# data[].attributes.body
Behaviorism is a psychological theory that views learning as a process of behavior change in response to external stimuli. It emphasizes observable behaviors rather than internal mental processes, suggesting that behaviors can be learned through reinforcement and conditioning. According to behaviorism, individuals acquire new behaviors through environmental interactions, such as rewards for desired behaviors or punishments for undesired ones.

Alignment with Instructional Design:

Behaviorism Model: Behaviorist principles align with the ADDIE model, emphasizing clear objectives and measurable outcomes.

Direct Instruction Framework: Direct Instruction is aligned with behaviorism by emphasizing explicit instruction and systematic reinforcement.

Digital Instructional Strategies:

Behavioral Contracts: Technology can facilitate the creation and monitoring of behavioral contracts, where students agree to meet specific learning outcomes or mastery of content for rewards.

Immediate Feedback: Digital platforms such as Canvas and Google Classroom allow for immediate feedback, reinforcing desired behaviors.

Technology-Enhanced Classroom Activities:

Online Quizzes with Instant Feedback: Students receive immediate feedback on their responses, reinforcing correct answers. Options include Quizizz, Google Forms, and Formative.

Gamification: Digital games with reward systems can reinforce desired behaviors and learning outcomes. Games can include leaderboard and be played as a class which also increases competition and engagement.

"Another contribution made to education by behaviourism is the behaviouristic belief that the teacher has the duty to create a favourable environment for learners. Hence, teachers who accept this behavioural perspective believe that the behaviour of students is a response to their past and

present environments and that all behaviour is learned. To enable effective learning, the teacher should control the learning environment in order to ensure that the environment is conducive for learning" (Ng'andu, 2013).

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Behaviorism in Education (Explained in 4 Minutes)

# data[].attributes.headline
Constructivist - Piaget, Bruner, Vygotsky, Montessori, Lave, and Wenger

# data[].attributes.subject
Constructivist - Piaget, Bruner, Vygotsky, Montessori, Lave, and Wenger

# data[].attributes.body
Constructivism is a learning theory that suggests learners actively construct their understanding and knowledge of the world through their experiences and interactions. It emphasizes the importance of learners' prior knowledge, social interactions, and reflection in shaping their understanding. According to constructivism, learning is a dynamic process where learners engage in sense-making, meaning they construct meaning by connecting new information with their existing knowledge and experiences.

Alignment with Instructional Design:

Problem-Based Learning (PBL): PBL aligns with constructivism by engaging students in real-world problems and promoting inquiry-based learning.

Project-Based Learning (PBL): Similar to PBL, project-based learning emphasizes student-driven inquiry and collaboration, aligning with constructivist principles.

Digital Instructional Strategies:

Online Discussions and Forums: Digital platforms enable asynchronous discussions where students can construct knowledge through dialogue and reflection.

Digital Portfolios: Students can create digital portfolios to showcase their learning journey and reflect on their growth over time.

Technology-Enhanced Classroom Activities:

Virtual Field Trips: Using VR technology, students can explore virtual environments, fostering active learning and discovery.

Online Collaborative Projects: Students collaborate on digital platforms to create multimedia projects, integrating knowledge and skills in a meaningful context.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Constructivism in Education: What Is Constructivism? | NU

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Discover the power of constructivism in education. Explore its core principles, student-centered approaches, and benefits for learning.

# data[].attributes.headline
Vygotsky - Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

# data[].attributes.subject
Vygotsky - Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

# data[].attributes.body
The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) was a key construct in Lev Vygotsky's theory of learning and development. The Zone of Proximal Development is defined as the space between what a learner can do without assistance and what a learner can do with adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers.

"Since the student is at the heart of learning good pedagogy suggests that it is essential that teachers make the effort to try to understand the student’s point of view. Teachers should create learning situations that encourage students to bring out their ideas. It is here that the ‘social constructivist’ approaches described by Vygotsky become important" (Dennick, 2016).

# data[].attributes.body
"Learning theories and research often provide information about relationships among instructional components and the design of instruction, indicating how specific techniques/strategies might best fit within a given context and with specific learners (Keller, 1979). Finally, the ultimate role of a theory is to allow for reliable prediction (Richey, 1986). Effective solutions to practical instructional problems are often constrained by limited time and resources. It is paramount that those strategies selected and implemented have the highest chance for success. As suggested by Warries (1990), a selection based on strong research is much more reliable than one based on 'instructional phenomena'" (Ertmer & Newby, 2013)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Comparing Critical Features From an Instructional Design Perspective

Editor's Note

This article was originally published in 1993 and then republished in 2013 by Performance Improvement Quarterly. © 2013 International Society for Performance Improvement Published online in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com). DOI: 10.1002/piq.21143. The original citation is below:

Ertmer, P. A., & Newby, T. J. (2013). Behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism: Comparing critical features from an instructional design perspective. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 26(2), 43-71.

The need for a bridge between basic learning research and educational practice has long been discussed. To ensure a strong connection between these two areas, Dewey (cited in Reigeluth, 1983) called for the creation and development of a "linking science"; Tyler (1978) a "middleman position"; and Lynch (1945) for employing an "engineering analogy" as an aid for translating theory into practice. In each case, the respective author highlighted the information and potential contributions of available learning theories, the pressing problems faced by those dealing with practical learning issues, and a general lack of using the former to facilitate solutions for the latter. The value of such a bridging function would be its ability to translate relevant aspects of the learning theories into optimal instructional actions. As described by Reigeluth (1983, p. 5), the field of Instructional Design performs this role.

Instructional designers have been charged with "translating principles of learning and instruction into specifications for instructional materials and activities" (Smith & Ragan, 1993, p. 12). To achieve this goal, two sets of skills and knowledge are needed. First, the designer must understand the position of the practitioner. In this regard, the following questions would be relevant: What are the situational and contextual constraints of the application? What is the degree of individual differences among the learners? What form of solutions will or will not be accepted by the learners as well as by those actually teaching the materials? The designer must have the ability to diagnose and analyze practical learning problems. Just as a doctor cannot prescribe an effective remedy without a proper diagnosis, the instructional designer cannot properly recommend an effective prescriptive solution without an accurate analysis of the instructional problem.

In addition to understanding and analyzing the problem, a second core of knowledge and skills is needed to "bridge" or "link" application with research-that of understanding the potential sources of solutions (i.e., the theories of human learning). Through this understanding, a proper prescriptive solution can be matched with a given diagnosed problem. The critical link, therefore, is not between the design of instruction and an autonomous body of knowledge about instructional phenomena, but between instructional design issues and the theories of human learning.

Why this emphasis on learning theory and research? First, learning theories are a source of verified instructional strategies, tactics, and techniques. Knowledge of a variety of such strategies is critical when attempting to select an effective prescription for overcoming a given instructional problem. Second, learning theories provide the foundation for intelligent and reasoned strategy selection. Designers must have an adequate repertoire of strategies available, and possess the knowledge of when and why to employ each. This knowledge depends on the designer's ability to match the demands of the task with an instructional strategy that helps the learner. Third, integration of the selected strategy within the instructional context is of critical importance. Learning theories and research often provide information about relationships among instructional components and the design of instruction, indicating how specific techniques/strategies might best fit within a given context and with specific learners (Keller, 1979). Finally, the ultimate role of a theory is to allow for reliable prediction (Richey, 1986). Effective solutions to practical instructional problems are often constrained by limited time and resources. It is paramount that those strategies selected and implemented have the highest chance for success. As suggested by Warries (1990), a selection based on strong research is much more reliable than one based on "instructional phenomena."

The task of translating learning theory into practical applications would be greatly simplified if the learning process were relatively simple and straightforward. Unfortunately, this is not the case. Learning is a complex process that has generated numerous interpretations and theories of how it is effectively accomplished. Of these many theories, which should receive the attention of the instructional designer? Is it better to choose one theory when designing instruction or to draw ideas from different theories? This article presents three distinct perspectives of the learning process (behavioral, cognitive, and constructivist) and although each has many unique features, it is our belief that each still describes the same phenomena (learning). In selecting the theory whose associated instructional strategies offers the optimal means for achieving desired outcomes, the degree of cognitive processing required of the learner by the specific task appears to be a critical factor. Therefore, as emphasized by Snelbecker (1983), individuals addressing practical Iearning problems cannot afford the "luxury of restricting themselves to only one theoretical position... [They] are urged to examine each of the basic science theories which have been developed by psychologists in the study of learning and to select those principles and conceptions which seem to be of value for one's particular educational situation' (p. 8).

If knowledge of the various learning theories is so important for instructional designers, to what degree are they emphasized and promoted? As reported by Johnson (1992), less than two percent of the courses offered in university curricula in the general area of educational technology emphasize "theory" as one of their key concepts. It appears that the real benefits of theoretical knowledge are, at present, not being realized. This article is an attempt to "fill in some of the gaps" that may exist in our knowledge of modern learning theories. The main intent is to provide designers with some familiarity with three relevant positions on learning (behavioral, cognitive, and constructivist) which should provide a more structured foundation for planning and conducting instructional design activities. The idea is that if we understand some of the deep principles of the theories of learning, we can extrapolate to the particulars as needed. As Bruner (1971) states, "You don't need to encounter everything in nature in order to know nature" (p. 18). A basic understanding of the learning theories can provide you with a "canny strategy whereby you could know a great deal about a lot of things while keeping very little in mind" (p. 18).

It is expected that after reading this article, instructional designers and educational practitioners should be better informed "consumers"of the strategies suggested by each viewpoint. The concise information presented here can serve as an initial base of knowledge for making important decisions regarding instructional objectives and strategies.

Learning Defined

Learning has been defined in numerous ways by many different theorists, researchers and educational practitioners. Although universal agreement on any single definition is nonexistent, many definitions employ common elements. The following definition by Shuell (as interpreted by Schunk, 1991) incorporates these main ideas: "Learning is an enduring change in behavior, or in the capacity to behave in a given fashion, which results from practice or other forms of experience" (p. 2).

Undoubtedly, some learning theorists will disagree on the definition of learning presented here. However, it is not the definition itself that separates a given theory from the rest. The major differences among theories lie more in interpretation than they do in definition. These differences revolve around a number of key issues that ultimately delineate the instructional prescriptions that flow from each theoretical perspective. Schunk (1991) lists five definitive questions that serve to distinguish each learning theory from the others:

1. How does learning occur?

2. Which factors influence learning?

3. What is the role of memory?

4. How does transfer occur? and

5. What types of learning are best explained by the theory?

Expanding on this original list, we have included two additional questions important to the instructional designer:

1. What basic assumptions/principles of this theory are relevant to instructional design? and

2. How should instruction be structured to facilitate learning?

In this article, each of these questions is answered from three distinct viewpoints: behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism. Although learning theories typically are divided into two categories-behavioral and cognitive-a third category, constructive, is added here because of its recent emphasis in the instructional design literature (e.g., Bednar, Cunningham, Duffy, & Perry, 1991; Duffy & Jonassen, 1991; Jonassen, 1991b; Winn, 1991). In many ways these viewpoints overlap; yet they are distinctive enough to be treated as separate approaches to understanding and describing learning. These three particular positions were chosen because of their importance, both historically and currently, to the field of instructional design. It is hoped that the answers to the first five questions will provide the reader with a basic understanding of how these viewpoints differ. The answers to the last two questions will translate these differences into practical suggestions and recommendations for the application of these principles in the design of instruction.

These seven questions provide the basis for the article's structure. For each of the three theoretical positions, the questions are addressed and an example is given to illustrate the application of that perspective. It is expected that this approach will enable the reader to compare and contrast the different viewpoints on each of the seven issues.

As is common in any attempt to compare and contrast similar products, processes, or ideas, differences are emphasized in order to make distinctions clear. This is not to suggest that there are no similarities among these viewpoints or that there are no overlapping features. In fact, different learning theories will often prescribe the same instructional methods for the same situations (only with different terminology and possibly with different intentions). This article outlines the major differences between the three positions in an attempt to facilitate comparison. It is our hope that the reader will gain greater insight into what each viewpoint offers in terms of the design and presentation of materials, as well as the types of learning activities that might be prescribed.

Historical Foundations

Current learning theories have roots that extend far into the past. The problems with which today's theorists and researchers grapple and struggle are not new but simply variations on a timeless theme: Where does knowledge come from and how do people come to know? Two opposing positions on the origins of knowledge-empiricism and rationalism have existed for centuries and are still evident, to varying degrees, in the learning theories of today. A brief description of these views is included here as a background for comparing the "modern" learning viewpoints of behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism.

Empiricism is the view that experience is the primary source of knowledge (Schunk, 1991). That is, organisms are born with basically no knowledge and anything learned is gained through interactions and associations with the environment. Beginning with Aristotle (384-322 B.C.), empiricists have espoused the view that knowledge is derived from sensory impressions. Those impressions, when associated contiguously in time and/or space, can be hooked together to form complex ideas. For example, the complex idea of a tree, as illustrated by Hulse, Egeth, and Deese (1980), can be built from the less complex ideas of branches and leaves, which in turn are built from the ideas of wood and fiber, which are built from basic sensations such as greenness, woody odor, and so forth. From this perspective, critical instructional design issues focus on how to manipulate the environment in order to improve and ensure the occurrence of proper associations.

Rationalism is the view that knowledge derives from reason without the aid of the senses (Schunk, 1991). This fundamental belief in the distinction between mind and matter originated with Plato (c. 427-347 B.C.), and is reflected in the viewpoint that humans learn by recalling or "discovering" what already exists in the mind. For example, the direct experience with a tree during one's lifetime simply serves to reveal that which is already in the mind. The "real" nature of the tree (greenness, woodiness, and other characteristics) becomes known, not through the experience, but through a reflection on one's idea about the given instance of a tree. Although later rationalists differed on some of Plato's other ideas, the central belief remained the same: that knowledge arises through the mind. From this perspective, instructional design issues focus on how best to structure new information in order to facilitate (1) the learners' encoding of this new information, as well as (2) the recalling of that which is already known.

The empiricist, or associationist, mindset provided the framework for many learning theories during the first half of this century, and it was against this background that behaviorism became the leading psychological viewpoint (Schunk, 1991). Because behaviorism was dominant when instructional theory was initiated (around 1950), the instructional design (ID) technology that arose alongside it was naturally influenced by many of its basic assumptions and characteristics. Since ID has its roots in behavioral theory, it seems appropriate that we turn our attention to behaviorism first.

Behaviorism

How Does Learning Occur?

Behaviorism equates learning with changes in either the form or frequency of observable performance. Learning is accomplished when a proper response is demonstrated following the presentation of a specific environmental stimulus. For example, when presented with a math flashcard showing the equation "2 + 4 = ?" the learner replies with the answer of "6." The equation is the stimulus and the proper answer is the associated response. The key elements are the stimulus, the response, and the association between the two. Of primary concern is how the association between the stimulus and response is made, strengthened, and maintained.

Behaviorism focuses on the importance of the consequences of those performances and contends that responses that are followed by reinforcement are more likely to recur in the future. No attempt is made to determine the structure of a student's knowledge nor to assess which mental processes it is necessary for them to use (Winn, 1990). The learner is characterized as being reactive to conditions in the environment as opposed to taking an active role in discovering the environment.

Which Factors Influence Learning?

Although both learner and environmental factors are considered important by behaviorists, environmental conditions receive the greatest emphasis. Behaviorists assess the learners to determine at what point to begin instruction as well as to determine which reinforcers are most effective for a particular student. The most critical factor, however, is the arrangement of stimuli and consequences within the environment.

What is the Role of Memory?

Memory, as commonly defined by the layman, is not typically addressed by behaviorists. Although the acquisition of "habits" is discussed, little attention is given as to how these habits are stored or recalled for future use. Forgetting is attributed to the "nonuse" of a response over time. The use of periodic practice or review serves to maintain a learner's readiness to respond (Schunk, 1991).

How Does Transfer Occur?

Transfer refers to the application of learned knowledge in new ways or situations, as well as to how prior learning affects new learning. In behavioral learning theories, transfer is a result of generalization. Situations involving identical or similar features allow behaviors to transfer across common elements. For example, the student who has learned to recognize and classify elm trees demonstrates transfer when (s)he classifies maple trees using the same process. The similarities between the elm and maple trees allow the learner to apply the previous elm tree classification learning experience to the maple tree classification task.

What Types of Learning Are Best Explained by This Position?

Behaviorists attempt to prescribe strategies that are most useful for building and strengthening stimulus-response associations (Winn, 1990), including the use of instructional cues, practice, and reinforcement. These prescriptions have generally been proven reliable and effective in facilitating learning that involves discriminations (recalling facts), generalizations (defining and illustrating concepts), associations (applying explanations), and chaining (automatically performing a specified procedure). However, it is generally agreed that behavioral principles cannot adequately explain the acquisition of higher level skills or those that require a greater depth of processing (e.g., language development, problem solving, inference generating, critical thinking) (Schunk, 1991).

What Basic Assumptions/principles of This Theory Are Relevant to Instructional Design?

Many of the basic assumptions and characteristics of behaviorism are embedded in current instructional design practices. Behaviorism was used as the basis for designing many of the early audio-visual materials and gave rise to many related teaching strategies, such as Skinner's teaching machines and programmed texts. More recent examples include principles utilized within computer-assisted instruction (CAI) and mastery learning.

Specific assumptions or principles that have direct relevance to instructional design include the following (possible current ID applications are listed in italics and brackets following the listed principle):

1. An emphasis on producing observable and measurable outcomes in students [behavioral objectives, task analysis, criterion-referenced assessment]

2. Pre-assessment of students to determine where instruction should begin [learner analysis]

3. Emphasis on mastering early steps before progressing to more complex levels of performance [sequencing of instructional presentation, mastery learning]

4. Use of reinforcement to impact performance [tangible rewards, informative feedback]

5. Use of cues, shaping and practice to ensure a strong stimulus-response association [simple to complex sequencing of practice, use of prompts]

How Should Instruction Be Structured?

The goal of instruction for the behaviorist is to elicit the desired response from the learner who is presented with a target stimulus. To accomplish this, the learner must know how to execute the proper response, as well as the conditions under which that response should be made. Therefore, instruction is structured around the presentation of the target stimulus and the provision of opportunities for the learner to practice making the proper response. To facilitate the linking of stimulus-response pairs, instruction frequently uses cues (to initially prompt the delivery of the response) and reinforcement (to strengthen correct responding in the presence of the target stimulus).

Behavioral theories imply that the job of the teacher/designer is to (1) determine which cues can elicit the desired responses; (2) arrange practice situations in which prompts are paired with the target stimuli that initially have no eliciting power but which will be expected to elicit the responses in the "natural" (performance) setting; and (3) arrange environmental conditions so that students can make the correct responses in the presence of those target stimuli and receive reinforcement for those responses (Gropper, 1987).

For example, a newly-hired manager of human resources may be expected to organize a meeting agenda according to the company's specific format. The target stimulus (the verbal command "to format a meeting agenda") does not initially elicit the correct response nor does the new manager have the capability to make the correct response. However, with the repeated presentation of cues (e.g., completed templates of past agendas, blank templates arranged in standard format) paired with the verbal command stimulus, the manager begins to make the appropriate responses. Although the initial responses may not be in the final proper form, repeated practice and reinforcement shape the response until it is correctly executed. FinaIIy, learning is demonstrated when, upon the command to format a meeting agenda, the manager reliably organizes the agenda according to company standards and does so without the use of previous examples or models.

Cognitivism

In the late 1950's, learning theory began to make a shift away from the use of behavioral models to an approach that relied on learning theories and models from the cognitive sciences. Psychologists and educators began to de-emphasize a concern with overt, observable behavior and stressed instead more complex cognitive processes such as thinking, problem solving, language, concept formation and information processing (Snelbecker, 1983). Within the past decade, a number of authors in the field of instructional design have openly and consciously rejected many of ID's traditional behavioristic assumptions in favor of a new set of psychological assumptions about learning drawn from the cognitive sciences. Whether viewed as an open revolution or simply a gradual evolutionary process, there seems to be the general acknowledgment that cognitive theory has moved to the forefront of current learning theories (Bednar et al., 1991). This shift from a behavioral orientation (where the emphasis is on promoting a student's overt performance by the manipulation of stimulus material) to a cognitive orientation (where the emphasis is on promoting mental processing) has created a similar shift from procedures for manipulating the materials to be presented by an instructional system to procedures for directing student processing and interaction with the instructional design system (Merrill, Kowalis, & Wilson, 1981).

How Does Learning Occur?

Cognitive theories stress the acquisition of knowledge and internal mental structures and, as such, are closer to the rationalist end of the epistemology continuum (Bower & Hilgard, 1981). Learning is equated with discrete changes between states of knowledge rather than with changes in the probability of response. Cognitive theories focus on the conceptualization of students' learning processes and address the issues of how information is received, organized, stored, and retrieved by the mind. Learning is concerned not so much with what learners do but with what they know and how they come to acquire it (Jonassen, 1991b). Knowledge acquisition is described as a mental activity that entails internal coding and structuring by the learner. The learner is viewed as a very active participant in the learning process.

Which Factors Influence Learning?

Cognitivism, like behaviorism, emphasizes the role that environmental conditions play in facilitating learning. Instructional explanations, demonstrations, illustrative examples and matched non-examples are all considered to be instrumental in guiding student learning. Similarly, emphasis is placed on the role of practice with corrective feedback. Up to this point, little difference can be detected between these two theories. However, the "active" nature of the learner is perceived quite differently. The cognitive approach focuses on the mental activities of the learner that lead up to a response and acknowledges the processes of mental planning, goal-setting, and organizational strategies (Shuell, 1986). Cognitive theories contend that environmental "cues" and instructional components alone cannot account for all the learning that results from an instructional situation. Additional key elements include the way that learners attend to, code, transform, rehearse, store and retrieve information. Learners' thoughts, beliefs, attitudes, and values are also considered to be influential in the learning process (Winne, 1985). The real focus of the cognitive approach is on changing the learner by encouraging him/her to use appropriate learning strategies.

What is the Role of Memory?

As indicated above, memory is given a prominent role in the learning process. Learning results when information is stored in memory in an organized, meaningful manner. Teachers/designers are responsible for assisting learners in organizing that information in some optimal way. Designers use techniques such as advance organizers, analogies, hierarchical relationships, and matrices to help learners relate new information to prior knowledge. Forgetting is the inability to retrieve information from memory because of interference, memory loss, or missing or inadequate cues needed to access information.

How Does Transfer Occur?

According to cognitive theories, transfer is a function of how information is stored in memory (Schunk, 1991). When a learner understands how to apply knowledge in different contexts, then transfer has occurred. Understanding is seen as being composed of a knowledge base in the form of rules, concepts, and discriminations (Duffy & Jonassen, 1991). Prior knowledge is used to establish boundary constraints for identifying the similarities and differences of novel information. Not only must the knowledge itself be stored in memory but the uses of that knowledge as well. Specific instructional or real-world events will trigger particular responses, but the learner must believe that the knowledge is useful in a given situation before he will activate it.

What Types of Learning Are Best Explained by This Position?

Because of the emphasis on mental structures, cognitive theories are usually considered more appropriate for explaining complex forms of learning (reasoning, problem-solving, information-processing) than are those of a more behavioral perspective (Schunk, 1991). However, it is important to indicate at this point that the actual goal of instruction for both of these viewpoints is often the same: to communicate or transfer knowledge to the students in the most efficient, effective manner possible (Bednar et al., 1991). Two techniques used by both camps in achieving this effectiveness and efficiency of knowledge transfer are simplification and standardization. That is, knowledge can be analyzed, decomposed, and simplified into basic building blocks. Knowledge transfer is expedited if irrelevant information is eliminated. For example, trainees attending a workshop on effective management skills would be presented with information that is "sized" and "chunked" in such a way that they can assimilate and/or accommodate the new information as quickly and as easily as possible. Behaviorists would focus on the design of the environment to optimize that transfer, while cognitivists would stress efficient processing strategies.

What Basic Assumptions/principles of This Theory Are Relevant to Instructional Design?

Many of the instructional strategies advocated and utilized by cognitivists are also emphasized by behaviorists, yet usually for different reasons. An obvious commonality is the use of feedback. A behaviorist uses feedback (reinforcement) to modify behavior in the desired direction, while cognitivists make use of feedback (knowledge of results) to guide and support accurate mental connections (Thompson, Simonson, & Hargrave, 1992).

Learner and task analyses are also critical to both cognitivists and behaviorists, but once again, for different reasons. Cognitivists look at the learner to determine his/her predisposition to learning (i.e., How does the learner activate, maintain, and direct his/her learning?) (Thompson et al., 1992). Additionally, cognitivists examine the learner to determine how to design instruction so that it can be readily assimilated (i.e., What are the learner's existing mental structures?). In contrast, the behaviorists look at learners to determine where the lesson should begin (i.e., At what level are they currently performing successfully?) and which reinforcers should be most effective (i.e., What consequences are most desired by the learner?).

Specific assumptions or principles that have direct relevance to instructional design include the following (possible current ID applications are listed in italics and brackets following the listed principle):

1. Emphasis on the active involvement of the learner in the learning process [learner control, metacognitive training (e.g., self-planning, monitoring, and revising techniques)]

2. Use of hierarchical analyses to identify and illustrate prerequisite relationships [cognitive task analysis procedures]

3. Emphasis on structuring, organizing, and sequencing information to facilitate optimal processing [use of cognitive strategies such as outlining, summaries, synthesizers, advance organizers, etc.]

4. Creation of learning environments that allow and encourage students to make connections with previously learned material [recall of prerequisite skills; use of relevant examples, analogies]

How Should Instruction Be Structured?

Behavioral theories imply that teachers ought to arrange environmental conditions so that students respond properly to presented stimuli. Cognitive theories emphasize making knowledge meaningful and helping learners organize and relate new information to existing knowledge in memory. Instruction must be based on a student's existing mental structures, or schema, to be effective. It should organize information in such a manner that learners are able to connect new information with existing knowledge in some meaningful way. Analogies and metaphors are examples of this type of cognitive strategy. For example, instructional design textbooks frequently draw an analogy between the familiar architect's profession and the unfamiliar instructional design profession to help the novice learner conceptualize, organize and retain the major duties and functions of an instructional designer (e.g. Reigeluth, 1983, p. 7). Other cognitive strategies may include the use of framing, outlining, mnemonics, concept mapping, advance organizers and so forth (West, Farmer, & Wolff, 1991).

Such cognitive emphases imply that major tasks of the teacher/designer include (1) understanding that individuals bring various learning experiences to the learning situation which can impact learning outcomes; (2) determining the most effective manner in which to organize and structure new information to tap the learners' previously acquired knowledge, abilities, and experiences; and (3) arranging practice with feedback so that the new information is effectively and efficiently assimilated and/or accommodated within the learner's cognitive structure (Stepich & Newby, 1988).

Consider the following example of a learning situation utilizing a cognitive approach: A manager in the training department of a large corporation had been asked to teach a new intern to complete a cost-benefit analysis for an upcoming development project. In this case, it is assumed that the intern has no previous experience with cost-benefit analysis in a business setting. However, by relating this new task to highly similar procedures with which the intern has had more experience, the manager can facilitate a smooth and efficient assimilation of this new procedure into memory. These familiar procedures may include the process by which the individual allocates his monthly paycheck, how (s)he makes a buy/no-buy decision regarding the purchase of a luxury item, or even how one's weekend spending activities might be determined and prioritized. The procedures for such activities may not exactly match those of the cost-benefit analysis, but the similarity between the activities allows for the unfamiliar information to be put within a familiar context. Thus processing requirements are reduced and the potential effectiveness of recall cues is increased.

Constructivism

The philosophical assumptions underlying both the behavioral and cognitive theories are primarily objectivistic; that is: the world is real, external to the learner. The goal of instruction is to map the structure of the world onto the learner (Jonassen, 1991b). A number of contemporary cognitive theorists have begun to question this basic objectivistic assumption and are starting to adopt a more constructivist approach to learning and understanding: knowledge "is a function of how the individual creates meaning from his or her own experiences" (p.10). Constructivism is not a totally new approach to learning. Like most other learning theories, constructivism has multiple roots in the philosophical and psychological viewpoints of this century, specifically in the works of Piaget, Bruner, and Goodman (Perkins, 1991). In recent years, however, constructivism has become a "hot" issue as it has begun to receive increased attention in a number of different disciplines, including instructional design (Bednar et al., 1991).

How Does Learning Occur?

Constructivism is a theory that equates learning with creating meaning from experience (Bednar et al., 1991). Even though constructivism is considered to be a branch of cognitivism (both conceive of learning as a mental activity), it distinguishes itself from traditional cognitive theories in a number of ways. Most cognitive psychologists think of the mind as a reference tool to the real world; constructivists believe that the mind filters input from the world to produce its own unique reaIity (Jonassen, 1991a). Like with the rationalists of Plato's time, the mind is believed to be the source of all meaning, yet like the empiricists, individual, direct experiences with the environment are considered critical. Constructivism crosses both categories by emphasizing the interaction between these two variables.

Constructivists do not share with cognitivists and behaviorists the belief that knowledge is mind-independent and can be "mapped" onto a learner. Constructivists do not deny the existence of the real world but contend that what we know of the world stems from our own interpretations of our experiences. Humans create meaning as opposed to acquiring it. Since there are many possible meanings to glean from any experience, we cannot achieve a predetermined, "correct" meaning. Learners do not transfer knowledge from the external world into their memories; rather they build personal interpretations of the world based on individual experiences and interactions. Thus, the internal representation of knowledge is constantly open to change; there is not an objective reality that learners strive to know. Knowledge emerges in contexts within which it is relevant. Therefore, in order to understand the learning which has taken place within an individual, the actual experience must be examined (Bednar et al., 1991).

Which Factors Influence Learning?

Both learner and environmental factors are critical to the constructivist, as it is the specific interaction between these two variables that creates knowledge. Constructivists argue that behavior is situationally determined (Jonassen, 1991a). Just as the learning of new vocabulary words is enhanced by exposure and subsequent interaction with those words in context (as opposed to learning their meanings from a dictionary), likewise it is essential that content knowledge be embedded in the situation in which it is used. Brown, Collins, and Duguid (1989) suggest that situations actually co-produce knowledge (along with cognition) through activity. Every action is viewed as "an interpretation of the current situation based on an entire history of previous interactions" (Clancey, 1986). Just as shades of meanings of given words are constantly changing a learner's "current" understanding of a word, so too will concepts continually evolve with each new use. For this reason, it is critical that learning occur in realistic settings and that the selected learning tasks be relevant to the students' lived experience.

What is the Role of Memory?

The goal of instruction is not to ensure that individuals know particular facts but rather that they elaborate on and interpret information. "Understanding is developed through continued, situated use ... and does not crystallize into a categorical definition" that can be called up from memory (Brown et al., 1989, p. 33). As mentioned earlier, a concept will continue to evolve with each new use as new situations, negotiations, and activities recast it in a different, more densely textured form. Therefore, "memory" is always under construction as a cumulative history of interactions. Representations of experiences are not formalized or structured into a single piece of declarative knowledge and then stored in the head. The emphasis is not on retrieving intact knowledge structures, but on providing learners with the means to create novel and situation-specific understandings by "assembling" prior knowledge from diverse sources appropriate to the problem at hand. For example, the knowledge of "design" activities has to be used by a practitioner in too many different ways for them all to be anticipated in advance. Constructivists emphasize the flexible use of pre-existing knowledge rather than the recall of prepackaged schemas (Spiro, Feltovich, Jacobson, & Coulson, 1991). Mental representations developed through task-engagement are likely to increase the efficiency with which subsequent tasks are performed to the extent that parts of the environment remain the same: "Recurring features of the environment may thus afford recurring sequences of actions" (Brown et al., p. 37). Memory is not a context-independent process.

Clearly the focus of constructivism is on creating cognitive tools which reflect the wisdom of the culture in which they are used as well as the insights and experiences of individuals. There is no need for the mere acquisition of fixed, abstract, self-contained concepts or details. To be successful, meaningful, and lasting, learning must include all three of these crucial factors: activity (practice), concept (knowledge), and culture (context) (Brown et al., 1989).

How Does Transfer Occur?

The constructivist position assumes that transfer can be facilitated by involvement in authentic tasks anchored in meaningful contexts. Since understanding is "indexed" by experience (just as word meanings are tied to specific instances of use), the authenticity of the experience becomes critical to the individual's ability to use ideas (Brown et al., 1989). An essential concept in the constructivist view is that learning always takes place in a context and that the context forms an inexorable link with the knowledge embedded in it (Bednar et al., 1991). Therefore, the goal of instruction is to accurately portray tasks, not to define the structure of learning required to achieve a task. If learning is decontextualized, there is little hope for transfer to occur. One does not learn to use a set of tools simply by following a list of rules. Appropriate and effective use comes from engaging the learner in the actual use of the tools in real-world situations. Thus, the ultimate measure of learning is based on how effective the learner's knowledge structure is in facilitating thinking and performing in the system in which those tools are used.

What Types of Learning Are Best Explained by This Position?

The constructivist view does not accept the assumption that types of learning can be identified independent of the content and the context of learning (Bednar et al., 1991). Constructivists believe that it is impossible to isolate units of information or divide up knowledge domains according to a hierarchical analysis of relationships. Although the emphasis on performance and instruction has proven effective in teaching basic skills in relatively structured knowledge domains, much of what needs to be learned involves advanced knowledge in ill-structured domains. Jonassen (1991a) has described three stages of knowledge acquisition (introductory, advanced, and expert) and argues that constructive learning environments are most effective for the stage of advanced knowledge acquisition, where initial misconceptions and biases acquired during the introductory stage can be discovered, negotiated, and if necessary, modified and/or removed. Jonassen agrees that introductory knowledge acquisition is better supported by more objectivistic approaches (behavioral and/or cognitive) but suggests a transition to constructivistic approaches as learners acquire more knowledge which provides them with the conceptual power needed to deal with complex and ill-structured problems.

What Basic Assumptions/principles of This Theory Are Relevant to Instructional Design?

The constructivist designer specifies instructional methods and strategies that will assist learners in actively exploring complex topics/environments and that will move them into thinking in a given content area as an expert user of that domain might think. Knowledge is not abstract but is linked to the context under study and to the experiences that the participants bring to the context. As such, learners are encouraged to construct their own understandings and then to validate, through social negotiation, these new perspectives. Content is not prespecified; information from many sources is essential. For example, a typical constructivist's goal would not be to teach novice ID students straight facts about instructional design, but to prepare students to use ID facts as an instructional designer might use them. As such, performance objectives are not related so much to the content as they are to the processes of construction.

Some of the specific strategies utilized by constructivists include situating tasks in real-world contexts, use of cognitive apprenticeships (modeling and coaching a student toward expert performance), presentation of multiple perspectives (collaborative learning to develop and share alternative views), social negotiation (debate, discussion, evidencegiving), use of examples as real "slices of life," reflective awareness, and providing considerable guidance on the use of constructive processes.

The following are several specific assumptions or principles from the constructivist position that have direct relevance for the instructional designer (possible ID applications are listed in italics and brackets following the listed principle):

1. An emphasis on the identification of the context in which the skills will be learned and subsequently applied [anchoring learning in meaningful contexts].

2. An emphasis on learner control and the capability of the learner to manipulate information [actively using what is learned].

3. The need for information to be presented in a variety of different ways [revisiting content at different times, in rearranged contexts, for different purposes, and from different conceptual perspectives].

4. Supporting the use of problem-solving skills that allow learners to go "beyond the information given." [developing pattern-recognition skills, presenting alternative ways of representing problems].

5. Assessment focused on transfer of knowledge and skills [presenting new problems and situations that differ from the conditions of the initial instruction].

How Should Instruction Be Structured?

As one moves along the behaviorist-cognitivist-constructivist continuum, the focus of instruction shifts from teaching to learning, from the passive transfer of facts and routines to the active application of ideas to problems. Both cognitivists and constructivists view the learner as being actively involved in the learning process, yet the constructivists look at the learner as more than just an active processor of information; the learner elaborates upon and interprets the given information (Duffy & Jonassen, 1991). Meaning is created by the learner: learning objectives are not pre-specified nor is instruction predesigned. "The role of instruction in the constructivist view is to show students how to construct knowledge, to promote collaboration with others to show the multiple perspectives that can be brought to bear on a particular problem, and to arrive at self-chosen positions to which they can commit themselves, while realizing the basis of other views with which they may disagree" (Cunningham, 1991, p. 14).

Even though the emphasis is on learner construction, the instructional designer/ teacher's role is still critical (Reigeluth, 1989). Here the tasks of the designer are two-fold: (1) to instruct the student on how to construct meaning, as well as how to effectively monitor, evaluate, and update those constructions; and (2) to align and design experiences for the learner so that authentic, relevant contexts can be experienced.

Although constructivist approaches are used quite frequently in the preparation of lawyers, doctors, architects, and businessmen through the use of apprenticeships and on-the-job training, they are typically not applied in the educational arena (Resnick, 1987). If they were, however, a student placed in the hands of a constructivist would likely be immersed in an "apprenticeship" experience. For example, a novice instructional design student who desires to learn about needs assessment would be placed in a situation that requires such an assessment to be completed. Through the modeling and coaching of experts involved in authentic cases, the novice designer would experience the process embedded in the true context of an actual problem situation. Over time, several additional situations would be experienced by the student, all requiring similar needs assessment abilities. Each experience would serve to build on and adapt that which has been previously experienced and constructed. As the student gained more confidence and experience, (s)he would move into a collaborative phase of learning where discussion becomes crucial. By talking with others (peers, advanced students, professors, and designers), students become better able to articulate their own understandings of the needs assessment process. As they uncover their naive theories, they begin to see such activities in a new light, which guides them towards conceptual reframing (learning). Students gain familiarity with analysis and action in complex situations and consequently begin to expand their horizons: they encounter relevant books, attend conferences and seminars, discuss issues with other students, and use their knowledge to interpret numerous situations around them (not only related to specific design issues). Not only have the learners been involved in different types of learning as they moved from being novices to "budding experts," but the nature of the learning process has changed as well.

General Discussion

It is apparent that students exposed to the three instructional approaches described in the examples above would gain different competencies. This leads instructors/designers to ask two significant questions: Is there a single "best" approach and is one approach more efficient than the others? Given that learning is a complex, drawn-out process that seems to be strongly influenced by one's prior knowledge, perhaps the best answer to these questions is "it depends." Because learning is influenced by many factors from many sources, the learning process itself is constantly changing, both in nature and diversity, as it progresses (Shuell, 1990). What might be most effective for novice learners encountering a complex body of knowledge for the first time, would not be effective, efficient or stimulating for a learner who is more familiar with the content. Typically, one does not teach facts the same way that concepts or problem-solving are taught; likewise, one teaches differently depending on the proficiency level of the learners involved. Both the instructional strategies employed and the content addressed (in both depth and breadth) would vary based on the level of the learners.

So how does a designer facilitate a proper match between learner, content, and strategies? Consider, first of all, how learners' knowledge changes as they become more familiar with a given content. As people acquire more experience with a given content, they progress along a low-to-high knowledge continuum from 1) being able to recognize and apply the standard rules, facts, and operations of a profession (knowing what), to 2) thinking like a professional to extrapolate from these general rules to particular, problematic cases (knowing how), to 3) developing and testing new forms of understanding and actions when familiar categories and ways of thinking fail (reflection-in-action) (Schon, 1987). In a sense, the points along this continuum mirror the points of the learning theory continuum described earlier. Depending on where the learners "sit" on the continuum in terms of the development of their professional knowledge (knowing what vs. knowing how vs. reflection-in-action), the most appropriate instructional approach for advancing the learners' knowledge at that particular level would be the one advocated by the theory that corresponds to that point on the continuum. That is, a behavioral approach can effectively facilitate mastery of the content of a profession (knowing what); cognitive strategies are useful in teaching problem-solving tactics where defined facts and rules are applied in unfamiliar situations (knowing how); and constructivist strategies are especially suited to dealing with ill-defined problems through reflection-in-action.

A second consideration depends upon the requirements of the task to be learned. Based on the level of cognitive processing required, strategies from different theoretical perspectives may be needed. For example, tasks requiring a low degree of processing (e.g., basic paired associations, discriminations, rote memorization) seem to be facilitated by strategies most frequently associated with a behavioral outlook (e.g., stimulus-response, contiguity of feedback/reinforcement). Tasks requiring an increased level of processing (e.g., classifications, rule or procedural executions) are primarily associated with strategies having a stronger cognitive emphasis (e.g., schematic organization, analogical reasoning, algorithmic problem solving). Tasks demanding high levels of processing (e.g., heuristic problem solving, personal selection and monitoring of cognitive strategies) are frequently best learned with strategies advanced by the constructivist perspective (e.g., situated learning, cognitive apprenticeships, social negotiation).

We believe that the critical question instructional designers must ask is not "Which is the best theory?" but "Which theory is the most effective in fostering mastery of specific tasks by specific learners?" Prior to strategy(ies) selection, consideration must be made of both the learners and the task. An attempt is made in Figure 1 to depict these two continua (learners' level of knowledge and cognitive processing demands) and to illustrate the degree to which strategies offered by each of the theoretical perspectives appear applicable. The figure is useful in demonstrating: (a) that the strategies promoted by the different perspectives overlap in certain instances (i.e., one strategy may be relevant for each of the different perspectives, given the proper amount of prior knowledge and the corresponding amount of cognitive processing), and (b) that strategies are concentrated along different points of the continua due to the unique focus of each of the learning theories. This means that when integrating any strategies into the instructional design process, the nature of the learning task (i.e., the level of cognitive processing required) and the proficiency level of the learners involved must both be considered before selecting one approach over another. Depending on the demands of the task and where the learners are in terms of the content to be delivered/discovered, different strategies based on different theories appear to be necessary. Powerful frameworks for instruction have been developed by designers inspired by each of these perspectives. In fact, successful instructional practices have features that are supported by virtually all three perspectives (e.g., active participation and interaction, practice and feedback).

Figure 1. Comparison of the associated instructional strategies of the behavioral, cognitive, and constructivist viewpoints based on the learner's level of task knowledge and the level of cognitive processing required by the task.

For this reason, we have consciously chosen not to advocate one theory over the others, but to stress instead the usefulness of being well versed in each. This is not to suggest that one should work without a theory, but rather that one must be able to intelligently choose, on the basis of information gathered about the learners' present level of competence and the type of learning task, the appropriate methods for achieving optimal instructional outcomes in that situation.

As stated by Smith and Ragan (1993, p. viii): "Reasoned and validated theoretical eclecticism has been a key strength of our field because no single theoretical base provides complete prescriptive principles for the entire design process." Some of the most crucial design tasks involve being able to decide which strategy to use, for what content, for which students, and at what point during the instruction. Knowledge of this sort is an example of conditional knowledge, where "thinking like" a designer becomes a necessary competency. It should be noted however, that to be an eclectic, one must know a lot, not a little, about the theories being combined. A thorough understanding of the learning theories presented above seems to be essential for professional designers who must constantly make decisions for which no design model provides precise rules. Being knowledgeable about each of these theories provides designers with the flexibility needed to be spontaneous and creative when a first attempt doesn't work or when they find themselves limited by time, budget, and/or personnel constraints. The practitioner cannot afford to ignore any theories that might provide practical implications. Given the myriad of potential design situations, the designer's "best" approach may not ever be identical to any previous approach, but will truly "depend upon the context." This type of instructional "cherry-picking" has been termed "systematic eclecticism" and has had a great deal of support in the instructional design literature (Snelbecker, 1989).

In closing, we would like to expand on a quote by P. B. Drucker, (cited in Snelbecker, 1983): "These old controversies have been phonies all along. We need the behaviorist's triad of practice/reinforcement/feedback to enlarge learning and memory. We need purpose, decision, values, understanding-the cognitive categories-lest learning be mere behavioral activities rather than action" (p. 203).

And to this we would add that we also need adaptive learners who are able to function well when optimal conditions do not exist, when situations are unpredictable and task demands change, when the problems are messy and ill-formed and the solutions depend on inventiveness, improvisation, discussion, and social negotiation.

References

Bednar, A. K., Cunningham, D., Duffy, T. M., & Perry, J. D. (1991). Theory into practice: How do we link? In G. J. Anglin (Ed.), Instructional technology: Past, present, and future. Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited.

Bower, G. H., & Hilgard, E. R. (1981). Theories of learning (5th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational Researcher, 18(1), 32-42.

Bruner, J. S. (1971). The process of education revisited. Phi Delta Kappan, 53,18-21.

Clancey, W. J. (1986). Review of Winograd and Flores' understanding computers and cognition: A favorable interpretation. (STAN-CS-87-1173) Palo Alto, CA: Department of Computer Science, Stanford University.

Cunningham, D. J. (1991). Assessing constructions and constructing assessments: A dialogue. Educational Technology, 31(5), 13-17.

Duffy, T. M., & Jonassen, D. (1991). Constructivism: New implications for instructional technology? Educational Technology, 31(5), 3-12.

Gropper, G. L. (1987). A lesson based on a behavioral approach to instructional design. In C. M. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional theories in action (pp. 45-112). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Hulse, S. H., Egeth, H., & Deese, J. (1980). The psychology of learning (5th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Johnson, J. K. (1992). Advancing by degrees: Trends in master's and doctoral programs in educational communications and technology. Tech Trends, 37(2),13-16.

Jonassen, D. H. (1991a). Evaluating constructivistic learning. Educational Technology, 31(9), 28-33.

Jonassen, D. H. (1991b), Objectivism vs constructivism: Do we need a new philosophical paradigm. Educational Technology Research and Development, 39(3), 5-14.

Keller, J. M. (1979). Motivation and instructional design: A theoretical perspective. Journal of Instructional Development, 2(4), 26-34.

Lynch, J. M. (1945). The applicability of psychological research to education. Journal of Educational Psychology, 43, 289-296.

Merrill, M. D., Kowalis, T., & Wilson, B. G. (1981). Instructional design in transition. In F. H. Farley, & N. J. Gordon (Eds.), Psychology and education: The state of the union (pp. 298-348). Berkeley: McCutchan.

Perkins, D. N. (1991). Technology meets constructivism: Do they make a marriage? Educational Technology, 31(5), 18-23.

Reigeluth, C.M. (1983). Instructional Design: What is it and why is it? In C. M.

Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional theories in action (pp. 3-36). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Reigeluth, C. M. (1989). Educational technology at the crossroads: New mindsets and new directions. Educational Technology Research and Development, 37(1), 67-80.

Resnick, L. B. (1987). Learning in school and out. Educational Researcher, 16(9), 13-20.

Richey, R. D. (1986). The theoretical and conceptual bases of instructional design. New York: Nichols.

Schunk, D. H. (1991). Learning theories: An educational perspective. New York: Macmillan.

Shuell, T. J. (1986). Cognitive conceptions of learning. Review of Educational Research, 56, 411-436.

Shuell, T. J. (1990). Phases of meaningful learning. Review of Educational Research, 60, 531-547.

Smith, P. L., & Ragan, T. J. (1993). Instructional design. New York: Macmillan.

Schon, D. A. (1987). Educating the reflective practitioner. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Snelbecker, G. E. (1983). Learning theory, instructional theory, and psychoeducational design. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Snelbecker, G. E. (1989). Contrasting and complementary approaches to instructional design. In C. M. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional theories in action (pp, 321-337). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Spiro, R. J., Feltovich, P. J., Jacobson, M. J., & Coulson, R. L. (1991). Cognitive flexibility, constructivism, and hypertext: Random access instruction for advanced knowledge acquisition in ill-structured domains. Educational Technology, 31(5), 24-33.

Stepich, D. A., & Newby, T. J. (1988). Analogical instruction within the information processing paradigm: Effective means to facilitate learning. Instructional Science, 17, 129-144.

Thompson, A. D., Simonson, M. R., Hargrave, C. P. (1992). Educational technology: A review of the research. Washington DC: Association for Educational Communications and Technology.

Tyler, R. W. (1978). How schools utilize educational research and development. In R. Glaser (Ed.), Research and development and school change. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Warries, E. (1990). Theory and the systematic design of instruction. In S. Dijkstra, B. van Hout Wolters, & P. C. van der Sijde, (Eds.), Research on instruction: Design and effects (pp. 1-19). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology.

West, C. K., Farmer, J. A., & Wolff, P. M. (1991). Instructional design: Implications from cognitive science. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Winn, W. (1991). The assumptions of constructivism and instructional design. Educational Technology, 31(9), 38-40.

Winn, W. (1990). Some implications of cognitive theory for instructional design. Instructional Science, 19, 53-69.

Winne, P. H. (1985). Cognitive processing in the classroom. In T. Husen & T. N. Postlethwaite (Eds.), The International Encyclopedia of Education (Vol. 2, pp. 795-808). Oxford: Pergamon.

Additional Reading

An update was published in Performance Improvement Quarterly in 2013 by the authors to accompany the 30 year anniversary and republication of the original article. This update adds a strong second part to this article, and you are encouraged to read it here [https://edtechbooks.org/-BQ] .

Application Exercises

How would the instruction be designed differently by a behaviorist, a cognitivist, and a constructivist? Scenario: A high school social study teacher is planning a class on the Vietnam War.

Describe an example from your life of when you were taught using each method described in this article: behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism.

Based on your reading, would you consider your current instruction style more behavioralist, cognitivist, or constructivist? Elaborate with your specific mindset and examples.

Suggested Citation

Chapter Copyright Notice

CC BY: This chapter is released under a CC BY license, which means that you are free to do with it as you please as long as you properly attribute it.

End-of-Chapter Survey

Overall Quality: How would you rate the overall quality of this chapter?

1. Very Low Quality

2. Low Quality

3. Moderate Quality

4. High Quality

5. Very High Quality

Additional Comments Comments will be automatically submitted when you navigate away from the page.
Peggy A. Ertmer

Timothy Newby

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Comparing Critical Features From an Instructional Design Perspective This article was originally published in 1993 and then republished in 2013 by Performance Improvement Quarterly. © 2013 International Society for Performance Improvement Published online in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com). DOI: 10.1002/piq.21143. The original citation is below: Ertmer, P. A., & Newby, T.

# data[].attributes.body
Cognitivism is a learning theory that focuses on the internal mental processes involved in learning, such as memory, problem-solving, and comprehension. It emphasizes how learners actively process information by organizing, categorizing, and interpreting it within their minds. According to cognitivism, learning involves constructing mental representations of knowledge and applying cognitive strategies to understand and solve problems.

Alignment with Instructional Design:

Cognitive Apprenticeship Model: Cognitivism aligns with cognitive apprenticeship, which focuses on developing problem-solving skills through guided practice and reflection.

Information Processing Model: This model parallels cognitivism by emphasizing the processing of information through attention, encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Digital Instructional Strategies:

Mind Mapping Tools: Digital mind maps help learners organize and visualize information, supporting cognitive processes like organization and elaboration. Digital tools such as KAMI or Padlet can be used.

Scaffolding Through Educational Software: Interactive software provides scaffolding to guide learners through complex tasks, fostering cognitive development. Graphic organizers and digital resources in centralized location.

Technology-Enhanced Classroom Activities:

Online Collaborative Problem-Solving: Virtual collaboration platforms enable students to collectively tackle complex problems, promoting cognitive engagement and peer learning. Tools can include FlipGrid and Parlay.

Interactive Multimedia Presentations: Multimedia presentations with interactive elements engage multiple senses, facilitating deeper cognitive processing and understanding. Digital tools include Google Slides, Canvas, Adobe Spark.

# data[].attributes.body
Constructionism is the theory that says learners construct knowledge rather than just passively take in information. As people experience the world and reflect upon those experiences, they build their own representations and incorporate new information into their pre-existing knowledge.

Alignment with Instructional Design:

Project-Based Learning (PBL): PBL aligns with constructionism by engaging students in authentic, inquiry-based projects where they create meaningful artifacts, promoting active learning and problem-solving skills.

Design Thinking Framework: Design thinking encourages iterative problem-solving and prototyping, aligning with constructionism's focus on creating tangible solutions through experiential learning.

Digital Instructional Strategies:

Digital Storytelling: Using digital tools like multimedia software (Adobe Spark), students create narratives or documentaries to share their learning experiences and showcase their understanding, fostering creativity and communication skills.

Virtual Collaboration Platforms: Online collaborative platforms enable students to work together in real-time, co-creating digital artifacts or projects, facilitating teamwork and knowledge sharing. Google Meet, Zoom, FlipGrid.

Technology-Enhanced Classroom Activities:

Digital Maker Projects: Students design and create digital artifacts or prototypes using tools like 3D printers or coding platforms, promoting hands-on learning and innovation.

Virtual Reality (VR) Simulations: VR simulations allow students to explore and interact with virtual environments related to their learning topics, enhancing immersion and experiential learning opportunities.

# data[].attributes.body
The ADDIE model is an instructional design framework used to develop effective learning experiences. It stands for Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation. Each phase involves specific tasks, such as assessing needs, designing learning objectives, creating content, delivering instruction, and evaluating the effectiveness of the learning experience.

# data[].attributes.headline
Similarities of Cognitivist & Constructionist Theories

# data[].attributes.subject
Similarities of Cognitivist & Constructionist Theories

# data[].attributes.body
Constructionist theory and Cognitivism emphasize the active role of the learner in the learning process.

Both theories highlight the importance of mental processes such as problem-solving, memory, and comprehension in learning.

They emphasize the significance of learners' prior knowledge and experiences in shaping their understanding.

Constructionist theory and Cognitivism advocate for instructional strategies that promote meaningful engagement, whether through hands-on activities in constructionism or cognitive processes in cognitivism.

Both theories recognize the value of reflection and metacognition in promoting deeper understanding and transfer of learning.

# data[].attributes.body
Learning Theory: Behaviorism

Gamification uses game design elements to motivate students and reinforce desired behaviors. Through rewards, feedback, and interactive challenges, educators can create engaging learning experiences that encourage active participation and skill development. Gamification also promotes competition.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The popularity of gamification and game-based learning is evident in gaming's increasing role in professional training situations; integration into elementary, high school, and even higher education settings; and use in solving social issues, as evidenced by the work of Jane McGonigal, game designer, author, and director of game research and development at the Institute for the Future, whose games seek real-world solution to pressing issues. [ 1] Improvements in technology have allowed for the growth of gaming and mobile gaming has made it easier for people to access games wherever they are. Advances in virtual reality technologies will likely offer more and new ways to engage in play. [ 2]

Gaming advocates promote the spatial reasoning, math, and logic often required for game mastery, skills that have become more important with a focus on STEM, but gaming is also increasingly credited with promoting curiosity, socialization, and the continuous processing of information. [ 3]

Games in educational settings have been a regular option to help make learning more playful and engage learners. But more recent pushes for gamification seek to expand games' importance from just fun and engaging, to more important roles in teaching content, monitoring learning progress, and practicing skills. [ 4]

A Joan Ganz Cooney Center survey of 694 K-8 teachers found that nearly three quarters (74%) used digital games for instruction, with 80% of those teachers reporting playing games at least monthly and 55% at least weekly. [ 5] Gaming's use in education, however, may need to be balanced as educators focus on delivering content required by local, state, or national curriculum standards. The Cooney Center's survey found that few teachers were using immersive learning games, the kind that encourage deep exploration, and instead utilized short-form games that likely were easier to map to curriculum standards. [ 6]

Gamification, game based learning, and gaming may also pose challenges. It may be over-applied, with users believing that simply applying "game rewards" (points, leveling, badges) will make activities more interesting and achievable. [ 7] Gaming, especially video games, may prove addictive, which even in the context of education may prove harmful. [ 8] And there have been long-held concerns with violence, gender, and diversity issues.

Gaming offers an important opportunity to develop emerging and traditional forms of literacy. With minimal instructions, players are motivated to seek out information about how games work, including communicating with experts, watching or creating tutorials, or reviewing how-to texts (online or in print). [ 9]

Libraries, recognized as spaces for interest-driven learning and self-directed discovery, are ideal for the type of learning and discovery promoted by games. Equally important, libraries as public gathering spaces can capitalize on the benefits of co-play, helping to improve players' social skills by encouraging play together, in small groups, or large classes. [ 10] The social setting of the library may also encourage users to be reflective in their play, building awareness, asking questions, and processing what is being learned through play. [ 11]

The skills that games help develop - digital literacy and understanding how systems (computer and otherwise) work, for example - will become increasingly important in a work environment where jobs and responsibilities are regularly changing. [ 12] Libraries and librarians interested in supporting next generation job skills may find benefit in promoting games and game-based learning.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Gamification, or the application of game elements and digital game design techniques to non-game settings, and game-based learning, or game playing that has defined learning outcomes, are seeing greater adoption and recognition in educational and professional settings. How It's Developing

# data[].attributes.body
Learning Theory: Constructionism

The flipped classroom model reverses traditional teaching methods by delivering instructional content online outside of class, allowing more time for active learning activities and discussions in the classroom. By engaging in collaborative problem-solving and peer-to-peer teaching, students take ownership of their learning and deepen their understanding through active participation.

"Many educators have touted the potential benefits of this model and initial research regarding implementation has been primarily positive. The rationale behind the flipped classroom methodology is to increase student engagement with content, increase and improve faculty contact time with students, and enhance learning" (Rotellar & Cain, 2016)

# data[].attributes.headline
Learning Trend: Learning Management Systems

# data[].attributes.subject
Learning Trend: Learning Management Systems

# data[].attributes.body
Learning Theory: Constructionism

Learning Management Systems align primarily with the Constructionist learning theory, emphasizing learners' active role in constructing knowledge through interaction and reflection. LMS platforms facilitate this by providing learners with autonomy and independence to navigate content, engage in interactive activities. Students have access to all materials and assignments which allows them to work synchronously and asynchronously with peers.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Traditional education has become increasingly expensive and inefficient when it comes to learning and retaining information. Many academic institutions and businesses turn to online training and e-learning as the new method for teaching their students and employees.

Learning management software allows us to consume educational content in an engaging way, learn anywhere on-demand, and develop a customized hub for social learning. Whether you're teaching math or business management, the advantages of learning management systems can be harnessed to benefit your organization.

In this article, we'll discuss what an LMS does and the pros and cons of open-source software.

What Is a Learning Management System?

LMS is an acronym for a Learning Management System. It's a software to help businesses and educational institutions create and organize learning materials in one place and track the progress of their trainees or students. The term LMS originated from e-learning, however learning management systems are much more intuitive than a standard e-learning platform.

Many learning management systems use intelligence technology to customize the course curriculum and track their students' progress. One significant difference between a learning management system and basic e-learning software is its interactive features. With an LMS, you can engage your students with various contact tools, enroll students in courses, track attendance, monitor students' screens, send online tests, and give tailored educational material based on their skill profile.

But why use a learning management system in the first place? The learning management system essentially mimics everything an indoor classroom can without the expenses of printing physical copies, the limitations to the number of students per class, and the lack of tracking features. With LMS, students can learn remotely and learn with ease.

Disadvantages of a Learning Management System

Administrative costs and setup time -Learning how to implement an LMS system may take a considerable amount of time.Converting all of your instructors to e-learning will require a transitional period. Many teachers will still prefer their standard whiteboard and paper handouts style over a fully operating LMS. Even though it's on the LMS software and IT team to make the interface easy to use, teachers may still run into hiccups during class. Training on the system will be required, along with ongoing administrative costs to upkeep the interface to suit your needs.

Requires IT and programming knowledge - Unfortunately, a massive drawback to having a learning management system is that your organization will need coding and IT skills to customize the platform to suit your training needs. It might not be as easy as tweaking the color schemes or dragging blocks of texts around. Many systems require actual backend coding to be able to control the user experience.

May lack features -Many learning management systems use a "freemium" model in which only a limited amount of features are available to you. To gain full access to the system, you may have to pay a subscription cost. Typically paid features include additional support and a reporting system.

Benefits of a Learning Management System

Makes learning simple -An LMS software solves the problem of wasting time on menial tasks like grading papers and saving time on travel. Create or upload a course onto the remote cloud-based server, and see your students go through the material. From there, you can track their progress and provide additional support as needed. It's easy to design your curriculum and get all of your students on the same page.

Provides unlimited access to e-learning materials -A learning management software gives students access to learning material in one place from any device and the ability to return to the content as needed.

Consolidates all training information -An LMS allows you to consolidate all of the learning materials into one place so that students can conveniently access them. Also, you can assign these materials based on specific needs. For example, if you're assigning a group project, you may assign students a different learning material for each student based on their role in the group.

Reduces learning costs -For educational institutions and businesses, online training poses a cost-effective method of learning. With a learning management system, your organization can eliminate expenses such as classroom rentals, transport and accommodations, instructor's salary, textbooks, supplies, and physical printouts.

Integrates social learning experiences -This tool provides the functionality to collaborate with other users during the learning process. Whether students need to ask the instructor a question or students need to work on group projects, social learning helps deepen the understanding of the lessons taught in lectures. Plus, links to Twitter pages, Facebook, LinkedIn teams, and online forums that may be useful to learners can be included by these tools.

Enables tracking -An LMS can easily track compliance with mandatory training. The software will create reports and display training records to view the progress of each student. From there, you can better personalize your program for each student to create content that tailors to a particular need for one student or group.

Intuitive and personalized - An LMS can be implemented to test current skill levels, determining what training is necessary and therefore saving time. This system can intuitively understand where your students are and assign them custom learning material based on their current understanding or skill level.

Saves time - One of the most significant benefits of LMS is that it saves everyone time. An LMS allows you to set unified learning standards and assess and develop student knowledge regularly. With e-learning, you save the long commute hours for both students and faculty. Also, students can efficiently learn by having everything in one place. The tools provide instructors the ability to control students' screens and block distracting websites or apps to help students focus.

Easy to update -This platform serves as a repository for all training materials, which can ensure that only updated versions are used. Updating your course is super convenient. Make changes to the forms, specifications, product forms, and requirements-no need to revamp the entire course. Just make tweaks with updated information. Students get immediate access to these modifications.

LMS is customizable -You can fully customize your management system to fit your needs by adjusting the layout and personalizing the dashboard. Modify everything from the branding, all the way to the user interface of the programming, so students can quickly progress in their learning.

Check out the GoGuardian Teacher™ Classroom Management software to see how you can effectively save time, better connect with students, and eliminate distractions during learning sessions.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Pros & Cons of Learning Management Systems | GoGuardian

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Understand how learning management systems can be both positive and negative in the classroom.

# data[].attributes.headline
Learning Trend: Collaborative Digital Tools

# data[].attributes.subject
Learning Trend: Collaborative Digital Tools

# data[].attributes.body
Learning Theory: Constructivism

Collaborative Digital Tools: Digital tools such as Google Workspace, Microsoft Teams, and other collaborative platforms provide students with opportunities to collaborate in real-time. Students are able to co-create documents, give feedback, and engage in discussions. These digital tools support constructivist approaches by fostering social interaction and shared understanding of the concepts.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Find this site at: DitchThatTextbook.com/sharingiscaring

This session introduces you to a long list of collaborative activities that can be accomplished across the entire Google Apps suite. These activities utilize the real-time collaboration, chat, commenting and link sharing capabilities of Google Apps. Collaborative activities can cross over to administration, enabling new, powerful modes of staff communication from the ground up.

==================================================================

USEFUL LINKS

Sharing is Caring paper handout: Click here (PDF)

Google Drive: drive.google.com - Your online hub for all of your Google Apps. If you don't have a Google account yet (shame on you ... you're at a Google conference!), create one there!

Sharing is Caring session backchannel: www.todaysmeet.com/sharing - Ask questions, give examples and share how you could apply this material!

20 Powerful Google Apps Uses (related) : www.ditchthattextbook.com/google - Matt's presentation with video tutorials of how to implement each of the 20 ideas
Collaborative Google App uses from participatns at Indiana Google Apps in Education Summit
==================================================================

ABOUT THE PRESENTER

Matt Miller (@jmattmiller) is a high school Spanish teacher at Turkey Run High School in Marshall, IN. His students engage in Spanish through educational technology regularly, including tools like blogs, digital videos and photos, QR codes, Google Voice and more. He blogs regularly at Ditch That Textbook, which is dedicated to teaching with less reliance on the textbook with an emphasis on technology and creative teaching. He can be contacted at matt@ditchthattextbook.com.

Some of Matt's blog posts relating to Google:

Some of Matt's most viewed blog posts:

==================================================================

THE ACTIVITIES!

----------------------

----------------------

Sharing documents benefits students, too. When doing group research projects, the members of the group can gather their research findings in one place for everyone to see. They can use the blue "Share" button to give editing rights to the group members and the teacher (so the teacher can check in on their progress).

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

Shared presentations can be a quick and easy way to have students create something and share it with the class. Create a presentation with a slide for each student (maybe with an additional slide as a title slide at the beginning) and share it with the class (make sure to give everyone the "can edit" permission!). Assign a slide number to each student and ask them to answer a question, give an opinion, share some facts, create a story, etc. on the slide. When the activity is over, the presentation can be shown to everyone on a projector screen or embedded in a class website. Here's an example of a shared presentation we did in my class: students researched people for Hispanic Heritage month and each presented their findings on their own slides.

----------------------

----------------------

Google Presentations is a great tool to show student art work to an audience. Digital pictures or scans of student work can be added to the slides of a presentation. That presentation can be shown at a school function or embedded in a website or other medium on the Internet. With the right exposure, student art show on the Web could have a global audience.

----------------------

If a picture is worth a thousand words, it should serve as a great writing prompt! Using a shared presentation (see above), place a photo on the title slide. Then assign every student a slide with some instructions on what and how they should write. Students can then peer edit each other's work (using comments) or just read what others have written.

----------------------

----------------------

A good way to understand what life is like in another part of the state, country or world is to gather data from the environment and compare it. Students can gather information on the weather, on different elements in the environment or even observations of the students in the school. Add the data to a shared spreadsheet and create graphs to analyze. Students can discuss their observations and conclusions using the chat feature.

----------------------

Signing up for time slots or responsibilities can be easy and paperless. Create a spreadsheet and make slots for people to use to sign up. Use the "Share" button and click "Change ...". Select "Anyone with the link" and "Can edit." Once everything's set, copy the blue link and share it with those who need to sign up. Here's another VERY basic template to help you get started.

----------------------

Virtually any type of graphic organizer - Venn diagrams, KWL charts, fishbone diagrams, storyboards, mind maps, etc. - can be created easily in Google Drawings. Use the shapes, text and lines to make a graphic organizer quickly and fill in information. The organizers can be saved as image files or PDFs to share with others.

----------------------

Students can analyze and comment on any digital image with a shared Google drawing. In a new drawing, insert the desired image and share it with students using the blue "Share" button. Students can then add text and arrows to point out important points on the image. It's great for identifying the significant points of a painting or photograph.

----------------------

Almost anything students learn can be demonstrated visually. Students can create comic-type illustrations of concepts from the classroom in a Google drawing. In this example, a student described how Aztec sacrifices are done.

----------------------

Using Google drawings, students can collaboratively create a new picture by each adding a little at a time. Create a drawing and give it a name with a unique number (like "tree picture 1") and share it with students. When a student gets a drawing, he/she draws something (maybe for 30 seconds or a minute) and then closes the file. Then he/she goes to the next drawing ("tree picture 2") and draws for 30 seconds or a minute. Students can see each other's work when finished by placing a picture file (File > Download as ...) on a shared presentation. They could even use the image as a writing prompt or story starter.

----------------------

Social studies students, among others, could log historical events on a timeline using a drawing. Students can draw a long horizontal timeline and add data to it. If the drawing is shared, several students could work on it at the same time or add to it asynchronously.

----------------------

----------------------

Infographics are a powerful medium to combine images and text to explain concepts in a very visual way. More and more people all over cyberspace are using them, and their power can be harnessed in the classroom. Students can work together to display information they gather in an infographic instead of, say, a research paper. Infographics really are a real-world product. Those infographics can be created in a drawing and shared with the world.

----------------------

Google Forms is a powerful tool for collecting data from anyone online. Surveys can be created using multiple-choice, fill-in-the-blank, checkbox, and scale questions and more. Google Forms sends data to a spreadsheet where the data can be analyzed. Create surveys for students, parents, teachers, activity/club participants and more!

----------------------

Administrators can create their own forms to gather data quickly and easily from evaluation observations. The can determine what information they need to collect and how they want to input it (by typing text, selecting from various options, etc.). They can then build a form to collect the data. When they go to a classroom for an observation, they can open their own form and have a customized worksheet for logging everything they want to collect. And, of course, the data is collected in a spreadsheet.

----------------------

Health and physical education students can gather data on how they work out and what they eat using Google Forms. The teacher can create a form to collect the information they need to submit and share the form with the student in a link, in an e-mail or embedded on a site. The student can visit the form and submit information whenever necessary. Students can analyze data later from the spreadsheet.

----------------------

Hangouts (Google Plus)

----------------------

The Mystery Hangout is just the tip of the iceberg for educational connections through video chats. Teachers can connect their students to other similar classes anywhere in the world to share what they're learning. Students can pair up one-on-one or in small groups, or they can present to the entire class. The possibilities are endless!

----------------------

If you can't get your students to connect face-to-face with an expert in your content area, a meeting via Hangout is the next best thing! Writers, scholars, professors, speakers and others are often willing to speak with classes through video chat to discuss their expertise. Plus, you might schedule a meeting with a local (or national!) celebrity, athlete or performer for encouragement on why students should be in your class! Here's a video of a Skype call that students in Plymouth schools did with Shaquille O'Neal!

----------------------

Sites

Give your student work a bigger audience than one (the teacher) - publish it on a class website through Google Sites. Students can share their pride in a job well done with family and friends by sharing the link with them. Plus, in preparation for college and career, if students need to demonstrate their abilities, their work in your class may help. Here's a link to my class website where we display student work (use the "Projects" tab at the top). (Note: It's done in a Weebly site and not a Google site, but the idea is the same!)

----------------------

Virtually anything created in Google Apps can be embedded in a Google Site (or any website, for that matter). Embed by opening the file you want to use and going to "File > Publish to the web ..." in the menu. Choose to start publishing and then copy the "embed code" (a small selection of HTML code you can place in a website). Take your embed code and place it in a part of your website that allows embedding or custom HTML. Then see the dynamic version of your work on a website! Here's a presentation for a session I led called "Ditch That Textbook."

----------------------

Because Google Sites are free, any club, team or organization can have its own customizable home on the Internet. Create a Google Site to share news, contact information, schedules, rules or any other resources the members might need.

----------------------

----------------------

If you've gathered sites, apps, ideas, resources, techniques and tips for teaching digitally or otherwise, why not pass them along to others? We're stronger together! Create a Google site with all of your best links and ideas for others to benefit from.

----------------------

Moderator

----------------------

When students see a movie, lecture, or other presentation of information, they have questions or want to have a discussion in the moment. Usually, that's not possible with regular discussion because it interrupts the flow of information in the presentation. Use Google Moderator as a backchannel discussion. Students can add their ideas, questions and thoughts to the Moderator series without interrupting a speaker or movie.

----------------------

Students can quickly display knowledge or new ideas through Moderator. Ask students for examples of anything discussed in class and have them add new ideas to the Moderator series (chat room). Everyone can quickly see the entire room's ideas and examples in one place.

----------------------

Want to know how your students feel about a certain topic? Have them post their ideas to Moderator OR post your own ideas and let them vote on them. It's a quick and free option to incorporate your students' voices in class.

----------------------

Students can have access to their teachers unlike before with digital tools that connect them outside of school hours. By setting up a Moderator series (chat room) and setting a time when you'll be accessible online, students can ask questions and get responses - or see what questions others have asked without having to bother you with new ones. It's a good way to eliminate the "I didn't understand that last night" excuse.

----------------------

Moderator is a useful way to connect with others at any time. Students could share thoughts about a presidential debate while it's going on. Classes from anywhere on the planet can ask and answer each other's questions. Information can flow freely with anyone immediately.

----------------------

Turning learning into a game can be very engaging. Create a contest in Moderator where students must be the first to post an answer, a relevant website, a link to a picture, etc. Or students can choose a winner with the voting feature.

----------------------

All teachers have their strengths, and if they share their strengths, they can help other teachers to improve their own weaknesses. Teachers can share their best ideas, practices and tips to help new teachers and improve education in general. YouTube is a thriving community with more than 1 billion unique users visiting YouTube each month. Sharing teaching practices on YouTube can have a huge global reach.

----------------------

Most students love to create video. They're intrigued by it. When they work hard and create something impressive (which they can do with YouTube's powerful video editor), they can share it with a much bigger audience than the students in their classroom - or those in their school. Videos shared on YouTube can spread their learning across all corners of the globe. Care should be taken to follow the school or district's technology policy on sharing media and on protecting student privacy appropriately.

----------------------

Blogger

----------------------

If creating a blog for each student isn't feasible, showcasing student writing on a class blog may be. Teachers can create a Blogger blog for their classes and display selected student work on it. Blogs can be kept private to the class or opened up to anyone who wants to view it. Public blogs give parents, friends and the community a chance to share in students' good work.

----------------------

A great way to display the wonderful happenings of a school is to have a school blog. Schools can create a Blogger blog to allow the principal to post messages to the school community, show off students' best work and celebrate in academic successes. It's a great way to engage all school stakeholders.

----------------------

Other apps

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

BONUS!

In Choose Your Own Adventure stories, the reader makes choices for the characters in the story, and the characters' outcome depends entirely on what the reader decides. Create a Google Form and use multiple choice questions. They will depend a lot on the "Go to page based on answer" option a lot. Check out an example here. And feel free to check out my example (which you can copy!). Or watch the Tech Tuesday Screencast below on creating Choose Your Own Adventure stories.
Link to edit the CYOA story form
----------------------

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

Mastering Google Apps for the Classroom: A good primer on Google Apps and what it's capable of doing. It's a bit outdated, but the basic explanation on what Google Apps do and how to use them is still solid.

Google Apps for Education: Tips for Teachers by Teachers: A free ebook by Backupify giving practical advice from teachers who use Google Apps in the classroom.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Sharing is Caring: 50 Collaborative Google Apps Activities

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Find this site at: DitchThatTextbook.com/sharingiscaring This session introduces you to a long list of collaborative activities that can be accomplished

# data[].attributes.headline
Learning Trend: Adaptive Learning Systems

# data[].attributes.subject
Learning Trend: Adaptive Learning Systems

# data[].attributes.body
Learning Theory: Behaviorism

Adaptive Learning Systems: These digital systems use algorithms to analyze student performance and provide personalized feedback and reinforcement. Adaptive learning platforms adjust the difficulty level of tasks based on the student's responses. This ensures that learning experiences are appropriately challenging and reinforcing correct behaviors for each student.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
On a quest to make education as effective, engaging and scalable as possible, adaptive learning has risen in the tools used by educator to increase the efficacy of education with limited resources. Not only does this technique better harness available resources in a learning environment, but it also helps translate these resources into an overall more successful education for students.

What is Adaptive Learning?

Adaptive learning refers to the personalization of the learning experience for each individual learner. This can mean adapting the curriculum path, the speed or difficulty of practice and assessments, the addition of resources to improve certain areas of learning, and more.

Adaptive learning typically harnesses technology to create a more effective learning path based on each individual's pace of learning. It often takes place on web-based platforms that use algorithms or other technology to measure and personalize the students' journeys. These personalizations include adapting the content, sequence and assessments for students, as well as improving communication and collaboration among teachers and administrators.

Types of Customizations for Adaptive Learning

The exact form adaptive learning takes varies from platform to platform. Most will use one or a combination of the following customization methods:

Adaptive Content

One of the first ways to customize the learning experience is by adapting content based on the individual learner. This method of adaptive learning provides "hints" or feedback based on a student's responses to a question, but may not necessarily change the overall sequence of the curriculum.

Adaptive Sequencing or Pathways

Another type of adaptive learning includes adaptive sequences or pathways. This uses key indicators of each student's progress to adapt their individual learning pathway. For instance, if a student is struggling in a content area, the platform may add additional practice and delay introducing a new subject until the previous subject is mastered. If the student is advanced, they may be accelerated through easier topics to get to more challenging content.

Adaptive sequencing can also refer to allowing a student to choose what they would like to learn next instead of setting them on a predefined learning path.

Adapted Assessment

Adaptive learning may also include adapted assessments, which change the type of questions or difficulty of questions in an assessment based on a students' responses. This acts as an effective benchmarking tool to understand a student's progress.

Communication & Collaboration

Adaptive learning may also take place by offering the teacher or administrator actionable insight to know when a student may require additional instruction or support, as well as providing resource materials for this assistance. Teachers, students and administrators may also be able to set target goals, progress scales for the class or individual students, or prescribe additional content for individual students, classes or grade levels.

Benefits of Adaptive Learning

There are many benefits of this style of learning to students, teachers, and administrators, including:

More effective learning. Every student learns differently and at different paces. Adaptive learning helps to nurture each students' unique needs for a more effective learning environment.

Improves engagement. Learning paths are specifically designed for each individual student, helping to increase practice opportunities for those who need extra help or accelerate learning for students who advance more quickly. This helps students stay engaged with learning as it matches their individual pace.

Increased scalability. Adapting curriculum to better fit each students' unique needs is an ideal in education, but is typically impossible for instructors to manually sustain. Using technology to support a more adaptive learning environment makes the process infinitely more scalable and sustainable.

Learning.com's EasyTech keyboarding program utilizes adaptive learning for an effective, engaging learning environment for K-12 students. Learn more about this program by clicking the button below.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
What is Adaptive Learning & Why Does it Matter? | Learning.com

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Adaptive learning is personalizing learning experiences for each individual learner. Here's what to know & why it matters for students.

# data[].attributes.headline
Learning Trend: Metacognitive Support Tools

# data[].attributes.subject
Learning Trend: Metacognitive Support Tools

# data[].attributes.body
Learning Theory: Cognitivism

Metacognitive Support Tools: Digital tools can provide support for metacognitive processes, such as self-regulation, reflection, and goal-setting. Learning management systems (LMS) may include features like progress tracking, goal-setting tools, and self-assessment quizzes to help students monitor their own learning progress and adjust their study strategies accordingly. This includes mastery trackers via Google Forms or Google Docs. Students assess their own mastery of content and concepts.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Teachers can empower students to recognize their strengths by offering them activities that guide them to reflect on their learning.

Metacognition, the higher-order thinking that enables understanding, analysis, and control of one's cognitive processes, especially when engaged in learning-or more simply put, evaluating how one thinks and learns -helps students develop an understanding of their own strengths and weaknesses and the strategies that are most useful in specific situations. This self-awareness promotes knowledge and optimizes understanding, memory, and independent learning skills.

Students learn more efficiently and sustain motivation to persevere through setbacks when they understand and use strategies that brought them prior success. They recognize and avoid those that were previously unproductive. Metacognition can build these learning skills and empower students to be their own guides in subsequent learning and in life beyond school.

Provide multiple opportunities to practice the metacognitive processes, making the unconscious conscious, as they examine their learning experiences.

Explain to students why you're teaching them a new strategy or having them use a previously practiced one. Students can learn more independently and confidently when aware of strategies used to bring them success.

After a successful activity, especially if it was in an area where they hadn't been successful previously, ask what they did differently and have them write down the strategy they used.

Create a journal of successful strategies, including predictions about when these might be used for future challenges and applied to other subjects.

When reading or reviewing their notes, have students predict the information they think will be on the test. After the test, have them revisit their predictions and note what they specifically considered when their predictions were accurate. How will they apply these prediction guides when preparing for future tests?

There are a few things teachers can do to foster metacognition:

Questions to Guide Self-Evaluation and Reflection

What was easy and what was most difficult?

What strategies or experiences were most helpful to my understanding of the topic?

What did I do that was the best use of my time?

What outcome improvement did I notice?

What approaches were most valuable to my understanding and test success (e.g., rereading, study groups, practice tests, rewriting notes in a different way)?

What did I try that I'd do again?

What would I do differently next time?

Guide students to consider the questions below when they succeed in an assignment or learning goal. Provide encouragement when they recognize success accomplished by reviewing, revising, or relearning instead of being satisfied with just "getting it done."

Provide guidance and opportunities for learners to build their top-down attention focus skills. Attention focus metacognition is promoted by self-awareness-recognizing the pulls on attention. This involves prioritizing the array of sensory information as to what is most important and using blocking strategies to resist the distractions.

Do slow observations and actions: have a balloon-toss, examine an object considering how it might impact multiple senses (how might this leaf, cube, map location... sound, smell, feel, move?).

Do a web search, homework, or research without following distracting tangents. Guide students to copy and paste the attractive links they want to follow into a separate list to visit later. This relieves their feelings of needing to do it now for fear of missing out.

Attention focus requires distraction inhibition. Guided practice can help students build their control of what information is accepted through their attention filters and block their impulses to attend to distracting information. Use activities that build distraction inhibition and incorporate guided metacognition, so that students recognize how to apply these strategies to enhance their attention focus.

Participate in noncredit, self-corrected timed quizzes under a variety of conditions to recognize their attentive strengths and challenges.

Self-evaluate their attention outcomes doing defined tasks in optimal conditions versus a range of distracting noises-turn on a radio, keep dropping books, have a colleague come in and talk about "students," or interrupt with jokes.

After students have formed an awareness of the impact of distractions, they can develop and share strategies to inhibit their effects.

Students can self-evaluate their distraction response. Provide them with opportunities to do the following:

For a practical example, teachers can incorporate in lesson plans a time and place for students to create and build a metacognition list of strategies they found beneficial in their learning and understanding.

Opportunities for this self-evaluation can include having students use metacognition to recognize best approaches to solving word problems. This isn't the same as students finding different approaches to manipulate the numbers in a specific problem, such as whether they used a decimal or a fraction to calculate a percentage. In math strategy metacognition, students consider and share the overall approach they took to assess and arrange the information in a word or situation problem to yield success.

Their different approaches and the respective problems can be collected in a class list called "Our Math Strategies."

Did you leave questions unfinished at the end? If so, do you think you knew the answers to some of them? Did you skip more difficult questions along the way so that you could've gotten to the last questions (and gone back to the others as time allowed)? In other words, did you get the most points for their time spent?

Were any of your errors due to not following instructions? What could you do next time, such as underlining key words in instructions and rereading them before answering the questions?

Were mistakes made because you didn't review sections of the test material, didn't focus on the information you were given about what the test would cover, or didn't ask for help to understand items you knew would be on the test but were confused about?

What predictions did you make about the test that were correct?

After students receive their homework or tests back with the errors noted, consider not putting a grade on the paper initially, but rather giving students time to evaluate their errors and consider future alternatives. Following their self-evaluations, invite class discussions of the same questions, such as these:

Unless students are given time to go over their test results and read your comments, they may never do so. To assure that process, ask students to respond to your comments in writing, remark on the patterns of their errors, and then return the assignments or tests to you.

Tests or corrected assignments returned soon after they're completed are especially valuable when students recognize what they were confused about before going too far into the next unit that builds on this preceding information.

To move beyond a process that might cause students to feel criticized or defensive, you can ask them to first respond to your positive comments, recognize their own successes, and write down what they did to achieve these. Then, your written responses or discussions will be enhanced when you respond to their insights about what didn't work, what promoted their successes, and how they will apply these strategies to their goals in the future.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
How Metacognition Can Improve Learning Outcomes

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Teachers can empower students to recognize their strengths by offering them activities that guide them to reflect on their learning.

# data[].attributes.body
Learning Theory: Cognitivism
Assistive technology aligns with cognitivist learning theory by supporting learners' cognitive processes and managing cognitive load. Through personalized instruction, scaffolding, and accessibility features, assistive technology enhances learning experiences and addresses individual student cognitive needs.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Easy Ways to Bring Assistive Technology Into Your Classroom

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Free or low-cost tools can help all students—with and without learning differences—better access course content.

# data[].attributes.headline
Learning Trend: Project Based Learning (PBL)

# data[].attributes.subject
Learning Trend: Project Based Learning (PBL)

# data[].attributes.body
Learning Theory: Constructivism

Project-Based Learning (PBL): PBL involves students working on projects that require critical thinking, problem-solving, and collaboration to solve real-world problems. This trend encourages active learning, autonomy, and the construction of knowledge through hands-on experiences.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
contributed by Katre Laan

The rise of technology used in classrooms has made learning much more interactive.

A decade ago, the emergence of iPads as an essential project-based learning tool. Today, there is a slew of tools available for teachers and students. Even the current trends in education include the use of new technology, from collaborative projects to examples of blended learning to old-school traditional textbook teaching executed with new and innovative tools.

For students, the core aim of project-based learning is to put theory into practice and gain new skills throughout the process. From prioritizing tasks to managing sources and summarizing concepts, they will be developing skills for life. As well as using interactive tools in group project helps students to grasp a better understanding of a concept.

A major advantage of digital tools used is better engagement in the classroom. For students it's the curiosity, for teachers it's a great tool to work with, to inspire and grade student work! A major advantage is that digital tools enable students and teachers to see the result immediately and make necessary changes within the tool and the project.

Browser-based tools and several apps used in education are especially useful for researching, storytelling, and collaborative video making. The aim of these tools is to encourage students to approach a task by asking open-ended questions and develop a concept of a task. They also enhance personalized learning, where students discover their own strengths, whether it is analyzing and mapping out ideas, research, or even editing.

Handy mobile devices allow students to be inspired when outside the classroom by creating and sharing ideas and creations instantly. The benefit of some of the tools is that they accommodate different approaches to projects. Whether the end result is a presentation, telling stories on an interactive timeline, or a visual board. Some apps can be useful in many ways.

Especially in the case of project-based learning, the passive 'teacher tells students' teaching has turned to a more 'hands-on' approach with students finding the best ways to present their own results. In small groups, they will be delegated tasks and feed ideas to one other. In collaborative projects, students have a chance to enhance their skills in communication, critical thinking, productivity, and problem-solving.

Here is a mini-guide to some of the project-based learning tools.

There are several project-based learning tools that teachers can use to help their students engage in hands-on, experiential learning.
1. Google Classroom
Google Classroom is a digital classroom manager that aims to simplify creating, distributing, and grading assignments. With Google Classroom, teachers can create online classrooms, distribute assignments, post announcements, and start discussions within the class.

Google Classroom is integrated with other Google apps, such as Google Docs, Sheets, Slides, and Forms, so teachers and students can share and collaborate on documents in real-time. Teachers can create assignments, set deadlines, and grade assignments from within Google Classroom. Students can turn in assignments, ask questions, and receive feedback from their teacher, all within the same platform.
2. Edmodo
This platform provides a secure online environment where teachers can manage class discussions, assignments, quizzes and polls.

Edmodo can be an effective tool for project-based learning (PBL) because it offers a variety of features that allow teachers and students to collaborate, share resources, and communicate effectively throughout the project.

Here are some ways Edmodo can work in project-based learning:

Edmodo allows students to work collaboratively on projects. Teachers can create project groups, where students can share ideas, ask questions, and collaborate on project tasks.

Feedback and assessment can also be improved with Edmodo, as it allows teachers to provide feedback to students on their work, which is essential in project-based learning. Teachers can grade assignments, provide comments, and give feedback on student progress.

Edmodo provides a platform for teachers and students to communicate throughout the project. Teachers can provide guidance, answer questions, and provide feedback in real-time, while students can share updates on their progress and ask for help as needed.

Edmodo can also be used for students to reflect on their project experience. Teachers can encourage students to reflect on their learning, what worked well, and what they could improve upon for future projects.It can be a valuable tool for project-based learning because it promotes collaboration, communication, resource sharing, feedback, and reflection.
3. Trello
Trello can help students in project-based learning by providing a visual and collaborative platform for organizing and tracking project tasks and progress.

As a project-based learning tools, its boards and cards can help students or teachers manage project tasks. Teachers can create a Trello board for each project and create cards for each task that needs to be completed. Students can then be added to the board and assigned specific tasks, which they can move from one stage to another (such as 'to do,' 'in progress,' and 'done') as they complete underlying activities and lesson items in their project.

Trello's visual interface also makes it easy for students to see the big picture of the project and understand their role in it. In a perfect world, students would use Trello to set deadlines for tasks, add comments and attachments to cards, and communicate with other group members about their progress but in many cases, that tight integration may be beyond their skill, or overkill for the project-based activities.
4. Padlet
Like Trello, Padlet is a digital bulletin board, useful for sharing ideas and collaborating on projects, whether teacher to students or student to student.
5. Canva
This tool allows students to create visually engaging presentations and graphics. It also has short videos and projects can be easily organized in folders.
6. Kahoot
This game-based learning platform allows teachers to create quizzes and other interactive learning activities, making it useful as a project-based learning tool for students to practice skills necessary to successfully complete activities in a PBL unit.
7. Scratch
Scratch is another potential project-based learning tool used in the right context. It is a free programming platform that allows students to create many products, including interactive stories, games, and animations.
8. Minecraft Education Edition
This massively popular game also can act as a project-based learning tool. Using a game-based approach to learning, students can use skills and concepts in math, social studies, architecture, literature and more making Minecraft a useful tool for teaching a variety of subjects while being a natural technology took to engage students.

See also What Teachers Can Learn From Minecraft
9. Nearpod
This platform allows teachers to create interactive presentations and quizzes that engage students in real-time.
10. Flip
Flip (formerly FlipGrid) is a tool to make short videos that can be used for video-based interaction between students. This video discussion platform is a great way for students to collaborate and share ideas, or brainstorming together at any stage of the project-based learning process.
11. Mindmeister
As the name suggests, this tool is great for mapping out ideas. A good way to start a project is by asking driving questions like what is the essence of a project? It's great for collaborative brainstorming in project planning and analyzing concepts. Flip is available for free in the Apple Store, and for Android users.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
10 Essential Tools For Better Project-Based Learning

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The rise of technology used in classrooms has made learning much more interactive. Here are 11 tools for better project-based learning.