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Although many countries have similar institutions, the definition of those bodies and the way they work together can vary greatly. The main bodies are an executive, or head of state; a legislature; and a judiciary, or court system. Often these are defined by a constitution. In democracies the roles of these institutions are clearly defined and separated to some extent. In some countries these are all controlled by one person or a small group of people. Such countries can be monarchies or dictatorships.

Democracy

There are two leading types of constitutional democracy in the world today. These are the presidential system, such as that of the United States, and the parliamentary system, such as that of the United Kingdom.

In both systems political parties are key institutions. It is through them that the citizens are able to express their opinion by voting for candidates for office. The parties are groups of people with similar views about major issues. Most candidates for political office are members of a particular party, though membership in a party means different things in different countries.

In some countries, such as the United Kingdom, the parties are fairly rigid, meaning that its members are expected to always vote with the party. In the United States, however, party members are free to vote as they see fit on any particular issue. The number of parties can also vary in each country. In some, notably the United States and the United Kingdom, there are only two main parties. In others there may be many parties. Because power is divided among more groups, it is less likely that one group will have a clear majority to rule. In such cases several parties must work together to share power.

Presidential System

In a presidential system the executive, legislative, and judicial branches are clearly separated. The president is elected by the people and is not a member of the legislature. In such systems the president is both the political head of the government and also the head of state, who presides over ceremonies and official functions. The president chooses people to serve as his or her cabinet. These are the heads of various departments. They are not elected.

The legislature usually consists of two bodies. In the U.S. Congress, members of both the Senate and the House of Representatives are elected officials. Like the president, they are elected for set terms.

Established court systems are found in all advanced political systems. There are often several levels of courts. In the United States judges of local courts are elected by the people of a particular district. The highest court is the Supreme Court. Supreme Court justices are appointed by the president and approved by the Senate.

Parliamentary System

In a parliamentary system the prime minister is the national political leader, and another figure serves as head of state. In the United Kingdom the head of state is the queen. In Japan it is the emperor. In some countries the head of state may be an elected president, but the prime minister usually has the true power. The prime minister is generally a member of the legislature who is either elected by the legislature or chosen automatically as the leader of the party with the most members in the legislature. The prime minister's cabinet, and the leaders of the government departments, are also members of the legislature.

The legislature is known generally as a parliament, though each country may have its own name for it. In Israel the name is the Knesset, for instance, while in Japan it is the Diet. The legislature may consist of one or two houses. The members are chosen in a variety of ways. Sometimes one house is elected by the people while the members of the other house are appointed by the ruler or by regional assemblies. In other cases all members of both houses are elected.

The judiciary is also controlled by the legislature to varying degrees. In the United Kingdom all judges are appointed by the lord chancellor, who is the speaker of the House of Lords. The country's highest court is made up of judges who are members of the House of Lords.

Other Systems

Some constitutional countries, notably France, have systems that combine elements of the presidential and parliamentary approaches. Although France's constitution established a parliamentary form of government, it also increased the role of the president of the republic. The constitution gives the president the power to appoint the prime minister and the executive ministers, preside over the cabinet, sign the more important decrees, appoint high civil servants and judges, and dissolve one house of the parliament. Because of this arrangement the prime minister and president must share power to a certain extent.

Monarchies

In a monarchy one person-the king or queen-has control over all parts of the government. By the beginning of the 21st century there were few remaining absolute monarchies. Most countries that had been ruled by a monarch had become constitutional monarchies. In such cases the government consisted of a parliamentary system led by a prime minister. The king or queen had a very limited role as the head of state. Only a few countries in the Middle East, Africa, and Asia are still ruled by a monarch.

Dictatorships

Dictatorships can take various forms. In some cases elected presidents and prime ministers capture power by establishing one-party rule and ending all opposition. They may continue to call the country a republic and maintain some institutions, such as a legislature, but in fact they control all the power in the country. In other cases, the military may take control.

Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler and the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin were examples of a third type of dictatorship. In both cases the government was led by a strong leader with a specific program and goals based on a theory about the world. Both also tried to spread their power and make others follow their ideas. Many countries did establish communist governments based on the model of the Soviet Union. By the end of the 20th century, however, most of the communist governments, including that of the Soviet Union, had collapsed.

One of the major differences between democracies and dictatorships is in the role played by political parties since there are no elections in dictatorships. This role varies depending on the government. In communist countries the Communist Party is the only legal party, though there may be different groups competing for power within the party. The party controls all aspects of life. In these countries the party exists not to win elections but to select and train individuals for the guiding positions in the country's political life.

In dictatorships the legislature also has a different role. These assemblies simply approve decisions already taken by the leader or leaders of a single all-powerful party. They do not create laws or challenge the leader in any way. In many countries in Africa and the Middle East, for example, members of parliament are simply appointed by the ruling tribal or religious group, usually as a reward for having served it faithfully at the local level. In communist countries the parliaments are used as a platform for the Communist Party leadership to make known its views to the country.

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