moving spot of light. At the same time, participants were asked to perform an imagery task.       Participants were required to imagine the block capital letter 'F' and then, starting at the bottom left hand corner, were to classify each angle as a 'yes' if it included the bottom or top line of the letter and as a 'no' if it did not.     Participants found it very difficult to track the spot of light and accurately classify the angles in the letter imagery task.   However, they were perfectly capable of carrying out the tracking task in conjunction with a verbal task.   This suggests that the tracking and letter imagery tasks were competing for the limited resources of the visuo-spatial scratchpad, whereas the tracking task and the verbal task were making use of the separate components of the visuo-spatial scratchpad and the phonological loop respectively. Baddeley’s study shows that semantic similarity increases forgetting from LTM. Because LTM stores the meaning of things, PPs forgot more because they confused the semantically similar words. This didn’t happen for semantically dissimilar lists or acoustically similar/dissimilar lists.

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To see whether Aboriginal people might might perform better on tests that took advantage of their ability to encode with visual cues. In other words, to see the affects of culture on their schema. 44 Aboriginal adolescents aged 12-16. All from desert Aboriginal descent raised under semi-traditional tribal conditions, and spoke English as a second language.44 white Australian adolescents. Kearins placed 20 objects on a board divided into 20 squares. Each student were told to study the board for 30 seconds.
They were told that the subsequent task was the reconstruction of the board with the objects in the same arrangement. Then, all the objects were heaped into a pile in the centre of the word. Children were then asked to replace the items in their original locations. On all four tasks, the Aboriginal children performed better than the white Australian children. The survival of Aboriginals in the harsh desert landscape had encourages and rewarded their ability to store and encode information using visual retrieval cues.This suggests that survival needs may shape and reward a particular schema of encoding information in memory.

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Lab experiments are used to study cognitive processes because they allow researchers to change only one variable and then see if that variable changes the way a cognitive process works. Researchers can test models by making predictions based on the models for specific behavioral changes that will occur, then use a lab experiment to measure those changes very accurately.

For example, Brewer and Treyens (1981) wanted to test schema theory. Schema theory makes the prediction that people will remember things better when they are related to preexisting experiences or expectations. Then, a lab experiment was used where participants recalled a specific experience of sitting in an office. Since it was a lab experiment, the researchers could control all variables of that experience they were recalling, and change only the variable that they were concerned with-- the expected presence of items in the room. For Brewer and Treyens (1981), they had many objects which would be expected in an office, but had two-- a picnic basket and wine-- that were not. Thus for every participant, they could compare the recall rate for items based on their appropriateness in the setting, with no other environmental factors being different due to the controlled setting of the lab experiment.

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Participants were presented with a series of 60 words about which they had to answer one of three questions.  Some questions required the participants to process the word in a deep way like semantic information and others in a shallow way like structural and phonemic words. Participants recalled more words that were semantically processed compared to phonemically and visually processed words. Semantically processed words involve elaboration rehearsal and deep processing which results in more accurate recall.  Phonemic and visually processed words involve shallow processing and less accurate recall.

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provide biological basis of how different types of memory processing take place in different parts of the brain.Participants carried out a logic task. Some tasks were abstract in nature like odd number and matching color. Some tasks were concrete in nature like drinking beer and under 18. The researchers had the participants decide on the correct choices while in an fMRI. The result shows that there are many common areas of the brain were active in carrying out all the tasks. But there are still differences between them, when they are using different system of thinking and decision making, it will active different parts of the brain. This study provide biological evidence for system-1 and system-2 thinking.

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They aimed to investigate the impact of cognitive biases and heuristics on decision making, when system 1 is employed.

Tversky and Kahneman carried out an experiment on intuitive numerical estimation by investigating the effect of a high and low anchor on students' estimation of a computation.   High school students were asked to compute, within 5 seconds, the product of the numbers one through eight, either as demonstrated in ascending order or descending order.  The participants had to make an estimate due to lack of time.   In the first condition they gave a smaller answer, because the sequence started with a small number. The median was 512. When the sequence started with the larger numbers they gave a larger number. The median was 2,250.   The correct answer was 40,30. Both groups underestimated the answer by a wide margin, but the former group's average estimate was significantly smaller .

The first estimate condition served as an anchor effect that affecting the partcipants' thinking and decision making process. As a rapid judgment had to be made, the use of heurisics was employed thus demonstrating that while intuitive thinking is not time consuming, it operates automatically and is therefore prone to error.

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Alter at. al 2007
People use different thinking system in different situation when given different text: they use the system-1 thinking while answering questions with fonts easier to read, whereas use system-2 thinking for the same test but with fonts hard to read
This suggested the role of the dual-system model of thinking, that those given harder tests were forced to think harder, but more accurate, which demonstrated the mechanism of the dual-system model of thinking that the intuitive system-1 thinking is less conscious and accurate than the rational system-2 thinking.
However since this study did show any causation relationship between the switching of the two system of thinking and different tests, it is possible that those with harder tests think harder because those hard-reading fonts were hard to read instead of they are really switching between different thinking systems.

Tay 2016
Tay also distinguished the use of different thinking systems through different tests. He found that in a Cognitive Reflection Test (CRI), only 10% answered all questions correct when given shorter time of only 10 seconds; whereas half of the participants answered all questions correctly when given a longer time. This also separates the two thinking system since people use system 1 thinking that is less conscious but also faster when hey don't have enough time to think, whereas they were able to use the system 2 thinking that is more accurate and more conscious when they were given longer time.

Goel 2000
Using fMRI, Goel found people engage different brain activation in different testing situation. They engage more working in their parietal lobe when given a harder, conscious test; whereas engage more working in temporal love when given an easier, concrete test
Conclusion: biological basis for the dual-system model of thinking- use parietal love with an associate area that is much more conscious and effortful in a harder test, whereas use temporal lobe that is less conscious in an easier test, support the mechanism of he dual-system model of thinking that difficult test trigger the use of a more conscious system2 thinking
However though there is a brain difference suggesting each system of thinking is separated and belongs to a specific brain area, still, since it shows only correlation between thinking systems and brain process with no cause and effect relationship explained, the mechanism of the dual-system model of thinking is still unsure.

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Participants were taken into a university student office and left for 35 seconds before being taken to another room. They were asked to write down as much as they could remember from the office. Participants recalled things of a “typical office” according to their schema. They did not recall the wine and picnic basket that were in the office. Participants' schema of an office influenced their memory of it.They did not recall the wine and picnic basket because it is not part of their “typical office” schema. This study provides evidence to support how our schemas can affect our cognitive processes, in particular memory. Our schemas influence what we recall in our memory.

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In this experiment, Bechara et al. (2000) compared the decision making of participants with damage to their ventromedial prefrontal cortices (vmPFC) with healthy controls. There are four decks and participants select a card from one of the four decks. They do this for 100 trials. They win or lose money based on their decisions. What they don’t know from the start is that two of the decks have a high initial reward but high long-term risk factor (Decks B and D in the diagram below), whereas two decks have low initial risk and low reward. But actually, in the long run, the low risk and low reward decks are more advantageous because they will result in winning more money because they will lose less in the long-run. The results of this study showed the same trend: healthy participants were able to slowly move away from the disadvantageous decks (B and D) and chose more from the advantageous decks that had low initial reward but higher long-term gains (A and C). This study provides evidence that system two processing might have a biological base in the vmPFC. Damage to this part of the brain, therefore, could affect our thinking and decision making.

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This study investigated illusory correlations which means people believed there is a relation between two events even though these two events are not related to each other in the real life. Participants were required to read a series of sentences describing desirable or undesirable characteristics attached to either Group A or B. After reading each sentence linked to a specific person in either group, they were asked to estimate how many members of each group performed desirable and undesirable behaviors. Participants overestimated the number in which members of the minority group performed negative behaviors because they associated undesirable behavior with group membership.

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To investigate flashbulb memory and how it works, Brown and Kulik did a study.  Participants had to answer questions about 10 events. 9 of these events were mostly on assassinations or attempted assassinations of well-known American personalities. The last event was self-selected of personal events that included self-shock. They were asked how much they rehearsed these events. The result shows that participants are more likely to have flashbulb memory with J.F. Kennedy's assassination in 1963. This study supported the theories of flashbulb memories. That these are all surprising and highly emotional information.

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Participants were either UK or non-UK undergraduates. The study was based on the resignation of Margaret Thatcher, which is a female British Prime Minister. Participants were asked and interviewed about the event a few days after the event. They were asked again 11 months after the event. They found that 86% of UK participants still had FBM of the resignation of Margaret Thatcher. While there were only 29%  non-UK participants had flashbulb memories of the event. Thus, Conway claimed that this event is a flashbulb memory for British people as it was an unexpected and highly significant event to their culture, caused deep emotions therefore creating FBM of the event.

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Participants were asked to report on the circumstances of their learning about the challenger space disaster on 1986. Neisser and Harsch investigated people’s memory accuracy of the incident 24 hours after the accident and then again two years later. 1 day after the disaster, 215 of the participants reported that they heard about the disaster on television Those that recalled 2 and a half years later, 45% said they heard it on T.V Clearly, their memories of how they learned the news about the challenger disaster changed over time. It can be concluded that their memories about how they had heard about the news had deteriorated significantly during the subsequent two and a half years. This study suggests that flashbulb memory maybe nor accurate.

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RM：
fMRI, lab experiment(loftus and palmer)
fMRI- One RM in cog is fMRI, while most of the time brain scanning techniques will be used in biological approach to study and behavior, fMRI has also been found as an useful technique in cog approach as well because it can provide supports for cog theories is that it can detect diff patterns in brain activations, and allow researchers to see if there will be correlation between diff patterns of the brain activity and diff tasks. By designing tasks that that distinguish proposed divisions of cog prcessing, researchers can see if brain activities is differentiated in ways that can support their proposed model for a certain cognitive process.

One example of how FMRI can be effectivite in cog approach is that it can help researchers to differentiate whether there will be diff brain activities for diff division of cog process. For example, the dual system model of thinking suggest that different kind of task will be processed in diff system of thinking, then fMRI can allow researchers to see if the brain will show diff patterns of activity when the participant is engaing tasks with different system of thinking. Goel 2000's study with fMRI found that there are act diff brain activity pattern for the use of diff system of thinking, that...this is because fMRI can allow researchers to compare the diff brain scan image when the participant is using diff thinking system, that since the brain scan also reveals diff in brain activity, they engage in diff area of the brain for the use of diff system of thinking, it support the proposed division of the thinking model that there are two system of thinking.

Similarly, Sharot's study on FMB also show how fMRI can be useful to confirm diff divisions of cog process in cog theory. Using fMRI, Sharot aimed to study the existence of FMB, which is a subset of memory process that has been found as highly emotional. Brain scanning image showed that there are diff brain area activated for diff kind of memory process that...this scanning image can allow researchers to confirm their proposed division of the cognitive process, that there are different kinds of memory, with the FBM as a subset that is separated from LTM, since there are different brain activities shown from fMRI image suggesting there are different sub divisions in memory process.

Furthermore, fMRI also help researchers to study the effect of emotion on cog process, that how diff emotional tone used is related to performance in cog tasks. Smith 2015's study with fMRI hypothesized that diff emotional tone used can affect the cog process used in completing logic tasks. If this hypothesis is correct, then we will expect fMRI scanning image will show diff brain activity patterns when diff emotional tone is used triggering diff cognitive process. Participants were asked to participate into a deductive reasoning task that requires cognitive process questioned by different emotional tone. Results show that there are indeed differences in brain activations for the use of diff emotional tone, that an angry voice is correlated...also, participants showed higher accuracy in situations using angry voice. This can help researchers to further study the bio correlaion between diff emotions and reasoning patterns used, that the reasoning pattern stimulated through an angry voice will be more accurate in logic task, and confirm the hypothesis that emotions can affect cognitive process used within cognitive tasks, since fMRI image reveals different brain patterns for different cog processes used under diff emotional tones.

However, though fMRI can be useful in help researchers to confirm heir proposed division of cognitive process through providing differentiated brain activities, still it can give only a correlation result but with no any further explained details. This mean it is possible that there are also many other factors that can also lead to the difference in brain activity besides from different divisions in cognitive process. For example, in Goel 2000's study, it is possible that the reason why people show different brain activation for the division of thinking system is simply those hard reading fonts slower their reading speed down instead of there is a really division between two thinking systems; also, in Smith's study, it might be hard to distinguish between different emotion used that are similar, for example, anger and fear, it is possible that the different brain activity people shown is due to real sense of fear rather than the cognitive process triggered through an angry tone, and thus though there are differentiated brain activations, it still did not support the division of cognitive process in a theory properly.

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1. Kahnemann and Tversky 1974
Availability heuristic- participants were asked whether a word is more likely to start with 'k' or 'k' in the third letter of the word if it is from English
2/3 participants think there are more words start with 'k' (kitchen) than in middle (ask) (which is wrong)
Conclusion- people use heuristuc thinking because it is more likely to think of a word start with k than k in the middle, using information that are the most available came to mind
Availability heuristic is one heuristic, system-1 bias that can affect people's cognition and judgement

2. 1976
Representative heuristic- participants given situation with two hospitals- one big one one small one, big one record more number of boys than smaller one. Each hospital recorded 50% new born as boys. One year later each recorded 60% as boys. They were asked which hospital they think recorded more number of boys.
Result: 78% answered wrong, 50%more think the two have the same number of boys recorded
Conclusion: representative heuristic- they think the two hospital have the same chance in record boys, so they will also have the same number of boys recorded- think one event as similar and representative of the another and use the same probability across different scenarios.
Conclusion: how heuristic as system-1 bias can affect our thinking and judgements

Roth 1979
In a Watson test: test whether a rule like 'if P then Q' is true or not through turning over 4 cards, with P and Q shown on one side of different cards.
result: only 10% participants turned the correct cards, all rest turned over the ones with P and Q shown
Conclusion: availability heuristic- use information that are the most available, use those that were given from the question instead of thinking carefully and test all hypotheses. Suggest the mechanism of system-1 thinking that a fast, intuitive thinking is prone to heuristic bias leading to a biased judgement.

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Roth use Wason tasks to test the intuitive thinking and rational thinking of participants. They use the assumption in the form of "If...,then..." In the experiment, they used "If P, then Q". They will not only ask about which one they are going to chose to check, but also ask about the reason, the logic. PPs got two chances in total, they if they changed the option, they would be asked about the reason also. The result shows that only 10% of the PPs chose the correct cards to check. Most of the, use the intuitive thinking through system one, because they just simply fellow the assumption without thinking logically

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Representative sample:
1.Similar characteristics to the population
2.Homogeneous sample
Increase representativeness of population for narrow population (Random sample increase the representativeness)
3.Purposive of sampling
Increase representativeness of population for narrow population (Random sample increase the representativeness)
4. Standardization
Ensures that every participants has the same experience
fMRI
1) Objective measure that can be standardized
2) Limit the accessibility (Sample, too young, too old, have damage)
3) Expensive, some may not have one
5. Independent measure vs Repeated measure
1)Independent measure: Two groups experience two different condition (IV DV)
2) Repeated measure: Same group experience different condition(Both IV DV), Less impact of individual characteristics
6. Longitudinal study