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Implications of Poor Time Management (Dion)

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Implications of Poor Time Management (Dion)

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We all know that there never seems to be enough time in the day, and as a result, things slip by the wayside. While this occurs to the best of us from time to time, students who battle with time management regularly are doing themselves no favors.

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You can concentrate on one item at a time to manage your time and commit it to study effectively. Nothing gets accomplished when you attempt to perform too many tasks at once.

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Scheduling is the art of preparing your activities so that you may accomplish your goals and prioritize your priorities in the time you have available. When done correctly, it can help you figure out what you can do with your time. Please leave adequate time for import duties and only take on what you can do.

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Why time management is essential for students. (Dion)

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Why time management is essential for students. (Dion)

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Managing time effectively enables students to become more confident and organized and learn more efficiently

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Tackle the Most Difficult Task First (Dion)

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Tackle the Most Difficult Task First (Dion)

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You should complete your most crucial tasks when you're most energetic. This entails arranging writing or other demanding tasks for when your energy levels are at their highest and reading or other passive pursuits for when they are at their lowest.

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"The temporal gap between intended behavior and enacted
behavior."

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ACES is a secure portal that provides students, staff, and faculty with access to various applications using a single sign-on. As an ACES user, you will have access to register for classes, financial aid information, email, library resources, and online courses. ACES will also provide you with the latest information of events and important news taking place within your college.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
ACES is a secure portal that provides students, staff, and faculty with access to various applications using a single sign-on. As an ACES user, you will have access to register for classes, financial aid information, email, library resources, and online courses.

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1. the practice of using the time that you have available in a useful and…

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Procrastination tendency in individual and collaborative tasks (Tyler)

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Procrastination tendency in individual and collaborative tasks (Tyler)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
ACES is a secure portal that provides students, staff, and faculty with access to various applications using a single sign-on. As an ACES user, you will have access to register for classes, financial aid information, email, library resources, and online courses. ACES will also provide you with the latest information of events and important news taking place within your college.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
ACES is a secure portal that provides students, staff, and faculty with access to various applications using a single sign-on. As an ACES user, you will have access to register for classes, financial aid information, email, library resources, and online courses.

# data[].attributes.headline
Procrastination, time management, and academic behavior (Tyler)

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Procrastination, time management, and academic behavior (Tyler)

# data[].attributes.body
Time management can help you become a more reliable employee who always submits high-quality work by your due dates. This will make you more valuable as a worker and improve your professional reputation, which can help you find new opportunities to expand your career.

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Time management for the family | Canadian Living

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How family and friends can help (Daniel)

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How family and friends can help (Daniel)

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I think by involving family, loved ones, and friends you can come up with a plan for time management and less distractions.

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Time management for the family | Canadian Living

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Canadian Living is the #1 lifestyle brand for Canadian women. Get the best recipes, advice and inspired ideas for everyday living.

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Abstract

Objective: This research was conducted to study the relationship between attribution and academic procrastination in University Students.

Methods: The subjects were 203 undergraduate students, 55 males and 148 females, selected from English and French language and literature students of Tabriz University. Data were gathered through Procrastination Assessment Scale-student (PASS) and Causal Dimension Scale (CDA) and were analyzed by multiple regression analysis (stepwise).

Results: The results showed that there was a meaningful and negative relation between the locus of control and controllability in success context and academic procrastination. Besides, a meaningful and positive relation was observed between the locus of control and stability in failure context and procrastination. It was also found that 17% of the variance of procrastination was accounted by linear combination of attributions.

Conclusion: We believe that causal attribution is a key in understanding procrastination in academic settings and is used by those who have the knowledge of Causal Attribution styles to organize their learning.

Key Words: Attribution, Controllability, Locus of control, Procrastination, Stability

Introduction

Procrastination may be defined as a way to avoid or escape from undesirable tasks. The procrastinator usually justifies his action by saying that "This is a boring assignment," or "I will do it later". In another definition, the procrastination has been described as an intentional, unreasonable postponement of the taken decisions, being unaware of the fact that this will bring about certain negative consequences ( 1). Procrastination is a widespread problem related to self-regulation, which is realized as deferral of the beginning and completing the important, necessary assignments. Procrastination may produce important negative consequences such as anxiety and depression, regarding the personality ( 2).

Depending on its cognitive, affective or behavioral components, procrastination will have different manifestations including academic, decisional, neurotic or compulsive procrastination. The most common form, however, is academic procrastination ( 3). It is defined as pervasive and permanent desire on the part of learner to postpone academic activities, which almost always is accompanied by anxiety. Deferring study to the night just before the exam and the accompanied anxiety and haste can be described as the most obvious and familiar instance of this form of procrastination ( 4). The studies tend to demonstrate procrastination as a behavioral problem among school and university students. Ferrari demonstrated that almost 20% of adults experience chronic procrastination, while the estimated rate of problematic academic procrastination among undergraduate students is at least 70-95 % ( 5). Another study estimated the serious and chronic procrastination among university students as 20-30% ( 6).

Self-regulation is believed to be the conventional motivation explanation model in procrastination. Procrastinators actually fail in accomplishing self-regulation. Compared with normal students, they have lower ability to resist the social temptations, especially when the academic prize is rather far-off. Dweitte and Schouwenburg relate the dynamic character of the procrastination to temporal discount. Procrastination, to them, is a desire to undervalue distant prizes ( 7). For instance, we might postpone preparation for an exam since the prizes such as promoting to higher rank or avoiding a lower place in class lies far away from us. Setting objectives and designing a practical plan for intentions as an element of self-regulation was studied by Howell, Watson, Powell and Buro ( 8). Their results suggested that devising a practical plan for intentions such as time, place and the procedure correlates negatively with procrastination.

According to the Theory of Planned Behavior, intention and decision are among the close characteristics to behavior performance, and mediate the effect of attitudes and thoughts on behavior ( 9). The recent studies confirmed that no differences exist between procrastinators and those not suffering from this problem in terms of deciding to act. For example, according to the experimental data, there is no diversity between procrastinators and normal individuals in terms of taking decision to find a job, to do academic assignments, and how many times they decide to study ( 9). It is apparent that actualization of these decisions and intentions is influenced by motivation factors.

"Causal Attribution" is suggested as being one of the motivation theories manipulating the realization of decisions. It refers to a process, in which individuals try to decide on the causal factors of an event or consequence. Individual's response to a certain event is dependent on their interpretation of that event. Facilitating events prediction and control, the attributions explain the sensations, attitudes and behaviors and not only affect emotions but also manipulate individual's function ( 10). According to Weiner, behavioral explanations can influence both internal (readiness, emotion, decision) and external (others' behavior or environment) factors, which may be controllable or uncontrollable, and stable or unstable ( 11).

In internal causal explanation, the individuals correlate the events and consequences of the behavior with the ability, while in external causal explanation they relate it with external situations, luck or coincidence. As a rule, individuals attribute their success to internal willingness to shoulder the responsibility; but in case of failure, they blame external factors such as the difficulty level of the task. There exists, then, a sort of self-service in individuals. This supportive mechanism is there to provide the individual with a positive self-concept regardless of failure or success. To facilitate self-service attributions and support positive self-concept, individuals may recourse to rationalization. The process is called self-handicapping, through which the poor performance is justified. Self-handicapping is among the several self-defeating mechanisms that individuals employ to support positive self-concept when they fail to complete the assignment. Procrastinators avail themselves of this self-handicapping process. These students select the assignments that include more hinders that prevent their accomplishment or create situations that offer no way to success. For example, the self-handicapping students go for the assignments that are beyond their capacity or study in a crowded, bustling place. In this case, they create hinders for themselves that thwart their success. Actually, they provide thus external attributions for their failure, such as the place of study or a noisy class. Otherwise, these procrastinators postpone their assignments in order to support their self-respect through shunning failure. In addition, through the strategy of presenting themselves to other individuals-i.e. equipped with external reasons for their dilatory behaviors-, they guarantee that others will evaluate them as positive persons ( 12).

Procrastination can also be a function of the control attributions. Control attribution refers to the fact that to what extent individuals hold back the important consequences of their existence. The idea that one can direct his academic success (i.e. studying will result in higher mark) will facilitate his actual control over the events related to success (e.g. starting to prepare for exam). There is no consistent data concerning the role of attributions in procrastination. The results of Dweiite and Schouwenburg ( 7), Ferrari, Parker and Ware ( 13), and Steel, Brothen and Wambach ( 14) showed that there was no relation between control source and procrastination. Rothblum, Solomon and Murakami ( 15), however, demonstrated that procrastinators attribute passing the exams to external factors more that the other students. Trice and Milton ( 16) concluded that the procrastinators have a more external control source than non-procrastinators. The results of Janssen and Carton ( 17) suggested that the examinees with external control source are more reluctant to complete the assignments on time compared with those with internal source control. Carden, Bryant and Moss ( 18) reported that procrastinating students had more external control by comparison with normal ones. Finally, Howell et al. ( 8) revealed a significant negative correlation between procrastination and supposed academic control of students.

Ahadi ( 19) further revealed that students' attributions relate to their expectation of the future performance. His findings suggest that when students deem themselves a capable individual and attribute their failures to controllable factors (such as insufficient effort or knowledge), they probably concentrate on strategies that guarantee their future success. However, their motivation problems emerge when they attribute their failures to stable and uncontrollable factors since in this case they will be faced with decreased motivation to attempt and increased expectance of failure in future.

Given the very high prevalence of procrastination among university students ( 5, 6) and the role of causal attributions in sentimental and emotional consequences ( 11) and regarding the inconsistent results of studies on the relations between causal explanations and procrastination ( 7, 8, 12, 13, 15- 18), the present study has this question as its main problem focus: Is there any relationship between causal explanations of success and failure, and academic procrastination of the students studying in department of foreign languages in University of Tabriz?

Materials and Methods

Subjects

The statistical universe of the study included the students attending Department of English & French Language and Literature of University of Tabriz. According to Tablet of Morgan and Krijcie ( 20), 203 students were selected as study sample. Given the statistical population distribution model, the stratified proportional sampling method was selected. Based on proportion of the students in each department, 114 students from English and 89 from French Department were sampled (148 women and 55 men with an age range of 18 to 29). To consider ethical issues and increase the response rate, the students were asked to take part in the study anonymously.

Instruments

a) Procrastination Assessment Scale-Student (SPSS): Originally designed by Solomon and Rothblum ( 3) to analyze the academic procrastination in three areas of assignment preparation, preparation for exam and preparation of semester report, the scale consists of 21 items. Each item offered four options ranging from Rare (1 point) to Almost always (4 points). Jowkar and Aghapour ( 3) have translated it into Farsi. The factorial analysis by them revealed a general factor in procrastination questionnaire and its reliability coefficient estimated by Cronbach's alpha method is reported as 0.91 ( 3).

b) Weiner's Causal Dimension Scale (CDA): The earliest version of the scale was written by Russell in 1982. Ifthikhar Su'adi has translated it into Farsi as well as he has done well on psychometric characteristics ( 21). The questionnaire consists of sixteen supposed situations, eight of which are based success and the other eight on failure. The examinees are asked in this questionnaire to imagine themselves in each of these situations and think about the provided reason. They, then, go to answer the questions on that reason. The same nine questions are asked in all of the sixteen situations. Questions 1, 5 and 7 measure the control source and question 3, 6 and 8 the stability; questions 2, 4 and 9 assess with controllability of the causal attributions. In 1376, Iftikhar Su'adi examined the reliability of the scale in terms of semantic differential of each material using variance analysis method. The estimated main effect of control source proved to be 50-56% variance, that of the stability 14-19% and that of controllability 14-26%. Therefore, each of the three aspects is sufficiently measured with the nine-point discrimination scale and the resulted coefficients are in the significant level of 0.05. To measure the reliability of Weiner's evaluation of the causal dimensions Cronbach's alpha coefficient was used. The result was 0.75 for control source, 0.86 for stability and controllability 0.86 ( 21).

Method of implementation and data collection

By prior arrangement with the department's staff, one of the researchers attended the classes to help students in filling the questionnaires if required. The SPSS version 16 was used for the analysis of data. According to the nature of the variables, the present study used the step by step regression analysis. To test research hypothesis based on the role of causal attribution styles on behavioral postponement, at first assumption of tests centered on being normal, distribute linear, and homogeneous variance have been investigated with Kolmogrov-Smirnov test, histogram, and M box test respectively.

Results

The correlation matrix of the study and the descriptive results are given in table 1 . As it is clear from the table, certain independent variables of the study correlate significantly with procrastination. Thus, one sees is a negative significant relationship between procrastination and causal description of control source, and a positive one between procrastination and causal explanation of the failure reasons. In other words, to the extent that the students relate their success to internal factors such as their personal ability, to the same extent their procrastination decreases and similarly to the extent they relate failures to stable factors, their procrastination increases.

Table 1

M

SD

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Stability in failure

134.30

19.23

.267*

.223*

.202*

-.194

-.187

.624*

1

procrastination

38.03

13.10

2

Locus of control in success

138.26

18.09

-.329*

3

Locus of control in failure

113.51

16.57

.258*

.233*

4

Controllability in success

104.26

19.39

-.272*

.080

-.145

5

Controllability in failure

87.60

22.24

.239*

-.261*

-.197*

.355*

6

Stability in success

147.20

22.21

.002

.227*

.075

-.308*

-.343*

In order to explain the academic procrastination through factors related to causal explanation, the present study used the step by step regression analysis. The predictor variables introduced into the equation in order of the degree of their relationship with criterion variables, and those which did not significantly contribute to increased precision of predicting the criterion variable were deleted. The results of the last phase are given in tables 2 and ​and3 3 .

Table 2

variable

source

SS

D.F

MS

F

P

attributions

regression
residual
total

5970
28896.8
34866.9

4
199
203

1492.5
145.2

10.2

.001*

Table 3

variable

b

ß

t

p

R2

Controllability in success

-.089

-.146

-2.107

.036

Locus of control in success

-.244

-.366

-4.881

.001

%17

Stability in failure

.136

.230

3.250

.001

Locus of control in failure

.116

.147

2.194

.029

The data in tables 3 and 4 are indicative of higher prediction ability for explanations of success control source, persistence in failure and controllability in success among the factors affecting academic procrastination in university students. Besides, in general, one may say that these factors explain 17% of common variance of procrastination. Given the regression coefficient and the significance level, it is clear that two sorts of causal explanations-i.e. success control source and controllability in success- have negative relationship and the other two explanations- namely persistence in failure and control source in failure- have a positive and significant relationship with procrastination. Put it simply, students attributing their success to internal and controllable factors showed a lower degree of procrastination in their academic activities while those relating their failures to internal, stable factors experienced high degree of procrastination.

Discussion

The study aimed to determine the role of causal explanations of students in their success and failure in their academic procrastination. In this regard, step by step regression of causal explanation factors in relation with academic procrastination was measured. The method was used because, first, the insignificant variables are deleted and, second, in each step the effect of the previous variables are reexamined in terms of significance.

The relationship between students' control source and procrastination was one of the findings of the current work. In other words, there was a negative relationship between procrastination and control source in successful instances and a positive correlation between procrastination and the control source in failures. Hence, students that attributed their success to internal factors -i.e. their attempt and abilities- showed a lower degree of procrastination and those associating their negative academic results with internal (disability) factors demonstrated a higher degree of procrastination in completing their academic assignments. Carden et al ( 18) reported that procrastinating students had a higher external control compared with normal students. Janssen and Carton ( 17) showed that examinees with internal control source were more eager to finish the assignments punctually than those with external control source. The results of Beck, Koons, and Milgrim ( 22) suggested that students with internal control source showed a lower degree of procrastination, which contradicted data from some studies ( 7, 13).

Results from the present study were consistent with Rotter's social learning theory prediction of individuals' behavioral differences with expectations of internal and external control source ( 23). Students who attributed the result and consequences to external factors such as luck and fate more often postponed academic assignments than those who felt correlation between their behavior and the final outcome.

According to Weiner ( 24), source is generally related to pride and self-respect or self-value. If students relate the academic accomplishment to certain internal factors, it will result in their increased sense of value and this in turn will contribute to more desirable behavioral and functional outcome such as decreased procrastination. However, students who have external causal explanations such as task's level of difficulty in case of failure try to provide some self-serving for themselves. The reason for this supportive self-service is that it provides them with a positive self-concept in spite of the failure. Procrastinating and postponing the academic assignments by these students is a way to escape the failure and support the self-respect, and according to Ferrari ( 12) is a way of self-handicapping.

Of the other findings of the study was that the students relating their success to controllable factors such as hardworking completed their assignments on time and never postponed its beginning, continuation or completion. Some of the findings by other scholars are consistent with this observation. Howell et al. ( 8) showed a significant negative correlation between procrastination and student's imaginary academic control. Ahadi ( 19) demonstrated that when students attribute their failure to controllable factors (such as insufficient endeavor or knowledge), they may concentrate on strategies that guarantee their future success. Their conative problems emerge, however, when they correlate their failures with stable and uncontrollable factors. In this case, their effort motivation is decreased and the expectation for future failure is increased.

According to Weiner's attribution theory ( 24), reason controllability is a function of personal responsibility. If a reason is controllable, the individual suppose himself as a responsible person, while uncontrollable reasons lead to decreased sense of responsibility for consequences. According to this theory, when students relate their success to controllable factors such as hardworking, they regard the changes in environment as a function of their own actions. This causal explanation provides them with energy and power. Hence, they define realistic objectives for themselves and realize them and frequently evaluate their progress.

Finally, the current study revealed that stable causal explanation in failures correlates positively and significantly with procrastination. In other words, students who blamed stable factors (such as aptitude and capability) for their failures displayed more procrastination. In their analysis on children's depression, Abela and Zachary ( 25) reported that the children tended to correlate negative consequences with stable factors. Nouri Qasemabadi ( 26) showed that following the light academic failure stress unsuccessful individuals resort to internal, general and stable causal attribution.

In explaining the present finding on the basis of Weiner's view ( 24), one can say that the stability aspect correlates with hope and disappointment (subsequent expectations). Relating a consequence to a stable factor may create the expectation that the same outcome will occur while relating it with an unstable factor will raise the expectation that the following consequences will be different from those preceded. So, it is possible to say that students who reprimanded stable factors for their failure underwent some sort of disappointment. They had an uncertainty about successfully doing their assignments and thus, failed to start, resume and complete them punctually. Several studies ( 27) have emphasized the correlation between expectancy and achievement tests marks, course ranks in high school and academic levels. Specifically, lower expectancy level has been shown to be a predicator of insufficient exam anxiety levels, study methods and exam strategies.

Given the findings of the present study on the role of students' causal explanations in their procrastination, it is suggested that the university staff should facilitate the creation of conformable attribution on the part of students through giving feedback of their performance. The other suggestion offered by the present study to the practitioners of counseling centers of universities is that they can hold attribution re-education courses through educational workshops for students involved with procrastination behavioral problem. As a part of their objectives, these workshops will set to help students challenge the unconformable attribution patterns and acquire conformable patterns.

Of the limitations of the current study one can mention the use of self-reporting tool in procrastination. Using such a tool, the students will be influenced by factors including desirability and social acceptance. Therefore, in order to prevent biased measuring tool it is suggested that the future behavioral studies on assignments and procrastination employ experimental measuring tool.

Authors' Contributions

RBG conceived and designed the evaluation and helped to draft the manuscript and performed parts of the statistical analysis. HS participated in designing the evaluation and helped to draft the manuscript. FN collected the clinical data, interpreted them and revised the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Declaration of Interest: None.

Citation: Badri Gargari R, Sabouri H, Norzad F. Academic procrastination: The relationship between causal attribution styles and behavioral postponement. Iran J Psychiatry Behav Sci 2011; 5(2): 76-82.

References

10. Mahboudi M. [The comparison of causal attribution styles of special women (prostitution) with normal women.] [MA. Dissertation] Tehran: University of Allameh Tabataei; 1999. Persian. [ Google Scholar]

21. Ifthikhar Su'adi Z. [The survey of relationship between attribution styles, self-esteem, and social-economical status with achievement performance.] [Dissertation] University of Shahid Chamran; 1999. Persian. [ Google Scholar]

23. Pintrich PR, Schunk DH. Motivation in education: Theory, research, and applications. 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall; 2002. [ Google Scholar]

25. Abela J, Zachary R. The helplessness of depression. [Dissertation] Abstracts International: Section B: The science and engineering. 1999. [ Google Scholar]

26. Nouri GR. [Investigation of cognitive-stress model from depression.] [.Dissertation.] Institute of psychiatry; 1993. Persian. [ Google Scholar]

Articles from Iranian Journal of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences are provided here courtesy of Brieflands

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Academic Procrastination: The Relationship Between Causal Attribution Styles and Behavioral Postponement

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Objective: This research was conducted to study the relationship between attribution and academic procrastination in University Students. Methods: The subjects were 203 undergraduate students, 55 males and 148 females, selected from English and French language and literature students of Tabriz University.

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Time management and academic achievement. (Tyler)

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Time management and academic achievement. (Tyler)

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8 key time management skills and how to improve them | Practice

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Helpful tips for time management (Daniel) 

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Helpful tips for time management (Daniel) 

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Scheduling
Goal-setting
Stress management
Strategic planning
Resource management

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It's easy to feel like your own worst enemy. You know you have invoices to send to clients, sessions to prepare for, and laundry to fold. Plus, we're still waiting for an app that gives us more time in the day.

While we can't do anything to lighten your workload, we can offer some tips to improve your time management skills and save you some valuable minutes each day.

What is time management?

Time management refers to your ability to structure specific goals within a particular period, whether that's a work day, a school semester, or life. While it may seem self-explanatory, time management requires self-awareness. It's not as simple as starting from the top and working to the bottom, as most important tasks have multiple steps with varying attention and effort necessary to ensure success.

If time, or the lack thereof, is all that's keeping a dream from happening, great coaches can help you develop several "soft skills" to make getting things done less daunting.

Why is time management important?

Realizing a goal takes time and energy, whether for your business or your life. Poor time management will make achieving your goals take longer and could increase your risk of burnout. After all, working for hours without accomplishing anything is frustrating.

Good time management ensures that our time working is productive and accounts for necessary rest. Plus, achieving goals is motivating, propelling you forward.

Luckily, there are straightforward steps we can take to make the most of our time, so here's a list of time management skills examples.

The top 8 time management skills you need

1. Prioritizing

Turning on your computer is intimidating enough when work piles up, and getting notifications at any moment makes knowing where to start confusing. But the last thing that pinged isn't necessarily an urgent task. If it doesn't need your immediate attention, put a pin in it.

Take a moment each morning to create a personal task list of what's most important makes prioritizing easier. If there are three things you need to complete by the end of the day that reduces the pile and pushes the whole project forward, the latest email can probably wait.

Schedule some time and the beginning or end of your day for busy work - Slack messages, emails, updating spreadsheets, and whatever else can serve as a warm-up or cool-down to your intensive work. And put your most important tasks on the calendar at the times of day where you're most effective so they receive your best energy.

2. Delegating

Every team includes people with diverse skills, workloads, and stress levels. If one person's at their limit, it affects everyone quickly. Delegating is a time management skill that leaders use to empower their whole organization. If a specialist has to put out a fire, someone else may be able to do their less pressing tasks, like answering emails or leading meetings. Do everyone a favor by asking for help when needed.

3. Problem-solving

Sometimes a difficult task doesn't need to be. If a recurring issue hinders a project, rather than muddling through it, take the time to figure out where it's coming from and try to solve it.

Try the scientific method: observe the problem, hypothesize a solution, apply it, and observe if it works. If it works, the gained efficiency will be worth the time spent. If the hypothesis fails, you'll still have a better understanding of the problem to build on for later attempts.

4. Scheduling

Knowing if there's enough time to do a task before starting it will do wonders for your efficiency. Creating a schedule, budgeting time to complete each task, and sticking to it will help drive success and include the little things that also ensure a work-life balance.

If you don't know how long a task takes, try "time accounting." Spend a week tracking how long tasks actually take you - not how long you think they take you. This will help you block off your time more accurately. Try time blocking to keep you focused, too. Give yourself a set number of hours to work on a sole task and see how much you get done.

Schedules are also great for a team. If we all know our status in the project, there's less guesswork about what to prioritize. And if we're not where we are on the schedule, we know it's time to problem-solve.

5. Goal-setting

Having a guiding light not only makes what to prioritize clearer, but it inspires us. Breaking an overarching project into realistic and attainable goals will rally energy and direct it where it needs to go in the moment. We won't be discouraged when we bite off more than we can chew, and we can keep one eye on the ball while the other's on the goal.

Effective time management means that you're regularly hitting your targets, even if you encounter some bumps or have co-workers that are time wasters. Take control of your time to do your part well and you won't have anything to worry about.

6. Stress management

Unfortunately, when deadlines approach, the energy we need to complete a task might manifest as stress. Even in an emergency, a calm moment can clarify a solution. Take the time to clear your head.

While scheduling, plan for stress by keeping the amount of time needed to complete our tasks clear of distractions. It's reasonable to say no to unnecessary requests, and budget some wiggle room so that your plan isn't ruined by something unexpected.

7. Strategic planning

Everyone knows our workflow and productivity levels aren't guaranteed to be the same every day. Any number of issues can disrupt efficiency, so factoring that into a schedule is critical to effective project management. So long as the goal remains the same, navigate a changing situation by delegating tasks, shifting immediate priorities, and problem-solving. (Are you sensing a theme?)

8. Resource management

It's incredible what we accomplish in a limited amount of time when we have everything else we need. Resource management feeds into a holistic time management strategy, like everything else on this list. If someone has solved a problem, they probably received the necessary resources to do so promptly. Make sure everyone has what they need.

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3 practical tips for how to improve time management skills

For many of us, improving a skill is an endeavor in itself. Becoming more efficient isn't like flicking a switch. It means adopting a new way of looking at things. Here are a few time management tips anyone can try to become more efficient:

1. Set short-term goals

Our big goals often feel impossible because we don't consider the steps we take along the way. Dividing large goals into smaller ones will help you better allocate your time and energy. And not only do these smaller goals feel good to achieve, but they're cumulative, building momentum to conquer the next.

2. Establish clear priorities

The key to completing a task is understanding it. We often waste time determining if we've fulfilled every requirement. Know what the matter at hand demands and you can plan every necessary step to fulfill them and be confident when moving on to the next priority.

3. Update the calendar

Not only is creating a schedule integral to time management - you need to update it. This helps everyone using the calendar and makes scheduling new tasks more straightforward. Using a shared calendar app shave hours of updating off the workday.

3 examples of poor time management skills

The other side of adopting time management techniques is recognizing bad habits. Things we do when pressured seem like they may help but can actually make matters worse. The following are some things to be wary of when the clock's ticking:

1. Rushing

When we know we have less time than we need, the adrenaline can take over, and we'll work faster than is advisable. That can lead to mistakes that lead to more work later on (and in multiple areas, if we try multitasking). Sometimes, rushing is inevitable, but being realistic and understanding about what we can do well in a small timeframe will make a more pleasant and sustainable work environment. Late work is better than sloppy work.

2. Missing deadlines

Occasionally, we need extensions. Things come up, and the only thing to do is ask for more time. But deadlines are an agreement, and missing them is a breach of trust. If we miss deadlines regularly, it sends a message that we may not be reliable. If things are consistently late, find the source of the issue and solve it - or set more reasonable deadlines in the first place.

3. Procrastinating

It's great when we have more time than we need. Working at a more relaxed pace leads to better work. But even when there's more time, it's finite. And relaxing at work can only be so relaxing. Using the extra time to get ahead of issues before they occur or working on simple tasks can make work easier for longer.

Take charge of your time

Efficiency doesn't have to be on anyone else's behalf. Yes, it empowers us during the workday, but better time management skills can also limit our stress and keep our minds clear. If you need help balancing your time, consider working with Practice.

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8 key time management skills and how to improve them | Practice

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It's easy to feel like your own worst enemy. You know you have invoices to send to clients, sessions to prepare for, and laundry to fold. Plus, we're still waiting for an app that gives us more time in the day.

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A Guide for Higher Education: AI and Student Success | Othot

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Time management with the help of AI technology (Daniel)

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Time management with the help of AI technology (Daniel)

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Technology is so advance nowadays we can get from AI itself and make a better schedule.

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Artificial Intelligence and Student Success

Help every student stay on track

Student success is a complex subject. How we define it, how we measure it, and most importantly, how we achieve it, has influenced the way educators, policymakers, and advocates approach student success.

And because every student's experience is unique to the individual student, from their educational goals to the barriers they encounter when trying to achieve them, the one size fits all approach is no longer effective.

AI-enabled solutions can help.

AI provides a new way to process, understand, and act on the very complex variables that contribute to student success. AI has the potential to turn student success tactics into personal and powerful interventions-ones that reach each students where they are to make immediate and lasting impacts.

This whitepaper is a guide for higher ed institutions that want to find a better way forward for student success. You'll learn:

Why AI is important for student success interventions

What are the three types of AI that are critical to student success

How AI can support student success outcomes at your institution

What types of data you need to collect and how much you need to get started

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A Guide for Higher Education: AI and Student Success | Othot

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Student success is a complex subject. How we define it, how we measure it, and most importantly, how we achieve it, has influenced the way educators, policymakers, and advocates approach student success. And because every student's experience is unique to the individual student, from their educational goals to the barriers they encounter when trying to achieve them, the one size fits all approach is no longer effective.

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The Association Between Video Gaming and Psychological Functioning

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Playing game can be fun and all but they can be very time consuming and take you at of reality without even realizing.

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Department of Psychology, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Mainz, Germany

Department of Psychosomatic Medicine, University Medical Center, Mainz, Germany

Video gaming is an extremely popular leisure-time activity with more than two billion users worldwide ( Newzoo, 2017). However, the media as well as professionals have underscored the potential dangers of excessive video gaming. With the present research, we aimed to shed light on the relation between video gaming and gamers' psychological functioning. Questionnaires on personality and psychological health as well as video gaming habits were administered to 2,734 individuals (2,377 male, 357 female, M age = 23.06, SD age = 5.91). Results revealed a medium-sized negative correlation between problematic video gaming and psychological functioning with regard to psychological symptoms, affectivity, coping, and self-esteem. Moreover, gamers' reasons for playing and their preferred game genres were differentially related to psychological functioning with the most notable findings for distraction-motivated players as well as action game players. Future studies are needed to examine whether these psychological health risks reflect the causes or consequences of video gaming.

Introduction

Video gaming is a very popular leisure activity among adults ( Pew Research Center, 2018). The amount of time spent playing video games has increased steadily, from 5.1 h/week in 2011 to 6.5 h/week in 2017 ( The Nielsen Company, 2017). Video gaming is known to have some benefits such as improving focus, multitasking, and working memory, but it may also come with costs when it is used heavily. By spending a predominant part of the day gaming, excessive video gamers are at risk of showing lower educational and career attainment, problems with peers, and lower social skills ( Mihara and Higuchi, 2017). On the one hand, video game use is widespread, and it may come with certain precursors as well as consequences. On the other hand, little is known about the relations between various video gaming habits and psychological functioning. This study aims to shed light on these important relations using a large sample.

A video game is defined as "a game which we play thanks to an audiovisual apparatus and which can be based on a story" ( Esposito, 2005). In the last few years, the amount of scientific research devoted to video game playing has increased (e.g., Ferguson, 2015; Calvert et al., 2017; Hamari and Keronen, 2017). Most scientific studies in this area of research have focused on the extent of video game play and its diverse correlates. While some researchers have emphasized the benefits of game playing and even suggested a therapeutic use of video games ( Primack et al., 2012; Granic et al., 2014; Colder Carras et al., 2018), others have been intrigued by its potential dangers ( Anderson et al., 2010; Müller and Wölfling, 2017).

Parents and professionals may be worried about their excessively playing children being "addicted." However, problematic and potentially addictive video game use goes beyond the extent of playing (in hours per week; Skoric et al., 2009). It also includes such issues as craving, loss of control, and negative consequences of excessive gaming. While it is still a matter of debate whether problematic video game play should be considered a behavioral addiction, its status as a mental disorder has been clarified since the release of the DSM-5 in 2013. In the DSM-5, the American Psychiatric Association (2013) defined Internet Gaming Disorder with diagnostic criteria closely related to Gambling Disorder. Generally, this decision has been supported by many researchers (e.g., Petry et al., 2014) but has also caused controversies. Researchers have criticized the selection of diagnostic criteria and the vague definition of the Internet Gaming Disorder construct, which excludes offline games from being related to addictive use (e.g., Griffiths et al., 2016; Bean et al., 2017).

Several studies, literature reviews, and meta-analyses have focused on the correlates of problematic video gaming, usually assessed as a continuum with addiction marking the upper end of the scale (e.g., Ferguson et al., 2011; Kuss and Griffiths, 2012). The degree of addictive video game use has been found to be related to personality traits such as low self-esteem ( Ko et al., 2005) and low self-efficacy ( Jeong and Kim, 2011), anxiety, and aggression ( Mehroof and Griffiths, 2010), and even to clinical symptoms of depression and anxiety disorders ( Wang et al., 2018). Potential consequences of video game use have been identified as well, such as a lack of real-life friends ( Kowert et al., 2014a), stress and maladaptive coping ( Milani et al., 2018), lower psychosocial well-being and loneliness ( Lemmens et al., 2011), psychosomatic problems ( Müller et al., 2015; Milani et al., 2018), and decreased academic achievement ( Chiu et al., 2004; Gentile, 2009). Effect sizes have varied widely across studies ( Ferguson et al., 2011). There seem to be sex and age differences with regard to video gaming behavior: potentially problematic video gaming was found to be more likely among males than females (e.g., Greenberg et al., 2010; Estévez et al., 2017), and among younger gamers ( Rehbein et al., 2016).

In addition to looking at problematic video game use and its relation to psychological functioning, it is relevant to also focus on why individuals play video games. Players use video games for very different reasons ( Ryan et al., 2006; Yee, 2006) such as to distract themselves from daily hassles or because they enjoy the social relationships they have developed in the virtual world. Potentially problematic video gaming has been found to be related to various reasons for playing such as coping and escape ( Hussain and Griffiths, 2009; Schneider et al., 2018), socialization ( Laconi et al., 2017), and personal satisfaction ( Ng and Wiemer-Hastings, 2005). Coping ( Laconi et al., 2017), social interaction, and competition were among the main reasons for gaming among males but not among females ( Lucas and Sherry, 2004). Mixed results emerged concerning age differences ( Greenberg et al., 2010), but especially younger gamers seemed to be motivated for video gaming by social interactions ( Hilgard et al., 2013). However, so far it remains unclear to what extent people's various reasons for playing video games are differentially related to their psychological functioning.

Besides investigating the links between potentially problematic video game use and psychological functioning as well as between reasons for playing video games and psychological functioning, it is relevant to also look at which game genres individuals prefer. Correlates of preferences for certain game genres (e.g., simulation, strategy, action, role-playing) are cognitive enhancement ( Dobrowolski et al., 2015; Bediou et al., 2018), but also the amount of time spent playing ( Lemmens and Hendriks, 2016; Rehbein et al., 2016) and psychopathological symptoms ( Laconi et al., 2017). Males were shown to prefer action and strategy games, whereas females showed a preference for games of skill ( Scharkow et al., 2015; Rehbein et al., 2016). Younger gamers seemed to prefer action games, older players more so games of skill ( Scharkow et al., 2015). However, it is not yet understood to what extent preferences for certain video game genres are differentially related to psychological functioning.

Typically, research has focused merely on violent video games (e.g., Anderson and Bushman, 2001; Elson and Ferguson, 2014) or one specific game within one specific game genre (frequently World of Warcraft; Graham and Gosling, 2013; Visser et al., 2013; Herodotou et al., 2014), thereby neglecting the variety of possible gaming habits across various game genres.

In the present study, our objective was to examine the relation between video gaming and psychological functioning in a fine-grained manner. For this purpose, we examined psychological functioning by employing various variables such as psychological symptoms, coping strategies, and social support. Likewise, we assessed video gaming in a similarly detailed way, ranging from (a) problematic video game use, (b) the reasons for playing, to (c) the preferred game genres. This strategy prevented us from making potentially invalid generalizations about video gaming in general and allowed us to examine the spectrum of gaming habits and the respective relations between such habits and a diverse set of variables representing psychological functioning.

Playing video games excessively should be appealing to individuals with poor psychological functioning because games allow people to avoid their everyday problems and instead immerse themselves in another environment ( Taquet et al., 2017). Moreover, video games offer people a chance to connect with other people socially despite any more or less evident psychological problems they may have ( Kowert et al., 2014b; Mazurek et al., 2015). On the other hand, potentially problematic video game use may also lead to psychological problems because it reduces the amount of time and the number of opportunities gamers have to practice real-life behavior ( Gentile, 2009). Thus, we expected to find a negative correlation between problematic video gaming and variables representing psychological functioning such that we expected more potentially problematic video game use to be related to dysfunctional coping strategies ( Wood and Griffith, 2007), negative affectivity ( Mathiak et al., 2011), and poor school performance ( Mihara and Higuchi, 2017). Moreover, we expected to find differential correlates of people's reasons for playing video games and their psychological functioning: Playing for escape-oriented reasons such as distraction should go along with diverse indices of poor psychological functioning ( Király et al., 2015), whereas playing for gain-oriented reasons such as the storyline or the social connections in the game should be related to adequate psychological functioning ( Longman et al., 2009). Also, we expected to find people's preferred game genres (e.g., strategy, action) to be differentially related to their psychological functioning ( Park et al., 2016). Finally, we aimed to shed light on the unique contribution of each measure of psychological functioning to the prediction of problematic video game use.

Materials and Methods

Participants

A total of N = 2,891 individuals (2,421 male, 470 female) with a mean age of 23.17 years ( SD = 5.99, Range: 13-65) participated in our study. Of these participants, N = 2,734 (95%) confirmed their use of video games and were thus included in further analyses (2,377 male, 357 female, with a mean age of 23.06 years; SD = 5.91, Range: 13-65). The distribution of participants with regard to sex and age mirrors the findings of past research with males and younger individuals being more likely to play video games (e.g., Griffiths et al., 2004). Participants' place of residence was Germany.

Procedure and Instruments

We posted links to our online questionnaire on various online forums as well as on popular online game sites. To achieve heterogeneity of the sample, no exclusion criteria other than having access to the Internet and understanding German were specified. As an incentive to participate in the study, four vouchers of 50€ were raffled.

Video Gaming

Potentially problematic video game use

The AICA-S, the Scale for the Assessment of Internet and Computer game Addiction ( Wölfling et al., 2016), was used to assess participants' gaming behavior with regard to potential problematic use. Based on the DSM criteria for Internet Gaming Disorder (tolerance, craving, loss of control, emotion regulation, withdrawal, and unsuccessful attempts to cut back), this standardized self-report scale consists of 15 items usually with a five-point scale ranging from 1 ( never) to 5 ( very often). The final score (Min = 0, Max = 27 points) is computed using weighted scoring (items with an item-total correlation > 0.55 in the norm sample are weighted double; Wölfling et al., 2011). The AICA-S score can be used to differentiate between regular (0-6.5 points) and problematic use of video games (7-13 points: abuse; 13.5-27 points: addiction). In our sample, N = 2,265 (83%) were identified as regular gamers, and N = 469 (17%) as problematic gamers. We used the AICA-S as a continuous variable for all further analyses ( M = 3.98, SD = 3.22, Range: 0-24). The instrument has been validated for different age groups in the general population and in clinical samples ( Müller et al., 2014a, 2019, but note small sample size; Müller et al., 2014b). Cronbach's alpha was α = 0.70. As expected, the AICA-S score was correlated with male sex ( r = 0.17 ∗∗∗) and age ( r = -0.15 ∗∗∗). On average, participants played video games for M = 4.09 hours per weekday ( SD = 4.44, Range: 0-24), and M = 4.21 h per day at the weekend ( SD = 2.99, Range: 0-24).

Reasons for playing

Gamers indicated how often they played video games for certain reasons. They rated each of 10 reasons separately on Likert scales ranging from 1 ( never) to 4 ( very often). The most prevalent reasons were relaxation ( M = 2.96, SD = 0.91), amusement ( M = 2.94, SD = 0.85), and because of the storyline ( M = 2.67, SD = 1.10).

Game genres

Gamers were asked how often they usually played various video game subgenres such as first-person shooter, round-based strategy, massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs), life simulations, and others. Ratings were made on Likert scales ranging from 1 ( never) to 4 ( very often). Using Apperley's (2006) classification of game genres, we categorized the subgenres into the main genres action ( M = 2.54, SD = 0.84), strategy ( M = 2.13, SD = 0.80), role-playing ( M = 2.01, SD = 0.73), and simulation ( M = 1.58, SD = 0.44). A cluster for unclassified subgenres ( M = 1.54, SD = 0.39) was added to additionally account for such subgenres as jump'n'runs and games of skill. Descriptive statistics and intercorrelations for all measures (including sex and age) are presented in Supplementary Tables S1-S4.

Psychological Functioning

Participants provided ratings of their psychological functioning on the following constructs:

General psychopathology

The SCL-K-9 ( Klaghofer and Brähler, 2001), a short version of the SCL-90-R ( Derogatis, 1975), was administered to assess participants' subjective impairment regarding psychological symptoms (somatization, obsessive-compulsive, interpersonal sensitivity, depression, anxiety, hostility, phobic anxiety, paranoid ideation, and psychoticism). The SCL-K-9 score is strongly correlated with the original score of the SCL-90-R ( r = 0.93). The 9 items were answered on 5-point Likert-type scales ranging from 1 ( do not agree at all) to 5 ( agree completely). Cronbach's alpha was satisfactory (α = 0.77).

Coping

We assessed 10 coping strategies with the Brief COPE ( Carver, 1997; German version by Knoll et al., 2005), which is the shorter version of the COPE ( Carver et al., 1989): self-distraction, denial, substance use, venting, self-blame, behavioral disengagement, acceptance, active coping, planning, and positive reframing. The two items per subscale were administered on 5-point Likert-type scales ranging from 1 ( never) to 5 ( very often). Intercorrelations of the two items per subscale ranged from r = 0.32, p < 0.001 for positive reframing to r = 0.78, p < 0.001 for substance use (with one exception: r = -0.05, p = 0.01 for self-distraction).

Affect

We measured general affect as a trait and affect during video gaming as a state using the German version ( Krohne et al., 1996) of the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS; Watson et al., 1988). On a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 ( not at all) to 5 ( completely), participants rated the intensity of 20 adjectives. Cronbach's alpha was α = 0.78 for general positive affect, α = 0.83 for general negative affect, α = 0.85 for positive affect while playing, and α = 0.83 for negative affect while playing.

Shyness

The measure for the assessment of shyness in adults ( Asendorpf, 1997) consists of 5 items that were answered on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 ( not at all) to 5 ( completely). Cronbach's alpha was excellent (α = 0.86).

Loneliness

We administered the German version ( Elbing, 1991) of the NYU Loneliness Scale ( Rubenstein and Shaver, 1982). The 4 items were answered on 5- to 6-point Likert-type scales. Cronbach's alpha was satisfactory (α = 0.79).

Preference for solitude

A 10-item measure of preference for solitude ( Nestler et al., 2011) was answered on a 6-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 ( not at all) to 6 ( completely). Cronbach's alpha was excellent (α = 0.86).

Life satisfaction

Participants answered a one-item life satisfaction measure on a 4-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 ( not at all) to 4 ( completely).

Self-esteem

We administered the German version ( von Collani and Herzberg, 2003) of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES; Rosenberg, 1979). The 10 items were answered on a 4-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 ( not at all) to 4 ( completely). Cronbach's alpha was excellent (α = 0.88).

Self-efficacy

We administered a 10-item generalized self-efficacy scale ( Schwarzer and Jerusalem, 1995), which was answered on a 4-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 ( not at all) to 4 ( completely). Cronbach's alpha was excellent (α = 0.86).

Social support and friends

We administered the perceived available social support subscale from the Berlin Social Support Scales (BSSS; Schwarzer and Schulz, 2003). The 8 items were answered on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 ( not at all) to 5 ( completely). Cronbach's alpha was excellent (α = 0.94). Participants indicated how many offline friends and offline acquaintances they had ( r = 0.44, p < 0.001) as well as how many online friends and online acquaintances they had ( r = 0.33, p < 0.001). Due to left-skewed distributions, we logarithmized the data before aggregation.

Grades

Participants reported their grade point average. German grades are assessed on a scale that ranges from 1 ( excellent) to 6 ( insufficient). Thus, higher scores indicate worse grades.

Participants further reported their sex and age. Both were used as control variables in further analyses.

Analyses

In a first step, we computed zero-order correlations between the video gaming variables and the measures of psychological functioning. In a second step, we computed partial correlations in which we controlled for sex and age because past research has repeatedly shown that sex and age are correlated with both video gaming ( Homer et al., 2012; Mihara and Higuchi, 2017) and psychological functioning ( Kessler et al., 2007; Nolen-Hoeksema, 2012). Finally, we explored the unique contribution of each measure of psychological functioning to the prediction of potentially problematic video gaming. Therefore, we computed regressions with potentially problematic video gaming as the dependent variable and sex, age, and the measures of psychological functioning as predictors (entered simultaneously into the regression equation). By employing this procedure, we were able to determine the effect that each variable had over and above the other ones. For instance, we could identify whether general psychopathology was predictive of potentially problematic video game use when the influence of all other variables (e.g., shyness, loneliness, and others) was held constant.

Additionally, we included analyses regarding sex and age differences in the link between video gaming and psychological functioning. Since we collected a self-selected sample where different sexes and age groups were not represented equally, our findings are only preliminary, but may stimulate future research.

Results

Potentially Problematic Video Game Use and Psychological Functioning

First, we examined whether potentially problematic video game use was related to various psychological functioning variables. As can be seen in Table 1, the results for the zero-order correlations were similar to those for the partial correlations in which we controlled for sex and age. A medium-sized positive relation to the potentially problematic use of video games emerged for the presence of psychological symptoms including depression, anxiety, and hostility. Furthermore, several coping strategies were differentially associated with the potentially problematic use of video games: Self-blame and behavioral disengagement showed the strongest positive relations to potentially problematic video game use, followed by denial, acceptance, substance use, self-distraction, and venting. Planning, active coping, and, to a lesser extent, positive reframing were negatively associated with the potentially problematic use of video games. Moreover, the association with potentially problematic video game use was negative for general positive affect and positive and larger in size for general negative affect. However, potentially problematic video game use was clearly positively associated with the experience of both positive and negative affect while playing. Further, a preference for solitude, shyness, and loneliness were positively correlated with the potentially problematic use of video games. Lower self-esteem, lower life satisfaction, and, to a lesser extent, poorer perceived social support and lower self-efficacy went along with potentially problematic video game use. There was an association between fewer offline friends and acquaintances but more online connections with potentially problematic video gaming. Finally, poorer performance in school (i.e., higher grades) was related to the potentially problematic use of video games. These results suggest that potentially problematic video gaming goes along with poor psychological functioning and vice versa.

Table 1. Associations between potentially problematic video gaming and psychological functioning.

Reasons for Playing Video Games and Psychological Functioning

Second, we investigated whether players' reasons for playing video games were differentially related to the psychological functioning variables. Table 2 presents the partial correlations, controlling for sex and age. Using video games to distract oneself from stress was clearly connected to a high level of psychological symptoms. Distraction-motivated gamers preferred coping strategies such as self-blame, behavioral disengagement, self-distraction, denial, substance use, venting, and acceptance, but they neglected active coping and planning. They showed less general positive affect and more negative affect both in general and while playing as well as more positive affect while playing. These gamers further reported low self-esteem and low life satisfaction, loneliness, a preference for solitude, shyness, a lack of self-efficacy and social support, and poor achievement in school. A similar but somewhat less extreme picture was revealed for gamers who played video games in order to have something to talk about. However, these gamers reported more online connections. Gamers who played video games to improve their real-life abilities also reported more online connections. In addition, these gamers showed higher levels of general positive affect. The strongest association with online friends and acquaintances emerged, as expected, for gamers who played because of the social relations in the virtual world. Although all reasons for playing video games were related to positive affect while playing, the strongest associations emerged for gamers who played because of the social relations, to stimulate their imagination, and for curiosity. It is interesting that, for gamers who played video games because of the storyline and for relaxation, there was a relation only to positive but not to negative affect while playing. Reasons for playing were only weakly related to sex and age (see Supplementary Table S2). In sum, several reasons for playing video games were differentially associated with psychological functioning.

Table 2. Associations between reasons for playing video games and psychological functioning.

Video Game Genre and Psychological Functioning

Third, we examined whether players' preferences for different video game genres were differentially associated with the measures of psychological functioning. Table 3 shows the partial correlations in which we controlled for sex and age. There was a weak connection between general psychological symptoms and all of the video game genres we investigated except strategy. A preference for action games had the strongest association with affect while playing. Thus, action games seem to be both rewarding and a source of frustration. A preference for action games went along with poorer school performance. Gamers who preferred role-playing games scored higher on shyness and a preference for solitude and lower on self-esteem; they also reported fewer offline connections. By contrast, preferences for games of the unclassified category on average went along with a larger number of offline friends and more positive affect, both while playing and in general. Two game genres (i.e., role-playing and unclassified games) were related to the coping strategy of self-distraction. Because preferred game genre was related to participants' sex (see Supplementary Table S3), we had a more detailed look at the correlations between preferred game genre and psychological functioning separately for both sexes: For males ( n = 2,377), the strongest correlation between general psychopathology and game genre emerged for action ( r = 0.08, p < 0.001), followed by role playing ( r = 0.07, p < 0.01), and unclassified ( r = 0.07, p < 0.01). For females ( n = 357), the strongest relation between general psychopathology and game genre emerged for simulation ( r = 0.17, p < 0.01). Differences were also found regarding the strength of the relation between number of friends online and the genre action: r = 0.06, p < 0.01 for males, and r = 0.27, p < 0.001 for females. Similarly, preferred game genre was related to participants' age (see Supplementary Table S3). However, there were merely differences with regard to the relation of psychological functioning and game genre, when analyzed separately for different age groups (<19 years, n = 557; 19-30 years, n = 1916; >31 years, n = 261). In sum, our results speak to the idea that individuals with different levels of psychological functioning differ in their choices of game genres and vice versa.

Table 3. Associations between preferred video game genre and psychological functioning.

Predicting Potentially Problematic Video Game Use by Psychological Functioning Variables

In a final step, we entered all of the investigated psychological functioning variables as well as sex and age as predictors of the potentially problematic use of video games. By employing this procedure, we were able to determine the unique contribution of each psychological functioning variable when the influence of all other variables was held constant. As Table 4 shows, the number of online friends and acquaintances as well as positive affect while playing were most predictive of potentially problematic video game use over and above all other variables. General psychopathology, a lack of offline connections, and poor school performance were weaker but still relevant predictors of potentially problematic video game use.

Table 4. Prediction of potentially problematic video game use by psychological functioning variables.

Discussion

With this study, we aimed to shed light on the association of diverse video gaming habits with gamers' psychological functioning. Drawing on a large sample, our results revealed a medium-sized relation between potentially problematic video game use and poor psychological functioning with regard to general psychological symptoms, maladaptive coping strategies, negative affectivity, low self-esteem, and a preference for solitude as well as poor school performance. These findings are in line with those of prior work (e.g., Kuss and Griffiths, 2012; Milani et al., 2018). Also, reasons for playing video games were differentially related to psychological functioning with the most pronounced findings for escape-oriented in contrast to gain-oriented motives. Specifically, distraction-motivated gaming went along with higher symptom ratings, lower self-esteem, and more negative affectivity, whereas playing to establish social relationships in the virtual world was related to a larger number of online connections and more positive affect while playing. Furthermore, there were only weak relations between the preferred game genres and psychological functioning. The action games genre was associated with the strongest ratings of affect while playing. These results on reasons and genres may help to explain conflicting findings of former studies, because in our work we examined various reasons for playing, several game genres, and various aspects of psychological functioning simultaneously. Finally, positive affect while playing and a larger number of online friends were the strongest unique predictors of potentially problematic video game use, followed by psychological symptoms, a lack of offline connections, and poor school performance. These findings suggest that, on the one hand, independent of one's psychological conditions, enjoying oneself during gaming (i.e., experiencing positive affect, connecting with online friends) may go along with potentially problematic use of video games. On the other hand, poor psychological functioning seems to be a unique risk factor for potentially problematic video gaming.

The presented results are generally in line with previous work that has identified a connection between video gaming and psychological health, academic problems, and social problems ( Ferguson et al., 2011; Müller et al., 2015). However, our study moved beyond prior research by providing in-depth analyses of both video gaming habits (including potentially problematic use, reasons for playing, and preferred game genre) and psychological functioning (including psychological symptoms, coping styles, affectivity, as well as variables that are related to individuals and their social environments). In addition, we identified unique predictors of potentially problematic video game use.

How can the findings on differential relations between video gaming and various indices of psychological functioning - ranging from beneficial results ( Latham et al., 2013) to unfavorable results ( Barlett et al., 2009; Möller and Krahé, 2009; Anderson et al., 2010) - be integrated? According to Kanfer and Phillips (1970), problematic behavior (e.g., excessive video gaming) can be understood as a function of the situation (e.g., being rejected by a peer); the organism (e.g., low self-esteem); the person's thoughts, physical reactions, and feelings (e.g., sadness, anger); and finally, the short- as well as long-term consequences of the behavior (termed SORKC model). In the short run, according to our results, playing video games may be a way to distract oneself from everyday hassles and may lead to positive affect while playing and a feeling of being connected to like-minded people, all of which are factors that have an immediate reinforcing value. In the long run, however, spending many hours per day in front of a computer screen may prevent a person from (a) developing and practicing functional coping strategies, (b) finding friends and support in the social environment, and (c) showing proper school achievement, factors that are potentially harmful to the person. Thus, differentiating between short- and long-term perspectives may help us understanding the differential correlates of intensive video gaming.

When is it appropriate to speak of video game addiction? More and more researchers have suggested a continuum between engagement ( Charlton and Danforth, 2007; Skoric et al., 2009) and pathological gaming/addiction, instead of a categorical perspective. In part, this recommendation has also been followed in the DSM-5 ( American Psychiatric Association, 2013) where Internet Gaming Disorder is classified with different degrees of severity, ranging from mild to moderate to severe, according to the functional impairment associated with it. The AICA-S also allows for a differential perspective on gaming behavior by providing ways to assess both the time spent playing video games and the main DSM criteria that indicate Internet Gaming Disorder. However, in our study we did not aim at making a diagnosis, but at having a closer look at potentially problematic gaming behavior and its correlates in a non-clinical sample.

In sum, it seems relevant to assess not only the extent of video game use but also the reasons behind this behavior (e.g., distraction) and the concrete rewards that come from playing (e.g., the experience of strong affect while playing action games) to fully understand the relation between video gaming and psychological functioning.

Limitations and Future Directions

With the present study, we aimed to uncover the association between video gaming and psychological functioning. Our approach was cross-sectional and warrants interpretative caution because correlations cannot determine the direction of causation. It remains unclear whether potentially problematic gaming is a factor that contributes to the development of psychological dysfunction or whether psychological dysfunction contributes to potentially problematic gaming. Also, a third factor (e.g., preexisting mental difficulties) may produce both psychological dysfunction and potentially problematic gaming. Thus, longitudinal studies that are designed to identify the causal pathway may provide a promising avenue for future research. Future studies may also answer the question whether the link between video gaming and psychological functioning is moderated by sex, age, the reasons for playing, or the preferred game genre. In addition, it is important not to forget that the present results are based on a self-selected sample in which potentially problematic video gamers were overrepresented (e.g., Festl et al., 2013, for a representative sample). Thus, future research should replicate our findings in a representative sample. Further, we relied on self-reported data, which is a plausible method for assessing inner affairs such as people's reasons for their behaviors, but it would be helpful to back up our findings with evidence derived from sources such as peers, caregivers, and health specialists. Our work reflects only a first approach to the topic, and future work may additionally collect in-game behavioral data from the players ( McCreery et al., 2012; Billieux et al., 2013) to objectively and more specifically investigate diverse patterns of use. Furthermore, one must not forget that the used taxonomy to classify video game genres is only one of various possible options and one should "think of each individual game as belonging to several genres at once" ( Apperley, 2006, p. 19). Finally, some of the effects reported in our paper were rather modest in size. This is not surprising considering the complexity and multiple determinants of human behavior. In our analyses, we thoroughly controlled for the influence of sex and age and still found evidence that video gaming was differentially related to measures of psychological functioning.

Conclusion

The current study adds to the knowledge on gaming by uncovering the specific relations between video gaming and distinct measures of psychological functioning. Potentially problematic video gaming was found to be associated with positive affect and social relationships while playing but also with psychological symptoms, maladaptive coping strategies, negative affectivity, low self-esteem, a preference for solitude, and poor school performance. Including gamers' reasons for playing video games and their preferred game genres helped deepen the understanding of the specific and differential associations between video gaming and psychological health. This knowledge might help developing adequate interventions that are applied prior to the occurrence of psychological impairments that may go along with potentially problematic video gaming.

Ethics Statement

In our online survey, participants were given information on voluntary participation, risks, confidentiality/anonymity, and right to withdraw. Whilst participants were not signing a separate consent form, consent was obtained by virtue of completion. We implemented agreed procedures to maintain the confidentiality of participant data.

Author Contributions

BB, BE, JH, and KM conceived and designed the study. BB, JH, and KM collected and prepared the data. JH analyzed the data. BE and JH wrote the manuscript.

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Supplementary Material

The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01731/full#supplementary-material

Footnotes

References

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The Association Between Video Gaming and Psychological Functioning

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Video gaming is an extremely popular leisure-time activity with more than two billion users worldwide (Newzoo, 2017). However, the media as well as professionals have underscored the potential dangers of excessive video gaming. With the present research, we aimed to shed light on the relation between video gaming and gamers' psychological functioning.

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Being able to stay on track is a good prevention for procrastination and to avoid.
Always one step at a time.

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Item Details Page for The procrastination cure : 7 steps to stop putting life off

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20 percent of people admit to being procrastinators and an untold number never admit to it at all.

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Publication:

Pompton Plains, N.J. : Career Press, ©2012.

Physical Description:

1 online resource

More Author / Title Information:

Jeffery Combs.

Language:

English

Staff View:

MARC Record

ISBN:

9781601636270 160163627X 1601631995 9781601631992

OCLC Number:

765145702

LCCN:

2011026953

Contents:

pt. 1. What is procrastination? -- pt. 2. The six types of procrastinators -- pt. 3. Changing your life

Subjects:

Summary:

"20 percent of people admit to being procrastinators and an untold number never admit to it at all. Procrastination is an epidemic that can only be eliminated if the underlying causes are uncovered. Yet there's very little understanding of how to let go of procrastination, how to recognize and diffuse the feelings that lead to it, and most importantly, how to develop the ability to both produce and relax without guilt. In the pages of The Procrastination Cure, you'll discover: The root causes of procrastination (as opposed to viewing procrastination as merely a time-management issue) The six types of procrastinators: the Neurotic Perfectionist, the Big Deal Chaser, the Chronic Worrier, the Rebellious Rebel, the Drama Addict, and the Angry Giver Key strategies, practical solutions, and real-life examples for overcoming each variety of procrastination Many books on procrastination are written from a distance by PhDs whereas Jeffery Combs, a recovering procrastinator himself, will help you overcome procrastination and achieve the life of your dreams based on his own experiences and research"-- Provided by publisher.

"Twenty percent of people admit to being procrastinators and an untold number never admit to it at all. Procrastination is an epidemic that can only be eliminated if the underlying causes are uncovered. This book provides key strategies, practical solutions, and real-life examples for overcoming each variety of procrastination"-- Provided by publisher.

Genre:

Bibliography:

Includes bibliographical references and index.

Database:

WorldCat

Additional physical form entry:

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Item Details Page for The procrastination cure : 7 steps to stop putting life off

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Publication: Pompton Plains, N.J. : Career Press, ©2012. Physical Description: 1 online resource More Author / Title Information: Jeffery Combs. Language: English Staff View: MARC Record ISBN: 9781601636270 160163627X 1601631995 9781601631992 OCLC Number: 765145702 LCCN: 2011026953 Contents: pt. 1. What is procrastination? -- pt. 2. The six types of procrastinators -- pt.

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Item Details Page for Overcoming procrastination for teens : a CBT guide for college-bound students

# data[].attributes.body
the action of delaying or postponing something

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WorldCat Discovery helps people navigate their research journeys to find and get resources from Northeast Lakeview College and libraries worldwide.

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Your ability to manage your time does determin your future.

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WorldCat Discovery helps people navigate their research journeys to find and get resources from Northeast Lakeview College and libraries worldwide.

# data[].attributes.headline
Mastering Time Management Part 2 (Tyler)

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Mastering Time Management Part 2 (Tyler)

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The term Time Management is a misnomer. You cannot manage time; you manage the events in your life in relation to time. You may often wish for more time, but you only get 24 hours, 1,440 minutes, or 86,400 seconds each day. How you use that time depends on skills learned through self-analysis, planning, evaluation, and self-control. Much like money, time is both valuable and limited. It must be protected, used wisely, and budgeted.

People who practice good time management techniques often find that they:

Are more productive.

Have more energy for things they need to accomplish.

Feel less stressed.

Have more free time to do the things they want.

Get more things done.

Relate more positively to others.

Feel better about themselves. (Dodd and Subdheim, 2005)

Finding a time management strategy that works best for you depends on your personality, ability to self-motivate, and level of self-discipline. By incorporating some, or all the ten strategies below, you can more effectively manage your time.

1. Know How You Spend Your Time

A time log is a helpful way to determine how you use your time. Record what you are doing in 15-minute intervals for a week or two. Evaluate the results:

Did everything you needed to do get done?

Which tasks require the most time?

What time of day when you are most productive?

Where is most of your time is devoted (i.e. job, family, personal, recreation)?

Identifying your most time-consuming tasks and determining whether you are investing your time in the most important activities can help you to determine a course of action. Having a good sense of the time required for routine tasks can help you be more realistic in planning and estimating how much time is available for other activities. Many apps exist to help you keep track of your time, as mentioned in Strategy 3.

2. Set Priorities

Managing your time effectively requires a distinction between what is important and what is urgent (MacKenzie, 1990). Experts agree that the most important tasks usually aren't the most urgent tasks. However, we tend to let the urgent tasks dominate our lives. Covey, Merrill, and Merrill (1994) categorize activities into four quadrants in their Time Management Matrix: urgent, not urgent, important, and not important. While activities that are both urgent and important must be done, Covey et al. suggests spending less time on activities that are not important (regardless of their urgency) to gain time for activities that are not urgent but important. Focusing on these important activities allows you to gain greater control over your time and may reduce the number of important tasks that become urgent.

Creating a "to do" list is an easy way to prioritize. Whether you need a daily, weekly, or monthly list depends on your lifestyle. Be careful to keep list-making from getting out of control. List manageable tasks rather than goals or multi-step plans. Rank the items on your "to do" list in order of priority (both important and urgent). You may choose to group items in categories such as high priority, medium priority, or low priority; number them in order of priority; or use a color-coding system. The goal is not to mark off the most items, but to mark off the highest priority items (MacKenzie, 1990). A prioritized "to do" list allows you to set boundaries so you can say "no" to activities that may be interesting or provide a sense of achievement but do not fit your basic priorities.

3. Use a Planning Tool

Time management experts recommend using a personal planning tool to improve your productivity. Personal planning tools include planners, calendars, phone apps, wall charts, index cards, pocket diaries, and notebooks. Writing down your tasks, schedules, and items to remember can free your mind to focus on your priorities. Auditory learners may prefer to dictate their thoughts instead. The key is to find one planning tool that works for you and use that tool consistently.
When using a planning tool:

Always record your information on the tool itself. Jotting notes elsewhere that must be transferred later is inefficient and wastes more time.

Review your planning tool daily.

Keep a list of your priorities in your planning tool and refer to it often.

Keep planning tools synchronized. If you keep more than one, make sure your phone, computer, and paper planning tools match.

Keep a back-up system.

Apps on your phone can be great planning tools. Apps typically fall into one of the following categories:

Time Trackers - Gain an awareness of how you spend your time.

Time Savers - Increase productivity and break time-wasting habits.

Task Managers - Prioritize and organize tasks to improve time management.

Habit Developers - Create healthy habits to encourage time management.

4. Get Organized

Disorganization leads to poor time management. Research has shown that clutter has a strong negative impact on perceived well-being (Roster, 2016). To improve your time management, get organized.

Set up three boxes (or corners of a room) labeled "Keep," "Give Away," and "Toss." Sort items into these boxes. Discard items in your "Toss" box. Your "Give Away" box may include items you want to sell, donate, or discard.

The next step is to improve the time you spend processing information. For example, tasks such as email can eat up your day. To combat wasted time, implement an email organization system that allows you to process the information in each email as efficiently as possible. Use folders, flagging, or a color-coded system to keep track of what's what.

5. Schedule Appropriately

Scheduling is more than just recording what must be done (e.g., meetings and appointments). Be sure to build in time for the things you want to do. Effective scheduling requires you to know yourself. Your time log should help you to identify times when you are most productive and alert. Plan your most challenging tasks for when you have the most energy. Block out time for your high priority activities first and protect that time from interruptions.

Schedule small tasks such as drafting an email, creating a grocery shopping list, reading, watching webinars or listening to podcasts for long commutes or when waiting for a call or appointment. Capitalize on what would otherwise be time lost. Avoid nonproductive activities, such as playing games or scrolling through social media. Limit scheduled time to about three-fourths of your day to allow for creative activities such as planning, dreaming, and thinking.

6. Delegate: Get Help from Others

Delegating means assigning responsibility for a task to someone else, freeing up your time for tasks that require your expertise. Identify tasks others can do and select the appropriate person(s) to do them. Select someone with the appropriate skills, experience, interest, and authority needed to accomplish the task. Be specific. Define the task and your expectations while allowing the person some freedom to personalize the task. Check how well the person is progressing periodically and provide any assistance, being careful not to take over the responsibility. Finally, reward the person for a job well done or make suggestions for improvements if needed. (Dodd and Sundheim, 2005). Another way to get help is to "buy" time by obtaining goods or services that save time. For example, paying someone to mow your lawn or clean your house, or joining a carpool for your children's extracurricular activities frees time for other activities. The time-savings from hiring someone for specialized projects is often worth the cost.

7. Stop Procrastinating

People put off tasks for a variety of reasons. Perhaps the task seems overwhelming or unpleasant. To help stop procrastination, consider "eating the big frog first." A quote commonly attributed to Mark Twain says, "If it's your job to eat a frog today, it's best to do it first thing in the morning. And if it's your job to eat two frogs, it's best to eat the big frog first." Unpleasant tasks we procrastinate completing are "big frogs." Complete these tasks as your first action of the day to get them out of the way. Another option is to "snowball" your tasks by breaking them down into smaller segments, completing preparatory tasks, and eventually completing the larger task at hand. Whether you choose the "big frog first" or "snowball" method, try building in a reward system for completed tasks to help stay motivated.

8. Manage Time-Wasters

Reduce or eliminate time spent in these activities by implementing some simple tips.

Handheld Devices

Take advantage of voice-to-text features such as transcribed voicemails or to make notes or draft emails and text messages when you are on the go.

Avoid small talk. Stay focused.

Take any necessary action immediately following a call.

Impose screen time limits and regularly monitor your digital wellness (see Strategy 10).

Schedule breaks from your devices.

Email

Set aside a specific time to view and respond to email, but don't let it accumulate to the point it becomes overwhelming to sort.

Turn off notifications for email.

Handle each item only once if possible.

Immediately delete or unsubscribe from junk emails.

Keep address books up-to-date and organized.

Utilize built-in shortcuts to sort email.

Unexpected Visitors

Schedule time for face-to-face visits.

Inform visitors of your time constraints and politely offer to reschedule.

Set a mutually agreeable time limit for the visit.

When someone comes to the door, stand up and have your meeting standing to help keep it brief.

In-Person and Virtual Meetings

Know the purpose of the meeting in advance.

Arrive early.

Start and end the meeting on time.

Prepare an agenda and stick to it. Use a timed agenda, if necessary.

Don't schedule meetings unless they are necessary and have a specific purpose or agenda.

Use recording software or designate a note-taker.

Family Obligations

Use and sync virtual calendars for easy sharing between busy family members.

Make each family member responsible for consulting the master calendar for potential conflicts.

Create a central area or agreed upon app for posting communications such as appointment reminders, announcements, and messages.

9. Avoid Multi-tasking

Psychological studies have shown that multi-tasking does not save time. In fact, the opposite is often true. You lose time when switching from one task to another, resulting in a loss of productivity (Rubinsteim, Meyer, and Evans, 2001). Routine multi-tasking may lead to difficulty in concentrating and maintaining focus. Do your best to focus on just one task at a time by keeping your area clear of distractions, including turning off notifications on your devices, and set aside dedicated time for specific tasks.

10. Stay Healthy

The care and attention you give yourself is an important investment of time. Scheduling time to relax or do nothing helps you rejuvenate physically and mentally, enabling you to accomplish tasks more quickly and easily. Be sure to monitor your screen time as a part of your digital well-being, setting boundaries to stay healthy. A study conducted by Google showed that four out of five study participants who took steps to improve their digital well-being believe their overall well-being was positively impacted as well (Google, 2019). To improve your digital well-being, set time limits or utilizing built-in software on electronic devices such as phones and tablets to help maintain your digital wellness. Blue light blockers and grayscale mode may also help you improve your digital well-being. Set a time each night to shut off all digital devices to give your mind time to relax; this can also help improve your sleep schedule.

Unfortunately, poor time management and too much screen time can result in fatigue, moodiness, and more frequent illness. To reduce stress, reward yourself for time management successes. Take time to recognize that you have accomplished a major task or challenge before moving on to the next activity.

Conclusion

Whatever time management strategies you use, take time to evaluate how they have worked for you. Do you have a healthy balance between work and home life? Are you accomplishing the tasks that are most important in your life? Are you investing enough time in your own personal well being? If the answer is "no" to any of these questions, then reevaluate your time management strategies and transition to ones that will work better for you. Successful time management leads to greater personal happiness, more accomplishments at home and at work, and a more satisfying future.

Authors

Previously updated by:
Roxie Price, University of Georgia Extension
Dana Carney, University of Georgia Extension
Rachael Clews, K-State Research and Extension

Originally written by:
Sue W. Chapman, retired, UGA Extension
Michael Rupured, retired, UGA Extension

References

Covey, S. R., Merrill, A. R., & Merrill, R. R. (1994). First things first: To live, to love, to learn, to leave a legacy. Simon & Schuster.

Dodd, P., & Sundheim, D. (2005). The 25 best time management tools and techniques: How to get more done without driving yourself crazy. Peak Performance Press, Inc.

Google, Global (DE, ES, FR, IT, PL, U.K., U.S.). (2019). Digital wellbeing survey (General population, 18+ years, n=97).

MacKenzie, A. (1990). The time trap (3rd ed.). American Management Association.

Roster, C., Ferrari, J., & Jurkat, M. (2016, March 16). The dark side of home: Assessing possession 'clutter' on subjective well-being. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 46, 32-41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2016.03.003

Rubinsteim, J., Meyer, D., & Evans, J. (2001). Executive control of cognitive processes in task switching. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 27(4), 763-797. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-1523.27.4.763

Status and Revision History
Published with Full Review on Apr 25, 2014
Published with Minor Revisions on Aug 26, 2020
Published with Full Review on Feb 19, 2024

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Time Management: 10 Strategies for Better Time Management

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Learn 10 strategies for better time management, including knowing how to spend your time, setting priorities, using planning tools, getting organized, scheduling, delegating, and avoiding procrastinating, wasting time, and multitasking.

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Today's need to do more with less often means financial executives have had to take on tasks once handled by others. Here are six tips for maximizing your time:

Set realistic expectations. When initiating a project, consider what you would like to achieve if resources and time were unlimited. Then determine what can be accomplished considering available resources and other priorities.

Don't procrastinate. It's tempting to postpone less challenging assignments for more exciting initiatives, but it can backfire if projects start to stack up. Procrastination creates unnecessary stress as everyone strives to catch up.

Delegate. Distribute more routine tasks to other staff members. Look for opportunities that allow your top performers to gain visibility and build their expertise and decision-making skills.

Keep meetings on track. Distribute a detailed agenda prior to meetings so everyone is prepared. If information can easily be covered by e-mail or phone, a meeting may not be warranted.

Bring in help. If you and your team are overloaded, consider outside support during peak periods or for large-scale initiatives that are finite in nature.

Recharge. Long hours may be part of the job but that doesn't mean you should sacrifice breaks and vacation. Scheduling even a short respite can restore energy and a sense of control.

Paul McDonald is senior executive director of Robert Half Management Resources (www.roberthalfmr.com)

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Today's need to do more with less often means financial executives have had to take on tasks once handled by others. Here are six tips for maximizing your time: Set realistic expectations. When initiating a project, consider what you would like to achieve if resources and time were unlimited.

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Have a planner with you and write down tasks, and keep up with your due dates.