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a talented king named Cyrus the Great built a strong Persian army. With that army, he began creating an empire that became the largest in the ancient world. A year later these Greeks revolted against their Persian rulers. The Athenians sent warships to help the rebels, but the Persians crushed the uprising. The Persian king Darius was angry that the Athenians interfered. He decided to punish the mainland Greeks for meddling in his empire.

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a new Persian king named Xerxes invaded Greece with about 200,000 troops and thousands of warships and supply vessels. The Greek city-states banded together to fight the Persians. King Leonidas of Sparta supplied the most soldiers. Themistocles of Athens directed the Greek naval forces and devised a battle plan. A Year later, The combined forces of the Greek city-states in 479 b.c. formed their largest army yet. They had improved their fighting forces with better armor and weapons. At Plataea, northwest of Athens, the Greek army again faced the Persians. In numbers, the two sides were evenly matched. Each fielded a force of about 100,000 men. This time, however, the Greeks defeated the Persian army. Fighting continued as the Greeks went on the defensive to free the city-states in Anatolia from Persian rule. Peace between the Greek allies and the Persians did not come until 449 b.c.

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the Athenians, under their new leader Pericles, enjoyed a golden age of prosperity and achievement. Their city-state became the economic and cultural center of Greece. Athens also practiced democratic government

Athenians took great pride in their democratic system. The form of government practiced by the Athenians is called democracy. In a direct democracy, all citizens meet to debate and vote on government matters. In a new republic system, such as the one we have in the United States today, citizens elect a smaller group of people. This group represents them, makes laws, and governs on their behalf.

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Athens began interfering with some of Sparta’s allies. These allies pressured Sparta to attack Athens. War broke out in 431 b.c. and continued until 404 b.c. The possibility of future cooperation among the Greek city-states disappeared as a result of this war. Historians call this argument the Peloponnesian War because Sparta was located in the Peloponnesus. During the war’s first winter, Athens held a public funeral to honor soldiers who had died in battle. Afterward, the Athenian families gathered to mourn their losses. In a famous speech, called the Funeral Oration, Pericles talked about the greatness of Athens and reminded the people that they made their government strong. He reminded them that citizens had to obey the rules in their constitution—their framework of government. They accepted certain duties, such as paying taxes and defending the city. They were also awarded certain rights, such as the ability to vote and run for office.

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Athens was the largest Greek city-state. Its population numbered about 285,000. Of this number, about 150,000 were citizens. Only 43,000 of these citizens, however, were males who had political rights. Athens was home to about 35,000 foreigners and 100,000 enslaved people. Athenian men worked as farmers, artisans, and merchants. They often finished their daily work in the morning. They spent afternoons exercising at the gymnasium. In the evening, upper-class men enjoyed all-male gatherings where they ate, drank, and discussed philosophy or politics. Athenian women focused on their homes and families. Girls married at a young age, often in their mid-teens. Their duties centered on having children and taking care of their households. Women of poor families helped with the farm work or sold goods in the local marketplace.

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democracy had been restored. The war, however, continued. In 405 b.c., Sparta's newly built navy destroyed the Athenian fleet. Sparta then placed a blockade around Athens, preventing food and other supplies from entering the city. Starving, the Athenians finally surrendered a year later. The Spartans and their allies then knocked down the city walls. The Athenian empire clasped what were the effects of war you ask? The Peloponnesian War brought disaster to the Greek city-states. The governments were left divided and weak. Many people had died in battle or from disease. Fighting had destroyed farms and left many people with no way to earn a living. As a result, thousands of young Greeks left Greece to join the Persian army. After the conflict, Sparta ruled its newly acquired empire, much as Athens had ruled its empire before. This harsh treatment angered Sparta's former allies. An uneasy political situation developed. During the next 30 years, Sparta tried to put down rebellions and fought Persia again.

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the city-state of Thebes seized Sparta and ended the Spartan empire. About 10 years later, Thebes also collapsed.
As the city-states fought, they failed to notice the growing threat from the kingdom of Macedonia to the north. Macedonia's strength and desire for expansion would eventually cost the Greek city-states their independence.