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A 14th-century French illumination depicts a class in philosophy. (Wikimedia Commons)

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Medieval schooling included heavy lessons in Latin and training for taking jobs in the church. Recitations and furious notetaking during lectures were the common methods of learning.

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1776: Abigail Adams Calls for More Education for Women 

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1776: Abigail Adams Calls for More Education for Women 

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Colonial women in America received limited education as it pertained to their traditional duties. Around the time of the revolution, young women started to learn reading and writing as they had pass this knowledge to their children. Women were limited on what they could learn and how they could advance in society beyond being a wife and mother.

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This is a visual example of the counter-narratives and groups of people that may have been left out of the conversation on higher education during the 1860s  Photo credit: Dr. Vital PPT (Week 7) 

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(OPTIONS FOR DEPTH)

Notable People:

Events:

Legacy:

Implications for the current/future state of Higher Education:

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Oberlin College pioneered "the joint education of the sexes," enrolling women students beside men from its opening in 1833. While the first women took classes with men, they pursued diplomas from the Ladies Course. In 1837, four women enrolled in the Collegiate Department, and in 1841, three graduated.

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Following Oberlin, several women's colleges were founded in the mid-19th century to offer higher education to women in an environment that was considered more "appropriate" than coeducation. Founded by Mary Lyon, the school aimed to provide women with an education equivalent to that of men, emphasizing science and mathematics, which were typically considered male domains.

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In 1848, The Seneca Falls Convention played a critical role in advocating for expanded educational opportunities for women. Activists such as Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott argued that education was a fundamental right that should be available to women as well as men. From this point on, education became a core part of the broader push for women's equality, alongside suffrage and property rights.

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Dartmouth Case 1819 -  Supreme Court ruling that established Dartmouth College as a private institution and made it unconstitutional  to impair, interfere or break contracts.

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Dartmouth Case 1819 -  Supreme Court ruling that established Dartmouth College as a private institution and made it unconstitutional  to impair, interfere or break contracts.

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Private schools vs public schools.

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The Coming Crisis in Higher Education and Using History to Promote Reflection: A Model for Reframing Student Affairs Practice

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The Coming Crisis in Higher Education and Using History to Promote Reflection: A Model for Reframing Student Affairs Practice

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Higher education has been in crisis regularly through most of our history. And it likely always will be.

Focused and rooted on diversity: when it started, why it started and how it started.

Still an issue with modern day times such as news about lack of diversity in recent employment due to the end of Affirmative Action.

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Group of Spelman College graduates posing in front of a campus building, 1893.

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Fraternities were in many ways emblematic of the high collegiate era of the late 1800s and continue into today's culture and student life. They started relatively small and tended to congregate in rented rooms, but in the 1870s they acquired their own residential chapter houses. After 1890, some fraternities entered a more opulent age, characterized by impressive, custom-built houses and larger memberships. Although a popular area of student life, fraternities have received scrutiny throughout their existance for their secrecy, exclusiveness, snobbery, hedonism, and disregard of academics. Very prestige of fraternities consisted in leaving out the majority.

Fraternities were integral to the college ethos, supported and often praised by unviersity presidents, who themselves were graduates and brothers. Fraternity membership peaked in the 1920s, when about one-third of male students at western public universities belonged to fraternities, and perhaps 20 to 25 percent of women were in sororities.

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Exclusion from early student activities 

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Exclusion from early student activities 

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Horowitz describes the student life taking shape in the late 1800s and early 1900s. Even though student life (and sports) were quickly gathering speed, they were not for everyone. Jewish, African American, and female students were excluded from all of these activities.

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Page 1 and 2 of the Harvard 1879-80 Course Bulletin

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This is an example of the combination classical education requirements and the elective studies that started appearing in the 19th Century.

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"Wood engraved print of female medical students attending an anatomy lecture at New York Medical College for Women, 1870"

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1870: New York Medical College for Women

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1870: New York Medical College for Women

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Women could earn degrees and learn subjects beyond the humanities and the domestic. #womeninstem

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In 1926, seven women's colleges came together to form their own consortium (Barnard, Bryn Mawr, Mount Holyoke, Smith, Radcliffe, Vassar, and Wellesley). Their goal was to overcome the challenges they faced in raising funds for their endowment, especially to increase the salaries of their professors to be equal to elite men's institutions. In addition to financial stability, the consortium resulted in annual meetings between the schools and discuss current issues in higher education.

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Anthony Wood's "Riot at Oxford" 1354: several injuries and deaths due to riots at Oxford, due to not having their own exclusive buildings.

Still an issue with modern times such as schools pushing out communities to grow their university campus. E.g - Northeastern and Roxbury

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The first college football team was established in New Jersey in 1869. At the same(ish) time, land grant universities were blooming. These schools were more agriculturally focused and appealed to a wider array of the population including more rural students as well as less wealthy individuals. They were overall more accessible. These days, the former land grant universities make up some of the largest football teams in terms of monetary value and viewership.

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A major turning point in U.S. education policy, Title IX prohibited gender discrimination in educational institutions, leading to a massive increase in women’s participation in higher education and sports.

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A new model for Oxford University includes residence halls built and owned by the university. This is put in place to create a buffer between “Town” and “Gown” and in response to the riot of 1354. We see this as the model for centralized organization of residence halls. Fast forward to now almost every school has a residence life department and on-campus staff to support and oversee students that live in residence halls.

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14th Amendment & Equal Protection Clause 

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14th Amendment & Equal Protection Clause 

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granting citizenship to all people born or naturalized in the US; no state can deny rights of equal protection under the law to any person - including protections within the classroom

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1908: Supreme Court upholds Kentucky Day Law

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1908: Supreme Court upholds Kentucky Day Law

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Following the Civil War, the considerable black population at Berea College aggravated white students. Supreme court upheld the state's right to prohibit the operation of integrated schools in Berea College v. Kentucky and extended Plessy v. Ferguson. Later reconsidered in the 1954 case Brown v. Board of Education, Topeka.

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A great example of the lack of student support services in the history of higher education were the Blue Skins Group incidents from 1822 to 1826. They reported the vandalism incidents that occurred at St. Mary's College but were completely dismissed. Faculty members ignored these students which were part of an underrepresented group as they were already going through negative experiences. There was a lack of student support which caused distress amongst the students. Students were not able to trust their professors and confide in them.

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The evolution of technology influences how instruction has developed in higher education. Examples of inventions:

1440s - Printing press

1890 - Chalkboard

1920s - Radio

1930 Overhead projectors

1951 - Videotapes

1959 - Photocopier (access to mass production of materials)

1972 - Handheld calculator

1968 - First online course

1990 - Internet

2002 - Recorded lectures are available

2006 - Youtube

2011 - Zoom

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"Compromise of 1877 -  The Democrats agreed not to block Hayes’ victory on the condition that Republicans withdraw all federal troops from the South, thus consolidating Democratic control over the region. As a result of the so-called Compromise of 1877 (or Compromise of 1876), Florida, Louisiana, and South Carolina became Democratic once again, effectively bringing an end to the Reconstruction era. Thus initiating the Jim Crow laws of segregation – Legal racial segregation. were meant to marginalize African Americans by denying them the right to vote, hold jobs, get an education, or other opportunities. Those who attempted to defy Jim Crow laws often faced arrest, fines, jail sentences, violence and death."

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Theoretical Influences and Historical Determinants in Student Affairs 

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Theoretical Influences and Historical Determinants in Student Affairs 

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Reason & Kimball's Theory-to-Practice is a foundational aspect of Student Affairs and thinking about Student Development by using history as a tool to learn more about our students as individuals and at a large to create spaces and groups. We see this implemented through student organizations and clubs, affinity groups and creating space spaces for students to come when they have issues.

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The Abolitionist Movement

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Philadelphia's Bible Riots of 1844 reflected a strain of anti-Catholic bias and hostility that coursed through 19th-century America. Granger Collection, New York

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Classical Higher Eduction Curriculum: The Sophists and the Philosophers 

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Classical Higher Eduction Curriculum: The Sophists and the Philosophers 

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Early higher education curriculum began in Ancient Greece (c. 428-399 BCE) through the teachings of the Sophists, professional educators who charged a fee for education. Curriculum included morality, art of logical argument (dialectic) and the art of persuasive speaking (rhetoric), as well as language, literature, philosophy, art and architecture, history and culture. Other pivotal events in early higher educatiopn include Plato and the establishment of the Academy, and the school established by Isocrates. The Classical curriculum would lay the foundation for Western higher education.

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In 1850, Francis Wayland proposed a "New Curriculum" (the predecessor to the Open Curriculum that we see today at 12 colleges such as Brown, Amherst College, University of Rochester, and Smith College). Wayland proposed that "students choose what every student might study what he chose, all that he chose, and nothing but what he chose." The new curriculum did not succeed but did return as a curriculum model in the 1960s.

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Jewish Students Facing Discrimination & Targeted Admissions Policy Changes

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Jewish Students Facing Discrimination & Targeted Admissions Policy Changes

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By 1911, the newest senior society unanimously voted “That Jews should be denied recognition at Yale.” Such attitudes reflected a national trend in Yale’s social base but apparently did not affect classroom treatment. However, it signaled the hardening of social lines at colleges and universities, especially after 1900. This also distinguished the high collegiate era from the late collegiate era.

After 1900, the elite of the legal profession, represented in the American Bar Association and the AALS, became increasingly alarmed by the influx into the profession of less-well-educated lawyers from urban proprietary schools, especially the large numbers of immigrants and Jews. New admissions policies allowed elite universities to discriminate against ethnic minorities, particularly Jews. Efforts to solve the "Jewish problem."

In the 1920s many of the leading universities and colleges decided that rising numbers of Jewish students upset the social life of their institutions and sought ways to restrict their matriculation. The new admissions practices—making character a requirement for all students—provided a means that did not explicitly target a single group. Hence, they served to mask anti-Semitism. Part of a broader agenda aimed at shaping the community life of students. Believed that Jewish students were more deceitful and less honorable than their Protestant counterparts. Thought they would interfere diverse student population.

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BC’s Solution to LGBTQ+ Demands Gets Tepid Response

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BC’s Solution to LGBTQ+ Demands Gets Tepid Response

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Boston College students demanded for LGBTQ acceptance in their college, they were placed in the multicultural center and rejected a proposal for asking for a physical space and staff that be a supportive system for their students.

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1925-1927: Students protested against Fisk University's President McKenzie after he was seeking endowments from Northern foundations that were sympathetic to his views. President McKenzie attempted to repress student initiative, undermine equalitarian spirit, and control thinking on race relations to produce a class of black intellectuals that would accept racial hierarchy.

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Supreme Court case declared racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional.

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EnlargeDownload Link Citation: Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Opinion; May 17, 1954; Records of the Supreme Court of the United States; Record Group 267; National Archives. View All Pages in the National Archives Catalog View Transcript In this milestone decision, the Supreme Court ruled that separating children in public schools on the basis of race was unconstitutional. It signaled the end of legalized racial segregation in the schools of the United States, overruling the “separate but equal” principle set forth in the 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson case. On May 17, 1954, U.S.

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During the reformations that happened amid the 20th century a focus on faculty shaping the “whole person” and the “students character”. Faculty as advisors and a shift of dorms being central to the college community also was important. A shift of focus from just transcripts to essays as well.

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Fisk University protested against oppressive campus policies and racial discrimination, linking their fight for educational freedom to broader social justice movements and the New Negro Movement, demanding an education free from prejudice and advocating for self-determined, culturally relevant learning environments.

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Education, Liberation & Black Radical Traditions for the 21st Century

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In 1917, there were 2132 black students enrolled at the HBCUs (historically black colleges and universities). At this point in time, the HBCUs, Oberlin, and Talledega are the only schools that accepted black college students. In 1927, there were 13,580 and these greater numbers meant greater demands for social justice. 1917-1927 represents a period of black student protest that ultimately reshaped the college experience of the early 20th century.

Black college student protest in the 1920s was most often in response to strict dress and behavior codes. Colleges made these rules because the whites in control considered blacks "too savage." Needless to say, black students were enraged and had a host of black political figures, ideas, and movements on their side: the demands of black soldiers returning home from WWI, the Marcus Garvey Movement and the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA), the Harlem Renaissance, new voting trends (one out of four Harlem voters chose the Socialist ticket in the 1920 elections), new black businesses and institutions such as the NAACP and Urban League, and a new black press (featuring publications like African Times and Orient Review, Messenger, Negro World, Crusader, Negro Voice, Challenge, and Crisis.) Black College students had an important political presence in the 1920s and came to function as one of the most significant aspects of what was then called the New Negro Movement, also known as the Harlem Renaissance. In fact, scholars have argued that black college students actually considered themselves THE NEW NEGROES.

These videos provide some context to this history:

Black college students in the 1920s saw their battles for a critical education on college campus as part of the larger fight for black rights. An example of the pulse of the moment might be best captured by three articles from the policy statement of Marcus Garvey's UNIA in 1920 called "The Declaration of the Rights of the Negro Peoples of the World."

Article 30 demands an education that is prejudice-free for blacks as the only way to ensure prosperity.

Article 31 stands firmly against a majority white teaching force, called alien teachers, who are believed to inadvertently and deliberately teach that Negroes are inferior.

Article 49 demands that Negro children be taught Negro history for the sole purpose of their benefit.

These three articles are almost like a blueprint for 1920s black students' challenges to higher education and very clearly relate to the demands of 1950 and 1960s protesters in modules III and IV. Black students at Fisk, Howard, Lincoln, and Hampton Universities forwarded new race relations and discourses on U.S. college campuses.

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Fisk University stands out as an example of the power of black students and communities to reclaim their education, no matter the costs to them. When the young white president, McKenzie, became the fourth chief executive officer of Fisk University in 1915, he had no idea what was coming and was forced out of the presidency by dissident black students and alumnae who were furious about his supra-genteel dress code, requirements to sing old-time spirituals at Jim Crow concerts, and suppression of the campus newspaper. In November and December of 1924, the students took things in their own hands and brought in a brand new year in 1925. According to one of the deans, the students broke curfew and bum-rushed buildings, breaking windows and overturning chairs, all while keeping up a steady chant of "DuBois! DuBois!" Their other popular chant based on their collective memories and rhetorics from an African American spiritual included: "Before I'll be a slave, I'll be buried in my grave."

The claim of students to prefer burial than the slavery of higher education's learning was not simply clever word-play but a promise to create a new future for themselves with education. Remember, their parents' and grandparents' generation would have witnessed slavery. President McKenzie responded to them with brute force and had the Nashville police arrest seven random students for inciting a riot even though two of them were not even on campus that day. The black community of Nashville as well as black alumnae did not support McKenzie's decision, especially his use of a racist, white police force against black students. 2500 people from the black community of Nashville attended a church gathering the next day to condemn McKenzie's decision. The students themselves were incensed by McKenzie's decision, boycotted classes for ten weeks, and applied to Howard University en masse. The administration, trying to downplay the boycott, even acknowledged that half of the students were still boycotting classes after five weeks. The students of course insisted that this percentage was much higher. When McKenzie insisted that local merchants not cash students' checks to leave Nashville, black bookkeepers cashed the students' checks with their own monies.

Though McKenzie certainly did have a hold on Nashville at one time, it did not last long after the student protest: he was gone from Fisk by April of 1925. An administrative committee was appointed to direct the university and they immediately allowed for a new student newspaper and placed Fisk alumnae on the board of trustees. Suspended students were readmitted to the college, the athletics and fraternity and sorority system were allowed back on campus, and a student council was given responsibility for matters of dress codes. When a white clergyman, Thomas Elsa Jones, was appointed as the new Fisk president, the editors of the student newspaper promised their cooperation to President Jones as long as he adhered to what they wanted, what you might call a professional way of proclaiming: don't start none, won't be none. Jones's acceptance of his new job, thus, required him to honor the wishes of African American students who changed the content and character of college education in the 1920s.
In this part of the workshop, we will work with the language and rhetoric of the chants that students used in their protests.

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Module I: “Before I’ll Be a Slave, I’ll Be Buried in My Grave”: Early Black Student Protest and Fisk University (1920s) - Education, Liberation & Black Radical Traditions for the 21st Century

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This page looks at black student activism in the 1920s with Fisk University as the model and is part of a community workshop.

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Primary and Secondary Education in the Black Community (early 1900s) 

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Primary and Secondary Education in the Black Community (early 1900s) 

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Black communities organized, funded, and provided their own education infrastructure in the early 1900s. Teaching institutions such as the Tuskegee institute helped train teachers, local communities built school houses, and everyone raised money to help support education. While there was some support from philanthropic groups, it was not without caveats. Often times it only went towards vocational education, not college preparatory work. They also faced resistance from White Southerners, they feared that an education Black population would threaten the current power structures.

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Based on Chapter 8: Administrative Order: critics who argued against students choosing their elective courses claimed that students are choosing courses that do not relate to their future careers. Elmil Wilm of Harvard was one of these critics.

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File:Emil Carl Wilm - 1912.jpg - Wikipedia

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especially on HBCUs

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Introduction of freshman orientation programs in the 1920s. These programs, developed at universities like the University of Chicago, University of Michigan, University of California, and Yale, aimed to help new students adjust to the academic, social, and moral aspects of college life.

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Pharmacy students at Howard University, c. 1900.

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In 1928 an accreditation body first recognized HBCUs and considered them for accreditation. However, they were in a separate category for them instead of them being judged in the same category of PWIs. During this time there was a struggle to raise funding and convince wealthy philanthropists to donate to HBCUs and not getting accredited would make it harder for them get funding.