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HISTORY SMASHERS CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS & THE TAINO PEOPLE

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Native Americans Before European Colonization

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Native Americans Before European Colonization

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Native Americans Before European Colonization - U.S. History for Kids!

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Many students learn the phrase, "In 1492, Columbus sailed the ocean blue". But Columbus was not the first foreign explorer to land in the Americas. Neither he nor those that came before him discovered America-because Indigenous Peoples have populated the Western Hemisphere for tens of thousands of years. European contact resulted in devastating loss of life, disruption of tradition, and enormous loss of lands for Indigenous Peoples in the Americas. It is estimated that in the 130 years following first contact, Native America lost 95 percent of its population.

Indigenous Peoples of the Western Hemisphere immediately experienced enslavement and theft of resources by the explorers turned settlers. Colonies created by the Portuguese, Spanish, French, Dutch, and English grew throughout the Americas and increasingly encroached upon Native lives and lands. Warfare, enslavement, and forced relocation disrupted and altered the lives of Indigenous Peoples in the Americas. Celebrating Columbus and other explorers like him dismisses the devastating losses experienced by Indigenous Peoples of the Western Hemisphere in the past and the ongoing effects of colonialism today.

Indigenous Peoples are still here. Contemporary Native Americans have led numerous movements to advocate for their own rights. Native people continue to fight to maintain the integrity and viability of Indigenous societies. American Indian history is one of cultural persistence, creative adaptation, renewal, and resilience. Native Peoples, students, and allies are responsible for official celebrations of Indigenous Peoples' Day in such states as Maine, Oregon, Louisiana, New Mexico, Iowa, and Washington, DC. Indigenous Peoples' Day is celebrated on the second Monday of October and recognizes the resilience and diversity of Indigenous Peoples in the United States.

We promote including Indigenous perspectives, like those of the Taíno Peoples, to provide a more complete narrative when teaching about Columbus. We encourage students to advocate for Indigenous Peoples' Day as a replacement for Columbus Day in their school, city, state, and beyond.

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Native Knowledge 360°-Unlearning Columbus Day Myths: Celebrating Indigenous Peoples' Day

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NK360° Helpful Handouts: Guidance on Common Questions provide a brief introduction to teachers about important topics regarding Native American life, cultures, and communities. Native Life and Food: Food Is More Than Just What We Eat explores Indigenous relationships with food. #NK360

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Indigenous People & Settler Colonialism | Dartmouth Libraries

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Like that of the nation, the founding and history of Dartmouth College is inextricably linked to the ideologies and practices of settler colonialism. The aim of settler colonialism is to replace the original population of a colonized territory—along with that population’s beliefs and practices—with the settler society.

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An interactive online resource that allows students to track the journeys of famous European explorers, with photos, videos, and interesting facts along the way.

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National Geographic Maps hub including map products and stories about maps and mapmaking

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An interactive timeline that helps students understand the chronology of European exploration, with videos and primary sources to enhance learning.

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Age of Encounter | Explorers and Navigators | PBS LearningMedia

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By the late 15th century Europe was in the midst of the Renaissance, the cultural rebirth that had followed the Middle Ages. This same period was also the Age of Encounter, a time when explorers from Italy, Spain, Portugal, and England set out to find easier trade routes to China and India.

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A kid-friendly website with articles about various European explorers, their voyages, and discoveries. Includes quizzes and activities to test knowledge.

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Kids learn about the biography and life of various world explorers from Columbus to Neil Armstrong.

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A collection of animated videos about different European explorers with accompanying quizzes and activities. Requires a subscription but many schools have access.

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BrainPOP - Animated Educational Site for Kids - Science, Social Studies, English, Math, Arts & Music, Health, and Technology

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This educational initiative provides teachers and students with new perspectives on Native American history and cultures. The website offers lesson plans, interactive digital lessons, and educational videos.

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Native Knowledge 360° | Smithsonian National Museum of the American Indian

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Educational resources, lesson plans, teacher training, and strategies to support positive change! Native Knowledge 360° is a national initiative to inspire and promote improved teaching and learning about Native America. #NK360

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Native American Leaders: A Timeline | HISTORY

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Since the arrival of European settlers, leadership for America’s Indigenous peoples has disproportionately involved fighting to exist.

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This picture book gently introduces the topic of residential schools through a conversation between a young girl and her grandmother. It's a sensitive entry point to discussing this difficult history.

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You Weren't Supposed To See This Drawing

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You Weren't Supposed To See This Drawing

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You Weren't Supposed To See This Drawing

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What You Need to Know About the Aztec Empire

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What You Need to Know About the Aztec Empire

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The Spain – Aztec Mexico Encounter | Civilizations

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The Spain – Aztec Mexico Encounter | Civilizations

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The Spain – Aztec Mexico Encounter | Civilizations | PBS LearningMedia

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This clip from PBS’ Civilizations presents the initial encounter between the Aztecs and Hernan Cortez’s Spanish army. Thinking Cortez might be the long-awaited god, Quetzalcoatl, Aztec chief Montezuma attempted to appease the Spaniards with gifts of art and treasure. The gesture only increased the Spaniards appetite for wealth, and the Aztecs were swiftly and brutally conquered. It seemed as though the Aztec’s artistic legacy would be all but obliterated. Catholic clergy moved in, tasked with squashing any semblance of Aztec religion. In an effort to monitor their new converts, Christian friars commissioned Aztec painters to create a series of books that detailed the everyday lives and rituals of the Aztecs. The images mirrored those of Christian rituals and Aztec rituals found their way into Christianity. Spain was also transformed by its conquest spiritually by a new artistic sensibility. Students should be able to answer the post-viewing questions in the support materials below after watching the segment, and will also be prepared to engage in a discussion about the irony of the Catholic Church attempting to eradicate traces of Aztec religion and culture while Christian friars inadvertently helped to preserve these traditions in their codices.

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Taíno Indians – The Lost Civilization of the Caribbean

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Magellan sailed from Spain in 1519 with five ships. He sailed across the Atlantic Ocean and down the coast of South America. In 1520 he found a passage to the ocean that the Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa had first seen in 1513. Magellan named it the Pacific Ocean. The passage, at the southern tip of South America, is now called the Strait of Magellan.

With three ships left, Magellan crossed the Pacific. After about 100 days he reached the islands now called the Philippines. On April 27, 1521, he was killed in a fight with the people of the islands.

After Magellan's death two of his ships continued westward. One ship made it across the Indian Ocean and around the southern tip of Africa. It returned to Spain on September 8, 1522.

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Ferdinand Magellan was an explorer from Portugal. He and his sailors were the first Europeans to cross the Pacific Ocean. One of his ships made the first trip around the...

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Kids learn about the biography and life of explorer Ferdinand Magellan. The first to sail around the world.

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Ferdinand Magellan- First Circumnavigation of the Earth

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Ferdinand Magellan- First Circumnavigation of the Earth

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Ferdinand Magellan  - First Circumnavigation of the Earth

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This is a complete biography of Ferdinand Magellan

Early Life

Ferdinand Magellan was born in Sabrosa, Portugal, in 1480 into a noble family. After serving as a court page for two years, his adventurous spirit led him to a career as an explorer. In 1506, Magellan went to the Spice Islands (Indonesia) to participate in several military and exploratory expeditions. In 1510, he was promoted to the rank of captain. In 1512, he was stationed in Morocco and made preliminary plans to find a western shortcut to the Spice Islands. Unfortunately, Portugal's king, Emmanuel, refused to finance his journey, and in 1517, Magellan renounced his Portuguese citizenship. He promptly offered his services to King Charles I of Spain. Charles I agreed to finance Magellan's trip in the hopes of becoming the king of the richest nation in the world.

Circumnavigation

On September 20, 1519, Magellan and 237 crew members set sail on five ships from Sanlucar de Barrameda in the hopes of finding a shortcut to the Spice Islands. After three long months of sailing the Atlantic, Magellan and his crew anchored near Rio de Janeiro in the present-day South American nation of Brazil. After trading with local natives, Magellan and his men quickly set sail again, ever worried about the threat of Portuguese ships. As the expedition continued, the weather got worse, and several crew members were executed for trying to take over the ship. Others were starving or suffering from frostbite. As the ships neared the southern tip of South America, one ship smashed into the beach and lost all supplies. Nevertheless, in October of 1520, Magellan and his crew crossed the treacherous straits at the tip of South America, which became known as the Straits of Magellan.

Magellan's Route

Trouble in the Pacific Ocean

As the expedition passed through the straits, they entered the vast Pacific Ocean. Things got worse before they got better. The crew suffered from extreme hunger and was forced to survive by eating rats, sawdust, leather, and even maggots. At least 20 men died from disease, particularly scurvy (caused by a lack of vitamin C) and starvation. On March 6, the ships finally reached land-the Pacific island of Guam. Nevertheless, the crew members were able to collect clean water and food, despite being on the alert for attacks by the natives. Soon, the crew sailed to the Philippine Islands, where they converted natives to Christianity. During an attempt to convert the native chief, Mactan, to Christianity, Magellan was wounded by an arrow that was driven through his foot by a native warrior. Mactan, who had become upset with Magellan's insistence that he convert, ordered his warriors to attack. They killed Magellan on April 27, 1521. Most of Magellan's crew escaped and set sail.

Famous Drawing of Magellan's Death

Return to Spain

With the loss of their leader, Juan Sebastian del Cano took control of the ship and sailed for Spain. Only two ships and 47 men remained. Portuguese forces captured one of the ships, leaving the Victoria as the only ship left. Severe storms and Portuguese attacks battered the Victoria. As Portuguese forces bore down on the expedition near the Cape Verde Islands, del Cano was forced to continue toward Spain without supplies or rest. Finally, on September 8, 1522, the Victoria made it back to Spain with only 18 men surviving, hence completing the first circumnavigation of the world.

Map Showing Landmarks Named by and for Magellan (Mare Pacificum; Frenum Magaliani)

Ferdinand Magellan Activities

Ferdinand Magellan Printable Activities Bundle - This packet contains all of the printable Ferdinand Magellan activities on mrnussbaum.com

Ferdinand Magellan Reading Comprehension - Printable - This resource includes a historical passage and seven multiple choice questions.

Ferdinand Magellan Reading Comprehension - Online This resource includes a historical passage and ten multiple choice questions. It gives immediate feedback. In addition, when you click the "listen" button, you can hear the passage while it highlights the text.

Sequencing the Life of Ferdinand Magellan - Printable - This fun activity requires students to read a Ferdinand Magellan passage and then, to sequence ten events of his life from earliest to latest

Scurvy Reading Comprehension - Printable - This resource includes a historical passage and seven multiple choice questions.

Scurvy Reading Comprehension - Online - This resource includes a historical passage and seven multiple choice questions. It gives immediate feedback. In addition, when you click the "listen" button, you can hear the passage while it highlights the text.

Scurvy, a Simple but Elusive Explanation Writing Prompt - This activity requires students to write about a modern mystery that they think will be solved by humans in the future - in the same way that the cause of Scurvy was a mystery for hundreds of years.

The Sick Ship - This activity explains common diseases that sailors contracted such as scurvy, yellow fever, cholera, typhoid, and others. It then requires students to play the role of a ship doctor and to diagnose sick sailors based on their symptoms.

Fact or Fiction - Printable - This fun activity requires students to read a Ferdinand Magellan passage and then, to sort 10 statements into those that are facts and those that are fiction.

Fact or Fiction - Online - This fun activity requires students to read a Ferdinand Magellan passage and then, to sort 10 statements into those that are facts and those that are fiction. It gives immediate feedback.

Ferdinand Magellan Correct-me Passage - This fun activity requires students to correct a passage about Ferdinand Magellan that has ten factual errors. Students first must discover the errors, then click on them and select the correct answer from the drop down menu.

Virtual History Teacher - Ferdinand Magellan - Students play the role of a virtual history teacher and must grade responses to three questions about Ferdinand Magellan. Each response is incomplete, and students must fill in the missing information in the "response" section. Students can use the Ferdinand Magellan biography for reference.

Ferdinand Magellan - Main Idea and Supporting Details - Below are three headings at the beginnings of paragraphs. Below the chart are the associated supporting detail sentences. Which sentences would appear under which heading? Use the numbers before the sentences so you don't have to write the entire sentence. Order matters!

Explorers Timeline - the Game - This fun and challenging game requires students to correctly order Age of Exploration events along the timeline. Very fun, but very challenging.

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This is a complete biography of Ferdinand Magellan Ferdinand Magellan was born in Sabrosa, Portugal, in 1480 into a noble family. After serving as a court page for two years, his adventurous spirit led him to a career as an explorer. In 1506, Magellan went to the Spice Islands (Indonesia) to participate in several military and exploratory expeditions.

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Ferdinand Magellan Facts

Ferdinand Magellan was born in 1480, although it is not certain whether he was born in Porta or Sabrosa, Portugal. He was born to parents of nobility, who died when Ferdinand Magellan was only 10 years old. He then became a page for the Queen and studied cartography, astrology and celestial navigation at Queen Leonora's School of Pages in Lisbon, Portugal. While in his mid-20s he sailed to East Africa with a fleet from Portugal. He was wounded in Morocco and as a result spent the rest of his life limping. He moved to Seville, Spain in 1517 after being denied further work from the Portuguese king due to a false accusation. In 1519 he set out on a voyage to prove the world was round. He died in 1521 but some of his crew returned to Spain in 1522, proving the world was round.

After his trip to East Africa the king of Portugal denied Ferdinand Magellan any further work because he had been accused of illegal trading. This was his reason for moving to Seville, Spain in 1517.

Ferdinand Magellan married Beatriz Barbosa and had a son with her.

Beatriz's father Diogo introduced Ferdinand Magellan to the Spanish court so he could tell them about his idea to set sail to prove the world was round.

Ferdinand Magellan's voyage was approved and financed by young King Charles I and on August 10th, 1519 he set sail with five ships of 270 men aboard.

The five ships on Ferdinand Magellan's voyage were the Trinidad, the San Antonio, the Santiago, the Conception, and the Victoria. Ferdinand Magellan's ship was the Trinidad.

There was a fabled passage said to cross South America without having to travel around Cape Horn. This was the route that Ferdinand Magellan wanted to find.

When the fleet reached San Julian off Patagonia's coast, Magellan's crew mutinied. Magellan regained control of his fleet and the voyage continued.

On October 21st, 1520 Magellan found the passage he had been searching for. It separates Tierra del Fuego from the southern tip of South America. It is a curvy narrow channel that was named after the explorer. It is called the Strait of Magellan.

It took a month to travel the 350 mile strait. The captain of the San Antonio did not complete the voyage. He turned around and went back to Spain.

In November of 1520 the fleet reached the Pacific Ocean, making them the first Europeans to ever see it. Magellan called it the Mar Pacifico.

Ferdinand Magellan and his crew did not have enough supplies for the voyage and they had to eat rats and sawdust on the trip in order to survive. Magellan had underestimated the size of the Pacific Ocean.

Magellan converted many of the natives at Cebu, in the Philippines to Christianity. Not all the natives converted and the Cebuans requested Magellan's help in battle against the Mactan people who refused to convert.

During the battle, Magellan was struck with a poison arrow. He had assumed that the European's weapons would ensure a victory.

On April 27th, 1521, Ferdinand Magellan died in Cebu in the Philippines as a result of the poison arrow.

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Ferdinand Magellan was born in 1480, although it is not certain whether he was born in Porta or Sabrosa, Portugal. He was born to parents of nobility, who died when Ferdinand Magellan was only 10 years old. He then became a page for the Queen and studied cartography, astrology and celestial navigation at Queen Leonora’s School of Pages in Lisbon, Portugal. While in his mid-20s he sailed to East Africa with a fleet from Portugal. He was wounded in Morocco and as a result spent the rest of his life limping. He moved to Seville, Spain in 1517 after being denied further work from the Portuguese king due to a false accusation. In 1519 he set out on a voyage to prove the world was round. He died in 1521 but some of his crew returned to Spain in 1522, proving the world was round.

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Look up Ferdinand Magellan on Sora!

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Where students read. Sora, the reading app for students, by OverDrive.

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Taino, Arawakan-speaking people who at the time of Christopher Columbus's exploration inhabited what are now Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola ( Haiti and the Dominican Republic), Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands. Once the most numerous indigenous people of the Caribbean, the Taino may have numbered one or two million at the time of the Spanish conquest in the late 15th century. They had long been on the defensive against the aggressive Carib people, who had conquered the Lesser Antilles to the east.

When they were first encountered by Europeans, the Taino practiced a high-yielding form of shifting agriculture to grow their staple foods, cassava and yams. They would burn the forest or scrub and then heap the ashes and soil into mounds that could be easily planted, tended, and irrigated. Corn (maize), beans, squash, tobacco, peanuts (groundnuts), and peppers were also grown, and wild plants were gathered. Birds, lizards, and small animals were hunted for food, the only domesticated animals being dogs and, occasionally, parrots used to decoy wild birds within range of hunters. Fish and shellfish were another important food source.

Traditional Taino settlements ranged from small family compounds to groups of 3,000 people. Houses were built of logs and poles with thatched roofs. Men wore loincloths and women wore aprons of cotton or palm fibres. Both sexes painted themselves on special occasions, and they wore earrings, nose rings, and necklaces, which were sometimes made of gold. The Taino also made pottery, baskets, and implements of stone and wood. A favourite form of recreation was a ball game played on rectangular courts. The Taino had an elaborate system of religious beliefs and rituals that involved the worship of spirits (s) by means of carved representations. They also had a complex social order, with a government of hereditary chiefs and subchiefs and classes of nobles, commoners, and slaves.

The Taino were easily conquered by the Spaniards beginning in 1493. Enslavement, starvation, and disease reduced them to a few thousand by 1520 and to near extinction by 1550. Those who survived mixed with Spaniards, Africans, and others. Taino culture was largely wiped out, although several groups claiming Taino descent gained visibility in the late 20th century, notably in Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. state of Florida. In 1998 the United Confederation of Taino People, which characterizes itself as an "Inter-Tribal authority," was created as an umbrella organization for the affirmation and restoration of Taino culture, language, and religion. Whereas the Taino are not officially recognized as a group by any governments, those who consider themselves Taino claim the right to self-determination.

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Taino, Arawakan-speaking people who at the time of Columbus's exploration inhabited what are now Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands. Once the most numerous indigenous people of the Caribbean, the Taino may have numbered one or two million at the time of the Spanish conquest.

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Whose History Matters? Students Can Name Columbus, But Most Have Never Heard of the Taíno People

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By Bill Bigelow This erasure of huge swaths of humanity is a fundamental feature of the school curriculum, but also of the broader mainstream political discourse. We usually think about the curriculum as what is taught in school. But as important — perhaps more important — is what is not taught, which includes the lives rendered invisible.

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Taíno - Native Heritage and Identity in the Caribbean

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Taíno - Native Heritage and Identity in the Caribbean

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The Arawak/Taíno were polytheists and their gods were called Zemi. The zemi controlled various functions of the universe, very much like Greek gods did, or like later Haitian Voodoo lwa. However, they do not seem to have had particular personalities like the Greek and Haitian gods/spirits do.

There were three primary religious practices:

Religious worship and obeisance to the zemi themselves

Dancing in the village court during special festivals of thanksgiving or petition

Medicine men, or priests, consulting the zemi for advice and healing. This was done in public ceremonies with song and dance

People had special dress for the ceremonies which included paint and feathers. From their knees on down they would be covered in shells. The shaman (medicine man or priests) presented the carved figures of the zemi. The cacique sat on wooden stool, a place of honor. (There are many surviving stone carvings of the cacique on his stool). There was a ceremonial beating of drums. People induced vomiting with a swallowing stick. This was to purge the body of impurities, both a literal physical purging and a symbolic spiritual purging. This ceremonial purging and other rites were a symbolic changing before zemi. Women served bread (a communion rite), first to zemi, then to the cacique followed by the other people. The sacred bread was a powerful protector (The interesting similarities between this ritual and the Christian practice of eucharist is obvious!). Finally came an oral history lesson - the singing of the village epic in honor of the cacique and his ancestors. As the poet recited he was accompanied by a maraca, a piece of hardwood which was beaten with pebbles.

There was an afterlife where the good would be rewarded. They would meet up with dead relatives and friends. Since most of the people they would meet in this paradise were women, it is curious to speculate if it was mainly women who were considered good, or if some other reason accounted for this division of the sexes in the afterlife.

There are many stone religious artifacts which have been found in Haiti. The zemi take on strange forms like toads, turtles, snakes, alligators and various distorted and hideous human faces.

The zemi, as well as dead caciques, have certain powers over the natural world and must be dealt with. Thus these various services are ways of acknowledging their power (worship and thanksgiving) and at the same time seeking their aid. Because of these powers there are many Arawak/Tanio stories which account for the origins of some experienced phenomena in myth and or magic. Several myths had to do with caves. The sun and moon, for example, came out of caves. Another story tells that the people lived in caves and only came out at night. One guard was supposed to watch carefully over people to be sure they were well divided in the land. However, one day he was late in returning and the sun caught him and turned him into a stone pillar.

Another Indian became angry at the sun for its various tricks and decided to leave. He convinced all the women to abandon their men and come with him along with their children. But, the children were deserted, and in their hunger they turned into frogs. The women simply disappeared. This left the men without women. But, they did find some sexless creatures roaming around and eventually capt

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The Arawak/Taíno were polytheists and their gods were called Zemi. The zemi controlled various functions of the universe, very much like Greek gods did, or like later Haitian Voodoo lwa. However, they do not seem to have had particular personalities like the Greek and Haitian gods/spirits do.

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Are the Taino extinct? This woman knows otherwise | PBS

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Indigenous Taíno council sharing history and culture with Chicago's Puerto Rican community

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These songs are the most frequently used ones in the ceremonies of the Caney Circle
Youtube song page
The songs are presented here in video form and below each…

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See how this powerful group ruled central Mexico 500 years ago.

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The capital city of the Aztec was Tenochtitlán. It was built on islands in Lake Texcoco. The lake was later drained, and today the land is part of Mexico City. Tenochtitlán reflected the power and wealth of the empire. It had gleaming white palaces and temples on top of pyramids. City officials lived in houses made from stone and adobe, or sun-dried clay. Farmers lived in huts made of woven rods and twigs covered with clay.

Most Aztec were farmers. They grew corn, beans, peppers, squash, tomatoes, tobacco, and cotton. Other Aztec were traders and craftsmen.

The Aztec spoke a language called Nahua. Many Aztec words were later incorporated into the Spanish language. Some of these words, such as chocolate, tomato, ocelot, coyote, and avocado, have also become part of the English language. The Aztec had no alphabet of their own, but they used picture writing to record their history.

Religion was very important to the Aztec. They worshipped several gods who represented the forces of nature. Among the most important Aztec gods were Huitzilopochtli, a sun god and the god of war; Tonatiuh, another god of the sun; and Tlaloc, the god of rain. Quetzalcóatl was the god of learning and a symbol of death and rebirth.

The Aztec performed elaborate rituals and ceremonies to obtain help from the gods. Human sacrifice, or the killing of people for religious reasons, played an important part in the rites. The Aztec believed that because life was humankind's most precious possession, it was the most acceptable gift for the gods. They sacrificed thousands of prisoners captured in war.

The Aztec had learned from the Maya how to determine the solar year accurately. With this knowledge their priests kept an exact solar calendar. An almanac gave dates for festivals and listed the various deities who held sway over each day and hour.

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In the 1400s and early 1500s the Aztec people controlled a large empire in the area that is now central and southern Mexico. At its most powerful, the Aztec Empire spread...

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The Aztecs: Facts & Information for Kids

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The Aztecs: Facts & Information for Kids

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The Aztecs were a tribal group of people who lived in the central area of Mexico from the 14 th century to the 16 th century (around 1345 AD to 1521 AD). They were considered one of the last greatest civilizations of Mesoamerica.

Mesoamerica is a term that refers to regions of the Americas that were inhabited by native tribes and civilizations before the Spanish arrived on the North American continent. The geography includes central Mexico to areas such as Honduras and Nicaragua.

How Did the Aztec Civilization Come to Be?

Prior to the Aztecs, Mexico and parts of central America were inhabited by groups of natives. In 200 to 700 A.D., central Mexico was dominated by a small empire called Teotihuacan. This was called the Classic period.

The inhabitants of Teotihuacan sold goods and traded with city-states throughout Mexico and other regions of Mesoamerica. After the fall of Teotihuacan, the region saw a rise in fighting for 200 years (700-900 AD).

Several cities came to power, and in 900 A.D., a group called the Toltec came to power. Their capital was Tula, which was situated about 20 miles north of Mexico City. While they were never as powerful or far-reaching as Teotihuacan, they did trade goods with other parts of Mesoamerica.

Civil unrest occurred in Toltec Empire and the Toltecs died, fled, or were dispersed. At the same time, a tribe who spoke Nahuatl moved to the center of Mexico. These Nahuatl-speaking people were the Aztecs.

Rise to Power

In their history, the Aztecs migrated from northern or north-western parts of Mexico. Anthropologically, the Aztecs may be related to the Asian groups that crossed the Bering Strait and traveled south during the Ice Age.

The Aztecs sometimes referred to as the Mexica people, traveled to the Anahuac valley. A ruling leader permitted them to live in Tizapan, which was rocky and abandoned. In 1325, they were forced to leave their rocky home and moved to Lake Texcoco and built their capital called Tenochtitlán.

From 1140-1350 A.D., leaders of the Mexican tribes and migrants began to establish city-states across Mexico. Each city-state (called altepetl) had a ruling king (called a tlatoani), a ruling class, and commoners.

These pockets of city-states began to spread to form small empires. Alongside Tenochtitlán were Acholhua and Azcapotzalco. The two empires faced a war with each other in 1428 AD. Acholhua allied with Tenochtitlán to win the war.

Afterward, The Aztecs began expanding their reaches and increasing their population. The Aztecs soon controlled the majority of northern Mexico. Between 1481 and 1519 AD, the Aztec Empire was at its peak. Therefore, the Spanish arrived during the peak of the Aztec Empire.

What Was It Like Living in the Aztec Empire?

There were two primary classes of people in the Aztec Empire-the commoners and the nobility. The nobility came to power through their family's blood or by marriage. They retained the majority of the power and determined how resources were spent.

The Aztec empire was primarily built upon tributes and political marriages. The upper class would pay or give tributes to the king.

The majority of the citizens were commoners. While the commoners grouped geographically to work together, the lands were owned by the nobility. Socially, slaves were considered at the bottom of the social class. Commoners could improve their social status by winning in great battles

Money and Market

The Aztecs were great farmers. They grew corn, squash, and beans. They managed to create systems of irrigation through man-made canals and stone channels. However, they still did not have enough crop to feed the empire, so they turned to fishing.

Aztecs were also great artisans. They were known in Mesoamerica for their ability to craft cotton fabric, textiles, and clothing. It was mostly women that created these textiles, and women in all classes practiced the art and practice of making textiles.

These textiles were sold or traded in the marketplace. All cities and towns had a marketplace. Textiles could serve as a form of cash in the marketplace, as well as cacao beans.

Aztec Art & Culture

The Aztecs were known for their intricate artwork that primarily related to their religion. In terms of art and technique, the Aztec borrowed skills and art from the cultures that existed in Mexico before them, especially the Teotihuacan, Toltec, and Olmec peoples.

Art historians believe that the Aztecs gathered artists from different parts of Mexico and Central American to help craft Tenochtitlan. Each type of art usually formed its guild, where arts of the same skill honed their craft or performed tasks for other artists.

Aztecs were skilled in carving gems and making jewelry. They gilded objects in gold or silver. Their jewelry and statues contained precious and semi-precious stones, like jade, obsidian, coral, turquoise, and ruby. During the Spanish invasion, the conquistadors stole the gold and silver jewelry and melted it down for money.

The Aztecs were fantastic carvers and carved gigantic, and sometimes small, statues. These statues most often depicted a god or they symbolized something religious. They could carve tiny insects out of pearl, coral, or onyx. They also carved masks used for ceremonies or to cover the face of a mummified body.

What was the Aztec Religion?

The Aztecs combined their own beliefs with the belief of the cultures already existing in Mesoamerica. The Aztecs had several gods that they worshipped, and they paid tribute to these gods while retaining their own mythological stories.

The Aztecs had a firm belief that Huitzilopochtli, the supreme god of sun and war, showed the Aztec people where they should settle by sending an eagle to sit on a cactus when the land was found. This god gave the Aztecs their name and their language.

The Aztecs celebrated their gods and underwent ceremonies to worship them. They danced and held banquets to honor these gods. They also buried precious metals and burned incense.

The Aztecs believed that the gods could be happy or sad, depending on what was happening among them in nature. If there was famine or drought, the Aztecs thought the gods were angry. Sometimes, they would sacrifice humans or animals to feed the gods blood to make them happy or less angry.

What Was the Aztec Calendar?

The Aztec calendar was primarily constructed to help Aztecs perform religious ceremonies and celebrate the gods. The Aztecs had a few different calendars.

The Aztec calendar was a day-focused calendar and consisted of 260 days that was separated into groups of 20 days. Each 20-day group was also given a number out of 13. The result was a day that had both a number label and name.

The calendar was built from observation of the heavenly bodies. It specifically worked with the rise of Venus and the length of the farming season.

The Aztecs also had a yearly calendar which served as the Solar calendar. It consisted of 365 days for a single cycle. The calendar was separated into 18 groups (months) that consisted of 20 days. This calendar helped to plan religious ceremonies.

In the 52 nd year of the cycle, the Aztecs would hold the New Fire Ceremony. During the ceremony, they would make a human sacrifice to gods. The Aztecs believed that if the gods were happy, the sun would return the next day. If the gods were unhappy, the world would meet its end.

Every other cycle, the two calendars would align. The calendars would reset.

What Happened to the Aztecs?

In 1517, the Spanish sent expeditions to America. Montezuma sent an Aztec convey to meet them. The Spanish expeditions returned to Spain with mention of immense amounts of gold. Therefore, the Spanish decided to send a fleet to conquer this land of gold.

In 1519, Hernan Cortés landed with his army in the New World. The Europeans easily defeated the native Aztecs. The Aztec emperor sent gifts as peace offerings.

Cortés traveled to Tenochtitlan in peace, but the peace ended nearly two weeks later. Cortés took the Aztec ruler captive, and the Aztecs became subjects of Charles V, who was the ruler of the Roman Empire and Spanish Empire at the time.

Many of the Aztecs died from smallpox brought by the Europeans. Many more Aztecs were killed in the fighting between the natives and the European invaders. The Spanish destroyed the Aztec capital in the invasion and built a new city atop it.

Other Interesting Facts & Information About Aztecs:

Aztec writing consisted of pictures

Aztecs were good at medicine and could effectively treat wounds, broken bones, or illnesses.

Religious ceremonies could last several days

Sacrifices to gods were made on top of pyramids
Many of the sacrifices were villagers taken from enemies during battle

Aztec subjects paid tribute by offering food, textiles, or artwork

Aztec children went to school based on their gender

Emperors were put in power by a council of nobles

Aztecs recycled waste to help fertilize crops

Aztecs had "floating gardens," which were small areas of land in lake beds

Read about the Inca Civilization

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The Aztecs: Facts & Information for Kids - History for Kids

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The Aztecs were a tribal group of people who lived in the central area of Mexico from the 14th century to the 16th century (around 1345 AD to 1521 AD).

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Daily Life

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Kids learn about the Daily Life of people during the Aztec Empire including food, clothing, housing, and education.

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10 Amazing Facts About the Aztec Empire for Kids

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10 Amazing Facts About the Aztec Empire for Kids

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10 Amazing Facts About the Aztec Empire for Kids

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Henry Hudson: Searching for the Northwest Passage - Fast Facts | History

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Henry Hudson Facts For Kids | AstroSafe Search

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Discover Henry Hudson in AstroSafe Search Educational section. Safe, educational content for kids 5-12. Explore fun facts!

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Henry Hudson portrait

Portrait image of Henry Hudson, who explored North America looking for a Northwest Passage to Asia. The Mariners' Museum E129.H8 J64 1992

Introduction
Henry Hudson made four voyages in search of a water route to the Far East. His first two voyages were through Arctic waters and proved to be unsuccessful due to ice. His third and fourth voyages were to North America where he discovered and sailed the Hudson River, Hudson Strait, and Hudson Bay. Henry Hudson's discoveries influenced other explorers and laid the foundation for future colonization and trading.

Biography Not much is known about Henry Hudson's early life prior to his first significant voyage in 1607. Most historians believe he was born around 1565 in England, and lived for some time in London.
Early Life
¹ He would have received a good education, because it is known that he could read, write, and do mathematics. Most scholars believe that Hudson's grandfather was one of the founders of the Muscovy Company. This was a very important trading company of this time, and would be the reason Hudson would go on his voyages. It is very likely that Henry worked on ships from a young age, probably as a cabin boy. He would have learned how to cook, handle sails, care for a ship, and keep a ship's log. ² He would also have learned navigational skills as well. It is not exactly known when, but at some point, Hudson married a woman named Katherine and they had three sons - Oliver, John, and Richard. ³ His son, John, would join him on all four of his voyages.

It is thought that Hudson sailed with fellow explorer John Davis in 1587. On Davis's voyage, they sailed to the Arctic in search of the Northwest passage. Trade and commerce were two motivations for explorers during the 17th century. Much of the world had been mapped and settled by various countries. But the possibility of a sea route on top of the world was still unknown. Many countries in Europe were continuing to search for quicker passages to Asia. The desire for faster routes to Asia was driven by the demand for different goods, such as spices. The Muscovy Company was no exception. They had ships and a crew, but no one to captain the voyage. Richard Hakluyt, a respected priest and scholar, recommended Hudson for the job. ⁴ Before then, Hudson only had experience as a navigator, not a captain. But In 1607, Hudson was commissioned by the Muscovy Company lead a journey to sail across the Arctic Circle to China.

Voyages Henry Hudson sailed out of Gravesend, England in April 1607 aboard the ship
Principal Voyage
Hopewell. He had a crew of ten men, including his son John. It was a slow trip with bad winds. It took 26 days to reach the Shetland Islands north of Great Britain. Then another week and a half to reach the Arctic Circle. ⁵ Not only was the weather difficult, but along the way, he had trouble with some of his crew members. Hudson demoted two experienced men: first mate William Collins and James Young. John Colman replaced Collins as first mate. ⁶ This upset many of the crew, and would possibly lead to trouble for Henry Hudson later on. They sailed past Greenland's coast into heavily ice packed waters. They continued toward the North Pole and reached Spitsbergen in the Svalbard archipelago (part of Norway). Along the way they saw many whales, some seals and walruses, and several species of seabirds. He made several attempt to sail around the ice packs, but was unsuccessful. On July 27, the Hopewell and her crew headed back towards England. Hudson had failed to find his northern route to China.

The Muscovy Company was excited to hear about the whales Hudson saw in the arctic. Whaling in the 17th century was very profitable. Whale meat and fat were used to make oils that helped burn candles. The Muscovy Company quickly made plans to begin a whaling expedition. ⁷ But Hudson was not interested in whaling, he was interested in exploration. So in 1608, the Muscovy Company commissioned Hudson once again to find passage to the Far East. This time, Hudson planned to find a Northeast passage, sailing towards the Russian region of Novaya Zemlya. Hudson left on April 22, 1608 aboard the Hopewell once more, with a crew of 14 men, including his son John again. ⁸ Hudson had trouble once again with several of his crewmen. But they continued onward, and reached Novaya Zemlya. They saw several animals again, and Hudson even recorded in his journal seeing a mermaid. But like his last journey, Hudson could not navigate past the large ice packs and returned to England.

Subsequent Voyages The men of the Muscovy Company were unhappy with Hudson's results. So they denied him the chance to make another voyages. So Hudson turned to the Dutch. He went to Amsterdam, and was commissioned by the Dutch East India Company in 1609 to find a Northeast passage to Asia. He sailed from Holland aboard the ship
Half Moon on April 6, 1609. Not far above Russia, Hudson and his men were once again blocked by heavy ice packs. Hudson chose to ignore his orders from the Dutch, and instead headed in search for the Northwest passage. He crossed the Atlantic Ocean, made his way down Newfoundland and Nova Scotia in Canada. Continuing onward, he passed the sites that would become Plymouth and Boston (in present day Massachusetts). They made it as far down to the British settlement of Jamestown, Virginia. ⁹ They then turned back around, heading north, and entered into a river in present day New York. Hudson was hopeful this was the passage he had been looking for. This is the same area Giovanni da Verrazzano had explored previously in 1524. Hudson traveled 150 miles up this river, but found it was not the passage as he had hoped. This river would become known as the Hudson River. The expedition followed the river until the crew determined that it did not lead out to the Pacific Ocean. They headed back to Europe.

On his return to Holland, the Half Moon docked at Dartmouth, England. The English, who had poor relations with the Dutch, did not allow Hudson to return to Holland. He had to send his log book of information on without him. During this time, Hudson was one of the most experienced captains of Arctic exploration in Europe. ¹⁰ So they called on him once more to go back in search of a Northwest passage. Hudson, his son John, and Hudson's crew set sail on the Discovery on April 17, 1610. They sailed across the Atlantic, reaching northern Canada, and then heading for the Hudson Strait. They soon found themselves in James Bay, at the southernmost part of the Hudson Strait. But they found no outlet leading to the Pacific Ocean towards Asia. After searching for sometime, they were forced to remain there as the Arctic winter set in. During these winter months, tension between Hudson and his crew would lead to a sad fate.

Later Years and Death Hudson and his crew spent the winter in James Bay since they were unable to sail through the icy waters. By June 1611, the
Discovery was free of ice and could continue on her journey. But by the end of winter, the crew had only grown more upset with their captain. Many of them felt that their trip was a waste of time. In June 1611, Robert Juet, after being demoted as mate, led a mutiny against Hudson. Hudson, his son, and several sick crew members were sent adrift in a small boat. What became of the castaway men is still unknown today.

Legacy
Henry Hudson was a determined captain, explorer, and navigator. He sailed through the uncharted, dangerous icy waters of the Arctic. But his poor leadership skills led to his unfortunate end. Although he never achieved in finding a passage to Asia, Hudson discovered various North American water routes. His discoveries led other Europeans to journey to North America where colonization and trading would take place. Many of the areas that he explored and sailed through are named after him today. A strait, a bay, and a river - the Hudson River in New York - are all named after him.

1. Josepha Sherman, Henry Hudson: English Explorer of the Northwest Passage (New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc., 2003), 13.

2. Kristin Petrie, Henry Hudson (Edina: ABDO Publishing Company, 2007), 8.

3. Anthony Dalton, Henry Hudson: Doomed Navigator and Explorer (Canada: Heritage House Publishing Company Ltd., 2014), 20.

4. Dalton, Henry Hudson: Doomed Navigator and Explorer, 24.

5. Dalton, Henry Hudson: Doomed Navigator and Explorer, 27.

6. Dalton, Henry Hudson: Doomed Navigator and Explorer, 28.

7. Edward Butts, Henry Hudson: New World Voyager (Toronto: Dundurn Press, 2009) 49.

8. Fergus Fleming, Off the Map: Tales of Endurance and Exploration (New York: Grove Press, 2004), 87.

9. Corey Sandler, Henry Hudson: Dreams and Obsession: the Tragic Legacy of the New World's Least Understood Explorer (New York: Citadel Press Books, 2007), 2.

10. Fergus Fleming, Off the Map, 88.

Bibliography

Butts, Edward. Henry Hudson: New World Voyager. Toronto: Dundurn Press, 2009.

Dalton, Anthony. Henry Hudson: Doomed Navigator and Explorer. Canada: Heritage House Publishing Company Ltd., 2014.

Fleming, Fergus. Off the Map: Tales of Endurance and Exploration. New York: Grove Press, 2004.

Petrie, Kristin. Henry Hudson. Edina: ABDO Publishing Company, 2007.

Sandler, Corey. Henry Hudson: Dreams and Obsession: the Tragic Legacy of the New World's Least Understood Explorer. New York: Citadel Press Books, 2007.

Sherman, Joseph. Henry Hudson: English Explorer of the Northwest Passage. New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc., 2003.

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Henry Hudson discovered the Hudson River, Hudson Strait and Hudson Bay on his search for a Northwest Passage to China.

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(1565?-1611). Because of the thriving trade in spices and silk between Asia and Europe, Henry Hudson and other explorers made a number of difficult and dangerous voyages searching for a northeast or northwest passage. Such a passage would provide a shorter, quicker way to the Pacific. Explorers sought a shortcut northward from the east coast of Europe and thence either eastward over the top of Europe and Asia or westward over the top of North America. Hudson tried both routes. Although he did not succeed, his four voyages added greatly to knowledge of the Arctic and North America.

Little is known of Hudson before 1607, when he undertook the first of two voyages for the English Muscovy Company. He sailed to Greenland and searched vainly for a passage through the polar ice barrier around the Svalbard archipelago. On a second voyage, in 1608, Hudson reached Novaya Zemlya, islands north of Russia, but again he was turned back by ice.

The next year, in command of the Half Moon for the Dutch East India Company, Hudson sailed to North America. He explored the inlets southward along the coast to southern Virginia, probing for a passage across the continent. He then turned northward and entered the Hudson River, which is now named after him. He sailed upstream to the vicinity of what is now Albany, N.Y.

© Everett Historical/Shutterstock.com

A group of Englishmen backed Hudson's fourth voyage in 1610-11. With the Discovery and a crew of 25 men, Hudson sailed into what is now Hudson Bay and explored the east coast to its southernmost reach in James Bay. After a winter caught in the ice, the Discovery sailed northward. Again it was icebound. Most of the crew mutinied. On June 22, 1611, Hudson, his son, and seven sick men were forced into a small boat and left to freeze or starve. The mutineers headed home, but several of their leaders were killed by Inuit. The rest reached England, where they were tried for mutiny but found not guilty.

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(1565?-1611). Because of the thriving trade in spices and silk between Asia and Europe, Henry Hudson and other explorers made a number of difficult and dangerous voyages...

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Kids learn about the biography and life of explorer Henry Hudson. Explored North America searching for the Northwest Passage.

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In 1492 the Italian explorer Christopher Columbus landed in the Caribbean islands-a momentous event in world history. Although Europeans would not realize it for several...

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Lesson 5 Routes of Exploration to the New World

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Arawak | History, Language, Facts, & Religion | Britannica

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Arawak, American Indians of the Greater Antilles and South America. The Taino, an Arawak subgroup, were the first native peoples encountered by Christopher Columbus on Hispaniola. The island Arawak were virtually wiped out by the combination of Old World diseases and Spanish violence and oppression.

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Maya, Mesoamerican Indians occupying a nearly continuous territory in southern Mexico, Guatemala, and northern Belize. In the early 21st century some 30 Mayan languages were spoken by more than five million people, most of whom were bilingual in Spanish. Before the Spanish conquest of Mexico and Central America, the Maya possessed one of the greatest civilizations of the Western Hemisphere ( see pre-Columbian civilizations: The earliest Maya civilization of the lowlands). They practiced agriculture, built great stone buildings and pyramid temples, worked gold and copper, and used a form of hieroglyphic writing that has now largely been deciphered.

As early as 1500 bce the Maya had settled in villages and had developed an agriculture based on the cultivation of corn (maize), beans, and squash; by 600 ce cassava (sweet manioc) was also grown. ( See also origins of agriculture: Early development: The Americas.) They began to build ceremonial centres, and by 200 ce these had developed into cities containing temples, pyramids, palaces, courts for playing ball, and plazas. The ancient Maya quarried immense quantities of building stone (usually limestone), which they cut by using harder stones such as chert. They practiced mainly slash-and-burn agriculture, but they used advanced techniques of irrigation and terracing. They also developed a system of hieroglyphic writing and highly sophisticated calendrical and astronomical systems. The Maya made paper from the inner bark of wild fig trees and wrote their hieroglyphs on books made from this paper. Those books are called codices. The Maya also developed an elaborate and beautiful tradition of sculpture and relief carving. Architectural works and stone inscriptions and reliefs are the chief sources of knowledge about the early Maya. Early Mayan culture showed the influence of the earlier Olmec civilization.

The rise of the Maya began about 250 ce, and what is known to archaeologists as the Classic Period of Mayan culture lasted until about 900 ce. At its height, Mayan civilization consisted of more than 40 cities, each with a population between 5,000 and 50,000. Among the principal cities were Tikal, Uaxactún, Copán, Bonampak, Dos Pilas, Calakmul, Palenque, and Río Bec. The peak Mayan population may have reached two million people, most of whom were settled in the lowlands of what is now Guatemala. After 900 ce, however, the Classic Maya civilization declined precipitously, leaving the great cities and ceremonial centres vacant and overgrown with jungle vegetation. Some scholars have suggested that armed conflicts and the exhaustion of agricultural land were responsible for the sudden decline. Discoveries in the 21st century led scholars to posit a number of additional reasons for the destruction of Mayan civilization. One cause was probably the war-related disruption of river and land trade routes. Other contributors may have been deforestation and drought. During the Post-Classic Period (900-1519), cities such as Chichén Itzá, Uxmal, and Mayapán in the Yucatán Peninsula continued to flourish for several centuries after the great lowland cities had become depopulated. By the time the Spaniards conquered the area in the early 16th century, most of the Maya had become village-dwelling agriculturists who practiced the religious rites of their forebears.

The major extant Mayan cities and ceremonial centres feature a variety of pyramidal temples or palaces overlain with limestone blocks and richly ornamented with narrative, ceremonial, and astronomical reliefs and inscriptions that have ensured the stature of Mayan art as premier among Native American cultures. But the true nature of Mayan society, the meaning of its hieroglyphics, and the chronicle of its history remained unknown to scholars for centuries after the Spaniards discovered the ancient Mayan building sites.

Systematic explorations of Mayan sites were first undertaken in the 1830s, and a small portion of the writing system was deciphered in the early and mid-20th century. Those discoveries shed some light on Mayan religion, which was based on a pantheon of nature gods, including those of the Sun, the Moon, rain, and corn. A priestly class was responsible for an elaborate cycle of rituals and ceremonies. Closely related to Mayan religion-indeed, inextricable from it-was the impressive development of mathematics and astronomy. In mathematics, positional notation and the use of the zero represented a pinnacle of intellectual achievement. Mayan astronomy underlay a complex calendrical system involving an accurately determined solar year (18 months of 20 days each, plus a 5-day period considered unlucky by the Mayans), a sacred calendar of 260 days (13 cycles of 20 named days), and a variety of longer cycles culminating in the Long Count, a continuous marking of time, based on a zero date in 3113 bce. Mayan astronomers compiled precise tables of positions for the Moon and Venus and were able to accurately predict solar eclipses.

On the basis of these discoveries, scholars in the mid-20th century mistakenly thought that Mayan society was composed of a priestly class of peaceful stargazers and calendar keepers supported by a devout peasantry. The Maya were thought to be utterly absorbed in their religious and cultural pursuits, in favourable contrast to the more warlike and sanguinary indigenous empires of central Mexico. But the progressive decipherment of nearly all of the Mayan hieroglyphic writing has provided a truer if less-elevating picture of Mayan society and culture. Many of the hieroglyphs depict the histories of the Mayan dynastic rulers, who waged war on rival Mayan cities and took their aristocrats captive. Those captives were then tortured, mutilated, and sacrificed to the gods. Indeed, torture and human sacrifice were fundamental religious rituals of Mayan society; they were thought to guarantee fertility, demonstrate piety, and propitiate the gods, and, if such practices were neglected, cosmic disorder and chaos were thought to result. The drawing of human blood was thought to nourish the gods and was thus necessary for achieving contact with them; hence, the Mayan rulers, as the intermediaries between the Mayan people and the gods, had to undergo ritual bloodletting and self-torture.

The present-day Mayan peoples can be divided on linguistic and geographic grounds into the following groups: the Yucatec Maya, inhabiting Mexico's Yucatán Peninsula and extending into northern Belize and northeastern Guatemala; the Lacandón, very few in number, occupying a territory in southern Mexico between the Usumacinta River and the Guatemalan border, with small numbers in Guatemala and Belize; the K'ichean-speaking peoples of the eastern and central highlands of Guatemala (Q'eqchi', Poqomchi', Poqomam, Uspanteko, K'iche', Kaqchikel, Tz'utujil, Sakapulteko [Sacapultec], and Sipacapa [Sipacapeño]); the Mamean peoples of the western Guatemalan highlands (Mam, Teco [Tektiteko], Awakateko, and Ixil); the Q'anjobalan peoples of Huehuetenango and adjacent parts of Mexico (Motocintlec [Mocho'], Tuzantec, Jakalteko, Akateko, Tojolabal, and Chuj); the Tzotzil and Tzeltal peoples of Chiapas in southern Mexico; the Cholan peoples, including the Chontal and Chol speakers in northern Chiapas and Tabasco and the linguistically related Chortí of the extreme eastern part of Guatemala; and the Huastec of northern Veracruz and adjoining San Luís Potosí in east-central Mexico. The chief division in Mayan cultural types is between highland and lowland cultures. Yucatec, Lacandón, and Chontal-Chol are lowland groups. The Huastec, a linguistically and geographically separated group living in Veracruz and San Luis Potosí, who never were Mayan culturally, and the other Mayan peoples live in highlands across Guatemala.

Contemporary Maya are basically agricultural, raising crops of corn, beans, and squash. They live in communities organized around central villages, which may be permanently occupied but more commonly are community centres with public buildings and houses that generally stand vacant; the people of the community live on farm homesteads except during fiestas and markets. Dress is largely traditional, particularly for women; men are more likely to wear modern ready-made clothing. Domestic spinning and weaving, once common, are becoming rare, and most clothing is made of factory-woven cloth. Cultivation is with the hoe and, where the soil is tough, the digging stick. The Yucatec usually keep pigs and chickens and, rarely, oxen that are used for farming. Industries are few, and crafts are oriented toward domestic needs. Usually some cash crop or item of local manufacture is produced for sale outside the region in order to provide cash for items not otherwise obtainable.

Most Maya are nominal Roman Catholics-though, beginning in the late 20th century, many converted to Evangelical Protestantism. Their Christianity, however, is generally overlaid upon the native religion. Its cosmology is typically Mayan, and Christian figures are commonly identified with Mayan deities. Public religion is basically Christian, with masses and saint's day celebrations. The native pre-Columbian religion is observed in domestic rites.

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Maya, the Mesoamerican Indians occupying a nearly continuous territory in southern Mexico, Guatemala, and northern Belize. Before the Spanish conquest of Mexico and Central America, the Maya possessed one of the greatest civilizations of the Western Hemisphere. Learn more about the Maya here.

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10 facts about the Maya! - National Geographic Kids

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Discover the culture, religion, buildings and lives of ancient Maya people with these fun facts about the Maya…

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Maya Society - Hudson Museum - University of Maine

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Maya society was broken into a class structure with four main levels: the nobility (Maya almehenob), the priesthood (Maya ahkinob), the common people (Maya ah chembal uinieol), and the slaves (Maya ppencatob). The most powerful of the ruling elite was known as the halach uinic, or “true man.” As a hereditary position the office of halach uinic was typically passed from father […]

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Exploring Maya Civilization for Kids: Ancient Mayan Culture Documentary for Children - FreeSchool

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The Arawaks - Tainos - The First People in Jamaica

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Hernán Cortés - Explorer | Mini Bio | BIO

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Hernán Cortés and Moctezuma, the Conquest of a Golden City

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Hernán Cortés, in full Hernán Cortés, marqués del Valle de Oaxaca, also called Hernando Cortés or Fernando Cortés, Cortés also spelled Cortéz, (born 1485, Medellín, near Mérida, Extremadura, Castile [Spain]-died December 2, 1547, Castilleja de la Cuesta, near Sevilla), Spanish conquistador who overthrew the Aztec empire (1519-21) and won Mexico for the crown of Spain.

Cortés was the son of Martín Cortés de Monroy and of Doña Catalina Pizarro Altamarino-names of ancient lineage. "They had little wealth, but much honour," according to Cortés's secretary, Francisco López de Gómara, who tells how, at age 14, the young Hernán was sent to study at Salamanca, in west-central Spain, "because he was very intelligent and clever in everything he did." Gómara went on to describe him as ruthless, haughty, mischievous, and quarrelsome, "a source of trouble to his parents." Certainly he was "much given to women," frustrated by provincial life, and excited by stories of the Indies Columbus had just discovered. He set out for the east coast port of Valencia with the idea of serving in the Italian wars, but instead he "wandered idly about for nearly a year." Clearly Spain's southern ports, with ships coming in full of the wealth and colour of the Indies, proved a greater attraction. He finally sailed for the island of Hispaniola (now Santo Domingo) in 1504.

Years in Hispaniola and Cuba

In Hispaniola he became a farmer and notary to a town council; for the first six years or so, he seems to have been content to establish his position. He contracted syphilis and, as a result, missed the ill-fated expeditions of Diego de Nicuesa and Alonso de Ojeda, which sailed for the South American mainland in 1509. By 1511 he had recovered, and he sailed with Diego Velázquez to conquer Cuba. There Velázquez was appointed governor, and Cortés clerk to the treasurer. Cortés received a repartimiento (gift of land and Indian slaves) and the first house in the new capital of Santiago. He was now in a position of some power and the man to whom dissident elements in the colony began to turn for leadership.

Cortés was twice elected alcalde ("mayor") of the town of Santiago and was a man who "in all he did, in his presence, bearing, conversation, manner of eating and of dressing, gave signs of being a great lord." It was therefore to Cortés that Velázquez turned when, after news had come of the progress of Juan de Grijalba's efforts to establish a colony on the mainland, it was decided to send him help. An agreement appointing Cortés captain general of a new expedition was signed in October 1518. Experience of the rough-and-tumble of New World politics advised Cortés to move fast, before Velázquez changed his mind. His sense of the dramatic, his long experience as an administrator, the knowledge gained from so many failed expeditions, above all his ability as a speaker gathered to him six ships and 300 men, all in less than a month. The reaction of Velázquez was predictable; his jealousy aroused, he resolved to place leadership of the expedition in other hands. Cortés, however, put hastily to sea to raise more men and ships in other Cuban ports.

The expedition to Mexico

When Cortés finally sailed for the coast of Yucatán on February 18, 1519, he had 11 ships, 508 soldiers, about 100 sailors, and-most important-16 horses. In March 1519 he landed at Tabasco, where he stayed for a time in order to gain intelligence from the local Indians. He won them over and received presents from them, including 20 women, one of whom, Marina ("Malinche"), became his mistress and interpreter and bore him a son, Martín. Cortés sailed to another spot on the southeastern Mexican coast and founded Veracruz, mainly to have himself elected captain general and chief justice by his soldiers as citizens, thus shaking off the authority of Velázquez. On the mainland Cortés did what no other expedition leader had done: he exercised and disciplined his army, welding it into a cohesive force. But the ultimate expression of his determination to deal with disaffection occurred when he sank his ships. By that single action he committed himself and his entire force to survival by conquest.

Cortés then set out for the Mexican interior, relying sometimes on force, sometimes on amity toward the local Indian peoples, but always careful to keep conflict with them to a strict minimum. The key to Cortés's subsequent conquests lay in the political crisis within the Aztec empire; the Aztecs were bitterly resented by many of the subject peoples who had to pay tribute to them. The ability of Cortés as a leader is nowhere more apparent than in his quick grasp of the situation-a grasp that was ultimately to give him more than 200,000 Indian allies. The nation of Tlaxcala, for instance, which was in a state of chronic war with Montezuma II, ruler of the Aztec empire of Mexico, resisted Cortés at first but became his most faithful ally. Rejecting all of Montezuma's threats and blandishments to keep him away from Tenochtitlán or Mexico, the capital (rebuilt as Mexico City after 1521), Cortés entered the city on November 8, 1519, with his small Spanish force and only 1,000 Tlaxcaltecs. In accordance with the diplomatic customs of Mexico, Montezuma received him with great honour. Cortés soon decided to seize Montezuma in order to hold the country through its monarch and achieve not only its political conquest but its religious conversion.

Spanish politics and envy were to bedevil Cortés throughout his meteoric career. Cortés soon heard of the arrival of a Spanish force from Cuba, led by Pánfilo Narváez, to deprive Cortés of his command at a time (mid-1520) when he was holding the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlán by little more than the force of his personality. Leaving a garrison in Tenochtitlán of 80 Spaniards and a few hundred Tlaxcaltecs commanded by his most reckless captain, Pedro de Alvarado, Cortés marched against Narváez, defeated him, and enlisted his army in his own forces. On his return, he found the Spanish garrison in Tenochtitlán besieged by the Aztecs after Alvarado had massacred many leading Aztec chiefs during a festival. Hard pressed and lacking food, Cortés decided to leave the city by night. The Spaniards' retreat from the capital was performed, but with a heavy loss in lives and most of the treasure they had accumulated. After six days of retreat Cortés won the battle of Otumba over the Aztecs sent in pursuit (July 7, 1520).

Cortés eventually rejoined his Tlaxcalan allies and reorganized his forces before again marching on Tenochtitlán in December 1520. After subduing the neighbouring territories he laid siege to the city itself, conquering it street by street until its capture was completed on August 13, 1521. This victory marked the fall of the Aztec empire. Cortés had become the absolute ruler of a huge territory extending from the Caribbean Sea to the Pacific Ocean.

In the meantime, Velázquez was mounting an insidious political attack on Cortés in Spain through Bishop Juan Rodríguez de Fonseca and the Council of the Indies. Fully conscious of the vulnerability of a successful conqueror whose field of operations was 5,000 miles (8,000 km) from the centre of political power, Cortés countered with lengthy and detailed dispatches-five remarkable letters to the Spanish king Charles V. His acceptance by the Indians and even his popularity as a relatively benign ruler was such that he could have established Mexico as an independent kingdom. Indeed, this is what the Council of the Indies feared. But his upbringing in a feudal world in which the king commanded absolute allegiance was against it.

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Hernan Cortes | Expeditions, Biography, & Facts

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Hernán Cortés, in full Hernán Cortés, marqués del Valle de Oaxaca, also called Hernando Cortés or Fernando Cortés, Cortés also spelled Cortéz, (born 1485, Medellín, near Mérida, Extremadura, Castile [Spain]-died December 2, 1547, Castilleja de la Cuesta, near Sevilla), Spanish conquistador who overthrew the Aztec empire (1519-21) and won Mexico for the crown of Spain.

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Discover facts about Hernando Cortes - the Spanish conquistador who conquered the Aztec empire. This brief biography takes you through his life story from birth to death.

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The Forgotten Explorer Who Mapped America's East Coast. #Splain

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Hernán Cortés de Monroy y Pizarro Altamirano, 1st Marquess of the Valley of Oaxaca ( 1485 - December 2, 1547) was a Spanish conquistador who led an expedition that caused the fall of the Aztec Empire and brought large portions of what is now mainland Mexico under the rule of the King of Castile in the early 16th century. Cortés was part of the generation of Spanish explorers and conquistadors who began the first phase of the Spanish colonization of the Americas.

Born in Medellín, Spain, to a family of lesser nobility, Cortés chose to pursue adventure and riches in the New World. He went to Hispaniola and later to Cuba, where he received an encomienda (the right to the labor of certain subjects). For a short time, he served as alcalde (magistrate) of the second Spanish town founded on the island. In 1519, he was elected captain of the third expedition to the mainland, which he partly funded. His enmity with the Governor of Cuba, Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar, resulted in the recall of the expedition at the last moment, an order which Cortés ignored.

Arriving on the continent, Cortés executed a successful strategy of allying with some indigenous people against others. He also used a native woman, Doña Marina, as an interpreter. She later bore his first son. When the Governor of Cuba sent emissaries to arrest Cortés, he fought them and won, using the extra troops as reinforcements. Cortés wrote letters directly to the king asking to be acknowledged for his successes instead of being punished for mutiny. After he overthrew the Aztec Empire, Cortés was awarded the title of Marqués del Valle de Oaxaca, while the more prestigious title of Viceroy was given to a high-ranking nobleman, Antonio de Mendoza. In 1541 Cortés returned to Spain, where he died six years later of natural causes.

Cortés himself used the form "Hernando" or "Fernando" for his first name, as seen in the contemporary archive documents, his signature and the title of an early portrait. William Hickling Prescott's Conquest of Mexico (1843) also refers to him as Hernando Cortés. At some point writers began using the shortened form of "Hernán" more generally.

Physical appearance

In addition to the illustration by the German artist Christoph Weiditz in his Trachtenbuch, there are three known portraits of Hernán Cortés which were likely made during his lifetime, though only copies of them have survived. All of these portraits show Cortés in the later years of his life. The account of the conquest of the Aztec Empire written by Bernal Díaz del Castillo, gives a detailed description of Hernán Cortés's physical appearance:

He was of good stature and body, well proportioned and stocky, the color of his face was somewhat grey, not very cheerful, and a longer face would have suited him more. His eyes seemed at times loving and at times grave and serious. His beard was black and sparse, as was his hair, which at the time he sported in the same way as his beard. He had a high chest, a well shaped back and was lean with little belly.

Cortés was born in 1485 in the town of Medellín, then a village in the Kingdom of Castile, now a municipality of the modern-day province of Badajoz in Extremadura, Spain. His father, Martín Cortés de Monroy, born in 1449 to Rodrigo or Ruy Fernández de Monroy and his wife María Cortés, was an infantry captain of distinguished ancestry but slender means. Hernán's mother was Catalína Pizarro Altamirano.

Through his mother, Hernán was second cousin once removed of Francisco Pizarro, who later conquered the Inca Empire of modern-day Peru, and not to be confused with another Francisco Pizarro, who joined Cortés to conquer the Aztecs. (His maternal grandmother, Leonor Sánchez Pizarro Altamirano, was first cousin of Pizarro's father Gonzalo Pizarro y Rodriguez.) Through his father, Hernán was related to Nicolás de Ovando, the third Governor of Hispaniola. His paternal great-grandfather was Rodrigo de Monroy y Almaraz, 5th Lord of Monroy.

After two years, Cortés returned home to Medellín, much to the irritation of his parents, who had hoped to see him equipped for a profitable legal career. However, those two years in Salamanca, plus his long period of training and experience as a notary, first in Valladolid and later in Hispaniola, gave him knowledge of the legal codes of Castile that he applied to help justify his unauthorized conquest of Mexico.

At this point in his life, Cortés was described by Gómara as ruthless, haughty, and mischievous. The 16-year-old youth had returned home to feel constrained life in his small provincial town. By this time, news of the exciting discoveries of Christopher Columbus in the New World was streaming back to Spain.

Early career in the New World

Plans were made for Cortés to sail to the Americas with a family acquaintance and distant relative, Nicolás de Ovando, the newly appointed Governor of Hispaniola. (This island is now divided between Haiti and the Dominican Republic). Cortés suffered an injury and was prevented from traveling. He spent the next year wandering the country, probably spending most of his time in Spain's southern ports of Cadiz, Palos, Sanlucar, and Seville. He finally left for Hispaniola in 1504 and became a colonist.

Cortés reached Hispaniola in a ship commanded by Alonso Quintero, who tried to deceive his superiors and reach the New World before them in order to secure personal advantages. Quintero's mutinous conduct may have served as a model for Cortés in his subsequent career.

Upon his arrival in 1504 in Santo Domingo, the capital of Hispaniola, the 18-year-old Cortés registered as a citizen; this entitled him to a building plot and land to farm. Soon afterward, Governor Nicolás de Ovando granted him an encomienda and appointed him as a notary of the town of Azua de Compostela. His next five years seemed to help establish him in the colony; in 1506, Cortés took part in the conquests of Hispaniola and Cuba. The expedition leader awarded him a large estate of land and Taíno slaves for his efforts.

Cuba (1511-1519)

In 1511, Cortés accompanied Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar, an aide of the Governor of Hispaniola, in his expedition to conquer Cuba. Velázquez was appointed Governor of New Spain. At the age of 26, Cortés was made clerk to the treasurer with the responsibility of ensuring that the Crown received the quinto, or customary one fifth of the profits from the expedition.

Velázquez was so impressed with Cortés that he secured a high political position for him in the colony. He became secretary for Governor Velázquez. Cortés was twice appointed municipal magistrate ( alcalde) of Santiago. In Cuba, Cortés became a man of substance with an encomienda to provide Indian labor for his mines and cattle. This new position of power also made him the new source of leadership, which opposing forces in the colony could then turn to. In 1514, Cortés led a group which demanded that more Indians be assigned to the settlers.

As time went on, relations between Cortés and Governor Velázquez became strained. Cortés found time to become romantically involved with Catalina Xuárez (or Juárez), the sister-in-law of Governor Velázquez. Part of Velázquez's displeasure seems to have been based on a belief that Cortés was trifling with Catalina's affections. Cortés was temporarily distracted by one of Catalina's sisters but finally married Catalina, reluctantly, under pressure from Governor Velázquez. However, by doing so, he hoped to secure the good will of both her family and that of Velázquez.

It was not until he had been almost 15 years in the Indies that Cortés began to look beyond his substantial status as mayor of the capital of Cuba and as a man of affairs in the thriving colony. He missed the first two expeditions, under the orders of Francisco Hernández de Córdoba and then Juan de Grijalva, sent by Diego Velázquez to Mexico in 1518. News reached Velázquez that Juan de Grijalva had established a colony on the mainland where there was a bonanza of silver and gold, and Velázquez decided to send him help. Cortés was appointed Captain-General of this new expedition in October 1518, but was advised to move fast before Velázquez changed his mind.

With Cortés's experience as an administrator, knowledge gained from many failed expeditions, and his impeccable rhetoric he was able to gather six ships and 300 men, within a month. Velázquez's jealousy exploded and he decided to put the expedition in other hands. However, Cortés quickly gathered more men and ships in other Cuban ports.

Conquest of Mexico (1519-1521)

In 1518, Velázquez put Cortés in command of an expedition to explore and secure the interior of Mexico for colonization. At the last minute, due to the old argument between the two, Velázquez changed his mind and revoked Cortés's charter. Cortés ignored the orders and, in an act of open mutiny, went anyway in February 1519. He stopped in Trinidad, Cuba, to hire more soldiers and obtain more horses. Accompanied by about 11 ships, 500 men (including seasoned slaves), 13 horses, and a small number of cannons, Cortés landed on the Yucatán Peninsula in Mayan territory. There he encountered Geronimo de Aguilar, a Spanish Franciscan priest who had survived a shipwreck followed by a period in captivity with the Maya, before escaping. Aguilar had learned the Chontal Maya language and was able to translate for Cortés.

Among these women was La Malinche, his future mistress and mother of his son Martín. Malinche knew both the Nahuatl language and Chontal Maya, thus enabling Cortés to communicate with the Aztecs through Aguilar. At San Juan de Ulúa on Easter Sunday 1519, Cortés met with Moctezuma II's Aztec Empire governors Tendile and Pitalpitoque.

In July 1519, his men took over Veracruz. By this act, Cortés dismissed the authority of the Governor of Cuba to place himself directly under the orders of King Charles. To eliminate any ideas of retreat, Cortés scuttled his ships.

March on Tenochtitlán

In Veracruz, he met some of the tributaries of the Aztecs and asked them to arrange a meeting with Moctezuma II, the (ruler) of the Aztec Empire. Moctezuma repeatedly turned down the meeting, but Cortés was determined. Leaving a hundred men in Veracruz, Cortés marched on Tenochtitlán in mid-August 1519, along with 600 soldiers, 15 horsemen, 15 cannons, and hundreds of indigenous carriers and warriors.

On the way to Tenochtitlán, Cortés made alliances with indigenous peoples such as the Totonacs of Cempoala and the Nahuas of Tlaxcala. The Otomis initially, and then the Tlaxcalans fought with the Spanish in a series of three battles from 2 to 5 September 1519, and at one point, Diaz remarked, "they surrounded us on every side". After Cortés continued to release prisoners with messages of peace, and realizing the Spanish were enemies of Moctezuma, Xicotencatl the Elder and Maxixcatzin persuaded the Tlaxcalan warleader, Xicotencatl the Younger, that it would be better to ally with the newcomers than to kill them.

In October 1519, Cortés and his men, accompanied by about 1,000 Tlaxcalteca, marched to Cholula, the second-largest city in central Mexico. Cortés, either in a pre-meditated effort to instill fear upon the Aztecs waiting for him at Tenochtitlan or (as he later claimed, when he was being investigated) wishing to make an example when he feared native treachery, massacred thousands of unarmed members of the nobility gathered at the central plaza, then partially burned the city.

By the time he arrived in Tenochtitlán, the Spaniards had a large army. On November 8, 1519, they were peacefully received by Moctezuma II. Moctezuma deliberately let Cortés enter the Aztec capital, the island city of Tenochtitlán, hoping to get to know their weaknesses better and to crush them later.

Moctezuma gave lavish gifts of gold to the Spaniards which, rather than placating them, excited their ambitions for plunder. In his letters to King Charles, Cortés claimed to have learned at this point that he was considered by the Aztecs to be either an emissary of the feathered serpent god Quetzalcoatl or Quetzalcoatl himself - a belief which has been contested by a few modern historians. But quickly Cortés learned that several Spaniards on the coast had been killed by Aztecs while supporting the Totonacs, and decided to take Moctezuma as a hostage in his palace, indirectly ruling Tenochtitlán through him.

Meanwhile, Velázquez sent another expedition, led by Pánfilo de Narváez, to oppose Cortés, arriving in Mexico in April 1520 with 1,100 men. Cortés left 200 men in Tenochtitlán and took the rest to confront Narváez. He overcame Narváez, despite his numerical inferiority, and convinced the rest of Narváez's men to join him. In Mexico, one of Cortés's lieutenants Pedro de Alvarado, committed the massacre in the Great Temple, triggering a local rebellion.

Cortés speedily returned to Tenochtitlán. Faced with a hostile population, Cortés decided to flee for Tlaxcala. During the Noche Triste (June 30 - July 1, 1520), the Spaniards managed a narrow escape from Tenochtitlán across the Tlacopan causeway, while their rearguard was being massacred. Much of the treasure looted by Cortés was lost (as well as his artillery) during this panicked escape from Tenochtitlán.

Destruction of Tenochtitlán

After a battle in Otumba, they managed to reach Tlaxcala, having lost 870 men. With the assistance of their allies, Cortés's men finally prevailed with reinforcements arriving from Cuba. Cortés began a policy of attrition towards Tenochtitlán, cutting off supplies and subduing the Aztecs' allied cities. During the siege he would construct brigantines in the lake and slowly destroy blocks of the city to avoid fighting in an urban setting. The Mexicas would fall back to Tlatelolco and even succeed in ambushing the pursuing Spanish forces, inflicting heavy losses, but would ultimately be the last portion of the island that resisted the conquistadores. The siege of Tenochtitlán ended with Spanish victory and the destruction of the city.

In January 1521, Cortés countered a conspiracy against him, headed by Antonio de Villafana. Finally, with the capture of Cuauhtémoc, the (ruler) of Tenochtitlán, on August 13, 1521, the Aztec Empire was captured, and Cortés was able to claim it for Spain, thus renaming the city Mexico City. From 1521 to 1524, Cortés personally governed Mexico.

Appointment to governorship of Mexico and internal dissensions

Cortés personally was not ungenerously rewarded, but he speedily complained of insufficient compensation to himself and his comrades. Thinking himself beyond reach of restraint, he disobeyed many of the orders of the Crown, and, what was more imprudent, said so in a letter to the emperor, dated October 15, 1524 (Ycazbalceta, "Documentos para la Historia de México", Mexico, 1858, I). In this letter Cortés, besides recalling in a rather abrupt manner that the conquest of Mexico was due to him alone, deliberately acknowledges his disobedience in terms which could not fail to create a most unfavourable impression.

Cortés managed the founding of new cities and appointed men to extend Spanish rule to all of New Spain, imposing the encomienda system in 1524. He reserved many encomiendas for himself and for his retinue, which they considered just rewards for their accomplishment in conquering central Mexico. However, later arrivals and members of factions antipathetic to Cortés complained of the favoritism that excluded them.

In 1523, the Crown (possibly influenced by Cortés's enemy, Bishop Fonseca), sent a military force under the command of Francisco de Garay to conquer and settle the northern part of Mexico, the region of Pánuco. This was another setback for Cortés who mentioned this in his fourth letter to the King in which he describes himself as the victim of a conspiracy by his archenemies Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar, Diego Columbus and Bishop Fonseca as well as Francisco Garay. The influence of Garay was effectively stopped by this appeal to the King who sent out a decree forbidding Garay to interfere in the politics of New Spain, causing him to give up without a fight.

Royal grant of arms (1525)

Although Cortés had flouted the authority of Diego Velázquez in sailing to the mainland and then leading an expedition of conquest, Cortés's spectacular success was rewarded by the crown with a coat of arms, a mark of high honor, following the conqueror's request. The document granting the coat of arms summarizes Cortés's accomplishments in the conquest of Mexico. The proclamation of the king says in part:

We, respecting the many labors, dangers, and adventures which you underwent as stated above, and so that there might remain a perpetual memorial of you and your services and that you and your descendants might be more fully honored ... it is our will that besides your coat of arms of your lineage, which you have, you may have and bear as your coat of arms, known and recognized, a shield ...

The grant specifies the iconography of the coat of arms, the central portion divided into quadrants. In the upper portion, there is a "black eagle with two heads on a white field, which are the arms of the empire". Below that is a "golden lion on a red field, in memory of the fact that you, the said Hernando Cortés, by your industry and effort brought matters to the state described above" (i.e., the conquest). The specificity of the other two quadrants is linked directly to Mexico, with one quadrant showing three crowns representing the three Aztec emperors of the conquest era, Moctezuma, Cuitlahuac, and Cuauhtemoc and the other showing the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan. Encircling the central shield are symbols of the seven city-states around the lake and their lords that Cortés defeated, with the lords "to be shown as prisoners bound with a chain which shall be closed with a lock beneath the shield".

Death of his first wife and remarriage

Cortés's wife Catalina Súarez arrived in New Spain around summer 1522, along with her sister and brother. His marriage to Catalina was at this point extremely awkward, since she was a kinswoman of the governor of Cuba, Diego Velázquez, whose authority Cortés had thrown off and who was therefore now his enemy. Catalina lacked the noble title of doña, so at this point his marriage with her no longer raised his status. Their marriage had been childless. Since Cortés had sired children with a variety of indigenous women, including a son around 1522 by his cultural translator, Doña Marina, Cortés knew he was capable of fathering children. Cortés's only male heir at this point was illegitimate, but nonetheless named after Cortés's father, Martín Cortés. This son Martín Cortés was also popularly called "El Mestizo".

Catalina Suárez died under mysterious circumstances the night of November 1-2, 1522.

In 1526, he built an imposing residence for himself, the Palace of Cortés in Cuernavaca, in a region close to the capital where he had extensive encomienda holdings. In 1529 he had been accorded the noble designation of don, but more importantly was given the noble title of Marquess of the Valley of Oaxaca and married the Spanish noblewoman Doña Juana de Zúñiga. The marriage produced three children, including another son, who was also named Martín. As the first-born legitimate son, Don Martín Cortés y Zúñiga was now Cortés's heir and succeeded him as holder of the title and estate of the Marquessate of the Valley of Oaxaca. Cortés's legitimate daughters were Doña Maria, Doña Catalina, and Doña Juana.

Cortés and the "Spiritual Conquest" of Mexico

If these people [Indians] were now to see the affairs of the Church and the service of God in the hands of canons or other dignitaries, and saw them indulge in the vices and profanities now common in Spain, knowing that such men were the ministers of God, it would bring our Faith into much harm that I believe any further preaching would be of no avail.

He wished the mendicants to be the main evangelists. Mendicant friars did not usually have full priestly powers to perform all the sacraments needed for conversion of the Indians and growth of the neophytes in the Christian faith, so Cortés laid out a solution to this to the king.

Your Majesty should likewise beseech His Holiness [the pope] to grant these powers to the two principal persons in the religious orders that are to come here, and that they should be his delegates, one from the Order of St. Francis and the other from the Order of St. Dominic. They should bring the most extensive powers Your Majesty is able to obtain, for, because these lands are so far from the Church of Rome, and we, the Christians who now reside here and shall do so in the future, are so far from the proper remedies of our consciences and, as we are human, so subject to sin, it is essential that His Holiness should be generous with us and grant to these persons most extensive powers, to be handed down to persons actually in residence here whether it be given to the general of each order or to his provincials.

And as to those who murmur against the Marqués del Valle [Cortés], God rest him, and who try to blacken and obscure his deeds, I believe that before God their deeds are not as acceptable as those of the Marqués. Although as a human he was a sinner, he had faith and works of a good Christian, and a great desire to employ his life and property in widening and augmenting the fair of Jesus Christ, and dying for the conversion of these gentiles ... Who has loved and defended the Indians of this new world like Cortés? ... Through this captain, God opened the door for us to preach his holy gospel and it was he who caused the Indians to revere the holy sacraments and respect the ministers of the church.

In Fray Bernardino de Sahagún's 1585 revision of the conquest narrative first codified as Book XII of the Florentine Codex, there are laudatory references to Cortés that do not appear in the earlier text from the indigenous perspective. Whereas Book XII of the Florentine Codex concludes with an account of Spaniards' search for gold, in Sahagún's 1585 revised account, he ends with praise of Cortés for requesting the Franciscans be sent to Mexico to convert the Indians.

Expedition to Honduras and aftermath (1524-1541)

Expedition to Honduras (1524-1526)

Cortés's fifth letter to King Charles attempts to justify his conduct, concludes with a bitter attack on "various and powerful rivals and enemies" who have "obscured the eyes of your Majesty". Charles, who was also Holy Roman Emperor, had little time for distant colonies (much of Charles's reign was taken up with wars with France, the German Protestants and the expanding Ottoman Empire), except insofar as they contributed to finance his wars. In 1521, year of the Conquest, Charles was attending to matters in his German domains and Bishop Adrian of Utrecht functioned as regent in Spain.

Velázquez and Fonseca persuaded the regent to appoint a commissioner (a Juez de residencia, Luis Ponce de León) with powers to investigate Cortés's conduct and even arrest him. Cortés was once quoted as saying that it was "more difficult to contend against [his] own countrymen than against the Aztecs." Governor Diego Velázquez continued to be a thorn in his side, teaming up with Bishop Juan Rodríguez de Fonseca, chief of the Spanish colonial department, to undermine him in the Council of the Indies.

A few days after Cortés's return from his expedition, Ponce de León suspended Cortés from his office of governor of New Spain. The Licentiate then fell ill and died shortly after his arrival, appointing Marcos de Aguilar as alcalde mayor. The aged Aguilar also became sick and appointed Alonso de Estrada governor, who was confirmed in his functions by a royal decree in August 1527. Cortés, suspected of poisoning them, refrained from taking over the government.

Estrada sent Diego de Figueroa to the south. De Figueroa raided graveyards and extorted contributions, meeting his end when the ship carrying these treasures sank. Albornoz persuaded Alonso de Estrada to release Gonzalo de Salazar and Chirinos. When Cortés complained angrily after one of his adherents' hands was cut off, Estrada ordered him exiled. Cortés sailed for Spain in 1528 to appeal to King Charles.

First return to Spain (1528) and Marquessate of the Valley of Oaxaca

In 1528, Cortés returned to Spain to appeal to the justice of his master, Charles V. Juan Altamirano and Alonso Valiente stayed in Mexico and acted as Cortés's representatives during his absence. Cortés presented himself with great splendor before Charles V's court. By this time Charles had returned and Cortés forthrightly responded to his enemy's charges. Denying he had held back on gold due the crown, he showed that he had contributed more than the quinto (one-fifth) required. Indeed, he had spent lavishly to build the new capital of Mexico City on the ruins of the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlán, leveled during the siege that brought down the Aztec empire.

He was received by Charles with every distinction, and decorated with the order of Santiago. In return for his efforts in expanding the still young Spanish Empire, Cortés was rewarded in 1529 by being accorded the noble title of don but more importantly named the "Marqués del Valle de Oaxaca" (Marquess of the Valley of Oaxaca) and married the Spanish noblewoman Doña Juana Zúñiga, after the 1522 death of his much less distinguished first wife, Catalina Suárez. The noble title and senorial estate of the Marquesado was passed down to his descendants until 1811. The Oaxaca Valley was one of the wealthiest regions of New Spain, and Cortés had 23,000 vassals in 23 named encomiendas in perpetuity.

Although confirmed in his land holdings and vassals, he was not reinstated as governor and was never again given any important office in the administration of New Spain. During his travel to Spain, his property was mismanaged by colonial administrators. He sided with local natives in a lawsuit.

The entailed estate and title passed to his legitimate son Don Martín Cortés upon Cortés's death in 1547, who became the Second Marquess. Don Martín's association with the so-called Encomenderos' Conspiracy endangered the entailed holdings, but they were restored and remained the continuing reward for Hernán Cortés's family through the generations.

Return to Mexico (1530) and appointment of a viceroy (1535)

Cortés returned to Mexico in 1530 with new titles and honors. Although Cortés still retained military authority and permission to continue his conquests, Don Antonio de Mendoza was appointed in 1535 as a viceroy to administer New Spain's civil affairs. This division of power led to continual dissension, and caused the failure of several enterprises in which Cortés was engaged. On returning to Mexico, Cortés found the country in a state of anarchy. There was a strong suspicion in court circles of an intended rebellion by Cortés.

Cortés acquired several silver mines in Zumpango del Rio in 1534. By the early 1540s, he owned 20 silver mines in Sultepec, 12 in Taxco, and 3 in Zacualpan. Earlier, Cortés had claimed the silver in the Tamazula area.

In 1536, Cortés explored the northwestern part of Mexico and discovered the Baja California peninsula. Cortés also spent time exploring the Pacific coast of Mexico. The Gulf of California was originally named the Sea of Cortés by its discoverer Francisco de Ulloa in 1539. This was the last major expedition by Cortés.

Later life and death

Second return to Spain

After his exploration of Baja California, Cortés returned to Spain in 1541, hoping to confound his angry civilians, who had brought many lawsuits against him (for debts, abuse of power, etc.). On his return he went through a crowd to speak to the emperor, who demanded of him who he was. "I am a man," replied Cortés, "who has given you more provinces than your ancestors left you cities."

Expedition against Algiers

The emperor finally permitted Cortés to join him and his fleet commanded by Andrea Doria at the great expedition against Algiers in the Barbary Coast in 1541, which was then part of the Ottoman Empire. During this campaign, Cortés was almost drowned in a storm that hit his fleet while he was pursuing the Pasha of Algiers.

Last years, death, and remains

Having spent a great deal of his own money to finance expeditions, he was now heavily in debt. In February 1544 he made a claim on the royal treasury, but was ignored for the next three years. Disgusted, he decided to return to Mexico in 1547. When he reached Seville, he was stricken with dysentery. He died in Castilleja de la Cuesta, Seville province, on December 2, 1547, from a case of pleurisy at the age of 62.

He left his many mestizo and white children well cared for in his will, along with every one of their mothers. He requested in his will that his remains eventually be buried in Mexico. Before he died he had the Pope remove the "natural" status of four of his children (legitimizing them in the eyes of the church), including Martin, the son he had with Doña Marina (also known as La Malinche), said to be his favourite. His daughter, Doña Catalina, however, died shortly after her father's death.

After his death, his body was moved more than eight times for several reasons. On December 4, 1547, he was buried in the mausoleum of the Duke of Medina in the church of San Isidoro del Campo, Sevilla. Three years later (1550) due to the space being required by the duke, his body was moved to the altar of Santa Catarina in the same church. In his testament, Cortés asked for his body to be buried in the monastery he had ordered to be built in Coyoacan in México, ten years after his death, but the monastery was never built. So in 1566, his body was sent to New Spain and buried in the church of San Francisco de Texcoco, where his mother and one of his sisters were buried.

In 1629, Cortes's last male descendant Don Pedro Cortés, fourth Marquez del Valle, died. The viceroy decided to move the bones of Cortés along with those of his descendant to the Franciscan church in México. This was delayed for nine years, while his body stayed in the main room of the palace of the viceroy. Eventually it was moved to the Sagrario of Franciscan church, where it stayed for 87 years. In 1716, it was moved to another place in the same church. In 1794, his bones were moved to the "Hospital de Jesus" (founded by Cortés), where a statue by Tolsá and a mausoleum were made. There was a public ceremony and all the churches in the city rang their bells.

In 1823, after the independence of México, it seemed imminent that his body would be desecrated, so the mausoleum was removed, the statue and the coat of arms were sent to Palermo, Sicily, to be protected by the Duke of Terranova. The bones were hidden, and everyone thought that they had been sent out of México. In 1836, his bones were moved to another place in the same building.

It was not until November 24, 1946, that they were rediscovered, thanks to the discovery of a secret document by Lucas Alamán. His bones were put in the charge of the Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia (INAH). The remains were authenticated by INAH. They were then restored to the same place, this time with a bronze inscription and his coat of arms. When the bones were first rediscovered, the supporters of the Hispanic tradition in Mexico were excited, but one supporter of an indigenist vision of Mexico "proposed that the remains be publicly burned in front of the statue of Cuauhtemoc, and the ashes flung into the air". Following the discovery and authentication of Cortés's remains, there was a discovery of what were described as the bones of Cuauhtémoc, resulting in a "battle of the bones".

Taxa named after Cortés

Cortés is commemorated in the scientific name of a subspecies of Mexican lizard, Phrynosoma orbiculare cortezii.

Natural children of Don Hernán Cortés

doña Catalina Pizarro, born between 1514 and 1515 in Santiago de Cuba or maybe later in Nueva España, daughter of an indigenous woman in Cuba, Leonor Pizarro. Doña Catalina married Juan de Salcedo, a conqueror and encomendero, with whom she had a son, Pedro.

don Martín Cortés, born in Coyoacán in 1522, son of doña Marina (La Malinche), called the First Mestizo; about him was written The New World of Martín Cortés; married doña Bernaldina de Porras and had two children:

doña Ana Cortés

don Fernando Cortés, Principal Judge of Veracruz. Descendants of this line are alive today in Mexico.

don Luis Cortés, born in 1525, son of doña Antonia or Elvira Hermosillo, a native of Trujillo (Cáceres)

doña Leonor Cortés Moctezuma, born in 1527 or 1528 in Ciudad de Mexico, daughter of Aztec princess Tecuichpotzin (baptized Isabel), born in Tenochtitlan on July 11, 1510, and died on July 9, 1550, the eldest legitimate daughter of Moctezuma II Xocoyotzin and wife doña María Miahuaxuchitl; married to Juan de Tolosa, a Basque merchant and miner.

doña María Cortés de Moctezuma, daughter of an Aztec princess; nothing more is known about her except that she probably was born with some deformity.

He married twice: firstly in Cuba to Catalina Suárez Marcaida, who died at Coyoacán in 1522 without issue, and secondly in 1529 to doña Juana Ramírez de Arellano de Zúñiga, daughter of don Carlos Ramírez de Arellano, 2nd Count of Aguilar and wife the Countess doña Juana de Zúñiga, and had:

don Luis Cortés y Ramírez de Arellano, born in Texcoco in 1530 and died shortly after his birth.

doña Catalina Cortés de Zúñiga, born in Cuernavaca in 1531 and died shortly after her birth.

don Martín Cortés y Ramírez de Arellano, 2nd Marquess of the Valley of Oaxaca, born in Cuernavaca in 1532, married at Nalda on February 24, 1548, his twice cousin once removed doña Ana Ramírez de Arellano y Ramírez de Arellano and had issue, currently extinct in male line

doña María Cortés de Zúñiga, born in Cuernavaca between 1533 and 1536, married to don Luis de Quiñones y Pimentel, 5th Count of Luna

doña Catalina Cortés de Zúñiga, born in Cuernavaca between 1533 and 1536, died unmarried in Sevilla after the funeral of her father

doña Juana Cortés de Zúñiga, born in Cuernavaca between 1533 and 1536, married Don Fernando Enríquez de Ribera y Portocarrero, 2nd Duke of Alcalá de los Gazules, 3rd Marquess of Tarifa and 6th Count of Los Molares, and had issue

In Spanish: Hernán Cortés para niños

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Indigenous Peoples' History of the United States for Young People

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Indigenous Peoples' History of the United States for Young People

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An adaptation of the adult title, this book reframes U.S. history with the experiences of Indigenous peoples at the center. It's accessible for middle-grade readers while addressing important historical truths.

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Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz, Jean Mendoza, Debbie Reese

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Arawak

Date: 300 b.c.e.-700 c.e.

Locale: Caribbean and South America

Arawak

The Arawak (AR-uh-wahk) were a group of South American Indians whose influence stretched from Florida and the Caribbean to Brazil in South America. They migrated from the eastern slopes of the Andes to the Amazon River into the Orinoco Valley, Venezuela, and Columbia. From there, they went out into the Antilles and perhaps even to the Florida Keys. They were superb navigators of the sea. The name "Arawak" refers to a number of indigenous peoples who spoke a similar language but lacked cultural or racial cohesiveness. This linguistic heritage was shared by the warlike and cannibalistic Carib, who lived in the Lesser Antilles in the Caribbean and in northern South America.

Europeans used the term "Arawak" to describe any Indian people who were not hostile to them; they used the term "Carib" to describe any Indian people who were hostile to them. The correct term for the Arawak would have been Locono, or Lokono. The Locono lived in what became Venezuela and called their homeland Aracauy. The original Arawak came from northern South America and were forced out of the area by hostile tribes. They reached the Greater Antilles around 300 c.e. Because all the tribes in the Caribbean and northern South America had a common linguistic heritage, linguists prefer to call all these Indians Arawak.

The economy of the Arawak centered on fishing, hunting, and agriculture. They grew an adequate amount of corn, cassava, sweet potatoes, and various root vegetables. In the Caribbean, the Arawak used trees, plants, and animals for food and supplies. From trees, they made bowls, chairs, baskets, and agricultural and hunting tools. They also developed a very sophisticated political and social structure. Their leaders were caciques, or kings, who ruled with absolute power. The caciques had numerous privileges such as living in special houses, eating certain foods, and receiving special treatment from the groups below them. In the matrilineal Arawak society, rank was inherited through a female line, which meant that a king was succeeded by his eldest sister's eldest son. The caciques ruled over a stratified society in which slaves ( naborias) made up the lowest tier. In addition to the slaves and the caciques, there were commoners and nobles ( nitaynos). The Arawak praised and respected not only their caciques but also their priests and medicine men. The Arawak believed strongly in the power of nature during and after death. They revered local wildlife such as deer, dogs, frogs, turtles, and birds. They believed that the soul survived in the trees, rivers, and the rest of the surrounding environment, and they celebrated the beauty of the stars in the heavens.

After 700 c.e.

The Arawak population, once estimated to be as high as three million, fell to a few thousand in the sixteenth century because of takeovers (the Carib and Spaniards), enslavement, disease, and damage to their way of living. Some groups died out; however, by 2000, the number of Arawak in Guyana had topped thirty thousand.

Bibliography

Farabee, William Curtis. The Central Arawaks. Oosterhout N.B., Netherlands: Anthropological, 1967.

Olsen, Fred. On the Trail of the Arawaks. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1974.

Rogozinski, Jan. A Brief History of the Caribbean: From the Arawak and the Carib to the Present. New York: Facts on File, 1992.

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Arawak | Research Starters | EBSCO Research

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The Arawak were a group of indigenous peoples originally from South America, whose influence spanned from present-day Florida and the Caribbean to Brazil. They migrated from the eastern slopes of the Andes through the Amazon and Orinoco valleys into the Antilles, demonstrating remarkable navigational skills.

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The Arawak were a group of indigenous people who lived in parts of South America and the Caribbean. After European explorers arrived and began to settle these lands, the Arawak people faced many challenges. Their way of life changed greatly, and their population numbers dropped very quickly over about 100 to 150 years.

Today, only a small number of people identify as Arawak. However, a group of languages called the Arawakian languages still exists. These languages show how important the Arawak people once were. About 2,000 people still speak Arawakian languages today. Around 1,500 speakers live in Guyana, and about 700 live in Suriname.

Who Were the Arawak People?

The Arawak were one of the first groups of indigenous people that European explorers met in the Caribbean. They lived in many different areas, including islands like Haiti and parts of the South American mainland. They were known for their peaceful way of life and their skills in farming and fishing.

Life Before European Arrival

Before Europeans arrived, the Arawak people lived in settled villages. They grew crops like corn, beans, and cassava. They also fished in the rivers and oceans. Their communities were well-organized, and they had rich traditions and beliefs.

Arawak Population Changes

When Europeans first arrived in the Caribbean, there were many Arawak people. For example, on the island of Hispaniola (where Haiti is today), it is thought that around 250,000 Arawak people lived there.

Impact of European Settlement

By the year 1515, about 50,000 native people, including many Arawak, were left on Hispaniola. This was a big drop from the original numbers. By 1550, only about 500 people remained. Sadly, by 1650, there were almost no Arawak people left on Hispaniola. This decline was due to many factors, including new diseases and changes to their way of life.

Arawak Languages Today

Even though the Arawak population decreased significantly, their languages continue to be spoken by some people. These languages are an important part of their cultural heritage. They help us understand the history and traditions of the Arawak people.

Where Arawak Languages Are Spoken

Most Arawak language speakers today live in South America. The largest groups are found in Guyana and Suriname. These communities work to keep their languages and traditions alive for future generations.

Images for kids

In Spanish: Arahuacos para niños

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Facts for Kids: Arawak Indians (Lokono, Arawaks)

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Information about the Arawak Indians for students and teachers. Facts about Arawak Indian food, clothing, houses, villages, art and crafts, weapons and tools, and customs of the Arawak people.