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En 1948, Siria estuvo involucrada en la guerra árabe-israelí. El ejército sirio fue sacado del área de Israel, pero fortificó sus fortalezas en los Altos del Golán y logró mantener sus antiguos límites

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Una serie de golpes militares, iniciada en 1949, minó al gobierno civil y condujo a la toma del poder al coronel de ejército Adib Shishakli en 1951.

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Adib al-Shishakli (1909 - 27 September 1964 Arabic: أديب الشيشكلي, ʾAdīb aš-Šīšaklī) was a Syrian military leader and President of Syria from 1953 to 1954.

Adib Shishakli was born (1909) in the Hama Sanjak of Ottoman Syria to a Syrian family. His mother was of Kurdish origin. His family name, Shishakli, is a common surname derived from Turkish word " çiçek" which means flower and çiçekli (Shishakli) means someone or some place with flowers in Turkish.

Political/military career

Shishakli was commissioned during the French Mandate as an officer in the Syrian military in 1930. He studied at the Military Academy of Damascus (which later was relocated to Homs) and became an early member of the Syrian Social Nationalist Party (SSNP), founded by Antun Saadeh, promoting the concept of a Greater Syria. His brother Salah was also a prominent member of the SSNP. Following Syria's independence from France, Shishakli fought in a volunteer Arab army, known as the Arab Liberation Army, in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War.

The Arab defeat in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War was a motivating factor for the military coup led by Husni al-Za'im, which took place in 1949. Only months after al-Za'im's takeover, which shattered Syria's weak parliamentary system, Za'im was overthrown by a group of officers connected to the SSNP, including Shishakli and Zaim's old comrade, Colonel Sami al-Hinnawi, who led the new military junta.

Za'im had previously delivered the SSNP leader Antun Saadeh to the Lebanese authorities, who had him tried and executed for wanting to destroy the modern state of Lebanon. Reportedly, after Za'im was killed, Shishakli ripped off Za'im's bloodstained shirt and took it to Saadeh's widow, who was still in Syria, telling her, "We have avenged his murder!"[citation needed ].

Shishakli worked with Sami al-Hinnawi, the new de facto ruler of Syria who refused to assume power on his own and who, instead, restored Syria's parliamentary system. Hinnawi became chief-of-staff of the Syrian Army. A veteran nationalist, Hashem al-Atassi, who had been president in the 1930s, became prime minister, and later president of Syria. Atassi wanted to create a union with Hashemite Iraq, something which Shishakli greatly opposed, claiming that Hinnawi was the driving force behind pro-Hashemite sentiment in Syria.

In December 1949, Shishakli launched another coup, the third of that year, arresting Hinnawi to break Hashemite influence in Syria, but keeping Atassi at his post. He then ordered the assassination of Colonel Mohammad Nasser, the Air Force Commander, because he threatened Shishakli's popularity in the Syrian Army. All of this greatly weakened the pro-union elements in Syria but they continued to work for union with Hashemite Iraq through the Prime Minister, Nazim al-Kudsi.

Shishakli set the condition that any government had to include his right-hand-man, Fawzi Selu, as Minister for Defence, to curb Hashemite influence in the Syrian government. When Prime Minister Maarouf al-Dawalibi, a pro-Iraq politician from Aleppo, refused this demand, Shishakli responded on 28 November 1951 by arresting Dawalibi and his entire cabinet. He also had arrested all pro-Iraq politicians in Syria, including the leaders of the People's Party, Nazim al-Kudsi and Rushdi al-Kikhya. In protest, Atassi resigned from office and moved into the opposition. Pleased to get rid of this stubborn nationalist, who rejected military intervention in political affairs, Shishakli made his comrade Selu the Chief-of-Staff of the Army, the Prime Minister, the Minister for Defence, and the Head of State. But in effect, Selu was nothing but a figurehead. The real power lay in the hands of Adib al-Shishakli.

Shishakli then dissolved all political parties in a return to military rule. He banned a number of newspapers and outlawed all newspapers that were not pro-Shishakli. Among those to suffer persecution under his rule were the National Party of Damascus, the People's Party of Aleppo, the Communist Party, the Baath Party, and the Syrian Muslim Brotherhood. He banished the Baath leaders Akram al-Hawrani, Michel Aflaq, and Salah al-Bitar to Lebanon, where they then actively worked against his regime.

He was a skilled public speaker and relied greatly on radio to transmit his speeches to the Syrian population. In August 1952, he established an official government party, the Arab Liberation Movement, but it was boycotted by powerful representatives of civilian political society, such as Hashim al-Atassi. The party was progressive and accepted women within its ranks. It called for a limited degree of socialism. Some said that he viewed himself as "an Arab Caesar." In mid-1953 Shishakli staged an election to make himself President, but he was by now facing mounting dissent.

As leader of Syria, Shishakli sought good relations with Western countries, but maintained Syria's uncompromising stance towards Israel. Syrian relations with the Hashemite monarchies of Jordan and Iraq were poor during his presidency, but he also mistrusted the rapid spread of Nasserism. Many believe that Nasser's Free Officer Revolution of 1952 in Egypt had been modeled after Shishakli's own coups of 1949 and 1951. Shishakli's developed strong relations with King Ibn Saud of Saudi Arabia, his son, King Saud bin Abdulaziz Al Saud, and King Talal of Jordan.

Shishakli greatly liked King Talal who said that he had no ambitions in Syria, unlike his father King Abdullah I[citation needed ]. Despite his pro-Western outlook and family background, Shishakli recognized the desires of Syria's Arab majority and accordingly adopted a policy of pan-Arabism. He clashed frequently with the independent-minded Druze minority on the Jabal al-Druze mountain range, accusing them of wanting to topple his regime using funds from Jordan. In 1954, he resorted to shelling Druze strongholds to put down resistance to his rule.

His relations with both Britain and the United States were mixed. Britain courted Shishakli during the early period of his rule in the hope that Syria would join plans for a British-led Middle East Defence Organization. The United States offered Shishakli considerable sums of money to settle Palestinian refugees in Syria and turn them into Syrians. Shishakli, although tempted by these offers of Western arms and money, did not take them. The Palestinian situation had soured the Syrian view of the West. Syria wanted revenge rather than to accept defeat and repair Syria's damaged relations with the West and make peace with Israel.

Shishakli also had arrested a lot of active officers in the Syrian Army, including the young Adnan al-Malki, a prominent Baathist. The largest anti-Shishakli conference had been held in Atassi's home in Homs. Leading the anti-Shishakli movement were former President Atassi and the veteran Druze leader Sultan al-Atrash. Shishakli had responded by arresting Atassi and Atrash's sons, Adnan and Mansur (both of whom were ranking politicians in Syria).

Growing discontent eventually led to another coup, in which Shishakli was overthrown in February 1954. The plotters included members of the Syrian Communist Party, Druze officers, and Ba'ath Party members. It may have had Iraqi backing.

When the insurgency reached its peak, Shishakli backed down, refusing to drag Syria into civil war. He fled to Lebanon, but when the Druze leader Kamal Jumblat threatened to have him killed, he fled to Brazil. Prior to the union between Syria and Egypt in 1958, Shishakli toyed with the idea of returning to Syria to launch a coup d'état, using funds provided by Iraq. The coup was foiled by Syrian intelligence and Shishakli was sentenced to death in absentia.

On 27 September 1964, Shishakli was assassinated in Ceres, Brazil by Nawaf Ghazaleh, a Syrian Druze who sought revenge for his parents who had died leaving him an orphan during the bombardment of Jabal Druze.

One of his grandsons, Adib Ihsan Shishakly, is a member of the Syrian Opposition.

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Adib al-Shishakli (1909 - 27 September 1964 Arabic: أديب الشيشكلي, ʾAdīb aš-Šīšaklī) was a Syrian military leader and President of Syria from 1953 to 1954. Adib Shishakli was born (1909) in the Hama Sanjak of Ottoman Syria to a Syrian family. His mother was of Kurdish origin.

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Tras el derrocamiento del presidente Shishakli en un golpe de 1954, las continuas maniobras políticas apoyadas por facciones competidoras en el ejército llevó finalmente elementos nacionalistas y socialistas árabes al poder.

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Durante la crisis de Suez de 1956, tras la invasión de la península del Sinaí por tropas israelíes, y la intervención de tropas británicas y francesas, se declaró ley marcial en Siria. Más tarde, tropas sirias e iraquíes fueron trasladadas a Jordania para prevenir una posible invasión israelita

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En noviembre de 1956 Siria firmó un pacto con la Unión Soviética, proporcionando un asidero para la influencia comunista dentro del gobierno a cambio de aviones, tanques, y otros equipos militares que eran enviados a Siria. Con este aumento en la fortaleza de la tecnología militar siria preocupaba a Turquía, mientras que parecía factible que Siria pudiese intentar retomar Alejandreta, una antigua ciudad siria que está ahora en Turquía. Por otro lado, Siria y la U.R.S.S. acusaron a Turquía de masificar sus tropas en la frontera siria. Durante esta reserva, los comunistas ganaron más control sobre el gobierno y ejército sirios. Sólo los acalorados debates en las Naciones Unidas (de la cual Siria era miembro original) aminoraron la amenaza de guerra.

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La inestabilidad política de Siria durante los años después del golpe de 1954, el paralelismo de las políticas sirias y egipcias, y la atracción del liderazgo del presidente egipcio Gamal Abdel Nasser en el amanecer de la crisis de Suez crearon el apoyo en Siria para la unión con Egipto. El 1 de febrero de 1958, el presidente sirio Shukri al-Kuwatli y Nasser anunciaron la fusión de los dos países, creando la República Árabe Unida, y todos los partidos políticos sirios, así como los comunistas en ese respecto, cesaron sus actividades abiertas.

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La unión no fue un éxito, no obstante. Seguido de un golpe militar el 28 de septiembre de 1961, Siria se separó, restableciéndose a sí misma como la República Árabe Siria. La inestabilidad caracterizó los siguientes 18 meses, con varios golpes culminando el 8 de marzo de 1963, en la instalación por parte de los oficiales izquierdistas del ejército sirio del Consejo Nacional del Comando Revolucionario (CNCR), un grupo de funcionarios militares y civiles que asumieron el control de toda autoridad ejecutiva y legislativa. La toma de posesión fue ingeniada por miembros del Partido de Resurrección Socialista Árabe (Partido Ba'ath), el cual había estado activo en Siria y otros países árabes desde los últimos años de la década del 40. El nuevo gabinete estuvo dominado por los miembros del Ba'ath.

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La toma del Ba'ath en Siria siguió a un golpe de estado del Ba'ath en Irak el mes anterior. El nuevo gobierno sirio exploró la posibilidad de federación con Egipto e Irak controlado por el Ba'ath. El acuerdo se materializó en El Cairo el 17 de abril de 1963, plasmándose en un referéndum sobre la unidad que se sostendría en septiembre de 1963. Sin embargo, pronto aparecieron desacuerdos entre las partes y la materialización de la federación tripartita fracasó. Después de eso, los regímenes del Ba'ath en Siria e Irak comenzaron a trabajar por la unidad bilateral. Estos planes fracasaron en noviembre de 1963, cuando el régimen Ba'ath en Irak fue derrocado.

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En mayo de 1964, el presidente Amin Hafiz de la CNCR promulgó una constitución provisional que aseguraba al Consejo Nacional de la Revolución (CNR), una legislatura compuesta de representantes de sindicatos de organizaciones masivas—laborales, campesinos y profesionales—un consejo presidencial, en la que el poder ejecutivo era conferido, y un gabinete. El 23 de febrero de 1966, un grupo de oficiales del ejército llevó a cabo un exitoso golpe intrapartidario y pusieron en prisión al presidente Hafiz, disolvieron el gabinete y la CNR, abrogaban a la constitución provisional, y diseñaron un gobierno regionalista y civil del Ba'ath el 1 de marzo. Los líderes del golpe lo describieron como una "rectificación" de los principios del partido Ba'ath. Israel invadió Siria en la guerra de junio de 1967 y capturó y ocupó los Altos del Golán. Esta invasión debilitó al régimen socialista radical establecido por el golpe de 1966.

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El 23 de febrero de 1966, un grupo de oficiales del ejército llevó a cabo un exitoso golpe intrapartidario y pusieron en prisión al presidente Hafiz, disolvieron el gabinete y la CNR, abrogaban a la constitución provisional, y diseñaron un gobierno regionalista y civil del Ba'ath el 1 de marzo. Los líderes del golpe lo describieron como una "rectificación" de los principios del partido Ba'ath. Israel invadió Siria en la guerra de junio de 1967 y capturó y ocupó los Altos del Golán. Esta invasión debilitó al régimen socialista radical establecido por el golpe de 1966.

El conflicto se desarrolló entre un ala militar moderada y un ala civil más extremista del partido Ba'ath. La retirada en 1970 de las fuerzas sirias enviadas para ayudar a la OLP durante las hostilidades del "Septiembre Negro" con Jordania reflejaron este desacuerdo político dentro de la jefatura del partido Ba'ath. El 13 de noviembre de 1970, el ministro de Defensa Hafez al-Asad efectuó un pacífico golpe militar, expulsando a la jefatura civil y asumiendo el rol de primer ministro.

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¿Qué facultades de los ciudadanos son las primeras en ser canceladas cuando se pierde el Estadode derecho en un país?

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¿Qué facultades de los ciudadanos son las primeras en ser canceladas cuando se pierde el Estadode derecho en un país?

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Entre las principales se encuentra la opinion y voto sobre sus lideres, su libre expresion de su ideologia o religion y una explotacion a los sectores mas pequeños ya que no hay ningun derecho vigente en ese pais que los defienda o los tome como personas

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¿Cuáles son las medidas para fortalecer el Estado de derecho en el Perú?

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¿Cuáles son las medidas para fortalecer el Estado de derecho en el Perú?

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Para promover los derechos humanos, las instituciones nacionales podrán dedicarse Informar y educar acerca de los derechos humanos; Fomentar el desarrollo de valores y actitudes que respalden los derechos humanos. Alentar las medidas que permitan defender los derechos humanos para que no se violen.