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It was French artist Yves Klein who, in 1960, first used women's bodies as canvases, covering them in blue paint to study the impressions they made on paper, while an orchestra played on. Swiss-born multi-disciplinary artist Caroline Denervaud 's vibrant, abstract artworks recall Klein's pioneering performative work, and also comprise the emotionally raw, humanistic approach to movement as seen in the works of visionary German dance choreographer Pina Bausch. "She was the first person who inspired me," recalls Denervaud. "The way she created stories that told of the relationships between humans were so truthful and so emotional."

Transforming her passion for movement into painting, Denervaud creates a poetic and sensual dialogue between the body and dance, using sweeping organic gestures and motions to gracefully compose sculptural shapes with an improvised rhythm. The pronounced lines of her drawings are traced onto paper or canvas, later adding ink to reveal the structure of the final painting. There is an emotive bond with color in the predominance of deep pink and red, ochre and a Klein-esque blue - expressive hues that communicate the energy in her connection to dance. In contrast, her videos and stills juxtapose grainy monochrome, revealing the raw spirit behind her compositions.

Denervaud's explorative works have decorated the bedrooms of the Hotel Les Roches Rouge on the French Riviera, and also appeared in the A/W '18 collection of fashion designer Roksanda Ilincic, who, famously, asked Denervaud to create a mural for the dining room wall of a penthouse apartment she designed in London's King's Cross.

A former student of contemporary dance at the Trinity Laban college in London, and of fine arts in Paris where she now lives, Denervaud's personal art practice is both beautiful and experimental, using her body as a tool of expression, with a kind of impulsive feminine liberation that bursts out of each work. We recently caught up with the artist to learn more.

You have created work in many different ways, from drawings on paper, to painting, writing and video. How liberating is it to work with different materials and explore many different mediums?
I never quite decide in advance which medium I will use. It really depends on the mood or a feeling. After I've made small paintings on paper I usually need to dance on a big canvas and work on a big painting. Sometimes this is simply because winter is here and it's so cold at the studio and I cannot move as I want to. Or sometimes the urge to express just can't wait, so I create a trace. I don't really want to close myself off to the possibilities, and as soon as a technique and medium are deserving of an idea, then I will try to make it. My studio is my playground, my laboratory, and I am always discovering and searching! I would like to continue to explore all these different ways in my work.
You've noted that your work is research through intrinsic forms, colors, and movement. Can you tell me a little more about what this means to you?
My work is all about this! I let what's inside me (feelings, emotions, words, energies ) leave the body while dancing and beginning a painting. This may be the case for a lot of artists. I don't think before I begin, I really have no idea about what will happen until I see it. This is just a way to express, but without thinking. The forms created by the movements are quite raw, simple, designed by the shape of the body, by an energy, an impulse. After this I "canalise" the trace to build a more structured piece and then I start to play with colors, and that is the part where it is more thought out.

You studied contemporary dance at the Trinity Laban college in London, as well as studying fashion at Studio Ber Your art really values the connection between dance and painting, hence why there is a predominance of abstract bodily curves and rhythmic gestures and motions in an interplay with color. This expression is obviously ever-evolving, but what prompted this direction in your work? çot in Paris and fine arts in Paris. Is art something that you've always been interested in and excelled at? Can you tell us about your process? How do dance and art come together?
This is the only thing I've always been interested in, and good at too, yes. I started to learn dance and it was like a world opening up to me, a world with other rules and possibilities. It was like being able to enjoy poetically sharing everything inside of me. Fashion was more of a practical interest and when I couldn't dance anymore, I concentrated on my art.
Is your work improvised or do you choreograph each piece?
A friend told me I had to dance again (I had not danced for over 10 years due to an injury). Dancing was my passion, my first way to express myself. I noticed that my body was my best creative tool, it knows what to "say" even though my brain doesn't understand it. I began to move (dance) on large-sized papers and record the movements on video. I remember being touched and surprised by the images. I added ink to make the trace visible so it could be visually remembered. Colors came later. The trace is the structure of the painting that will appear.
Can you talk more about what color means to you, and how you use it in your work. What are the colors inspired by?

The dance comes first with the trace, on the floor. I can stop there and leave the trace raw, full of the movement's energy. When I decide to go further - it's not always easy to stop and leave the trace raw - I then work with colors at that point. They are really two different steps: The movement is the one that gives the architecture, the impulse and feeling; and the color part is the one that underlines and composes around the trace.

Everything is improvised. The only thing I decide is the support, whether it's paper or canvas, the size, preparation, and if I wear a dress, for example, if I'm filming.
How important to you are emotion and music in the physical energy of your paintings - those simple everyday nuances of life that perhaps connect us all?
Pink is the first color in each painting, always. Pink is for me a soft, simple, friendly color. It gives warmth but not too much. Red is also important in my work. I love the impact of red and its depth. Blue and dark green enter afterwards to add contrast. The color that is challenging for me is yellow, but I love the challenge, and black and white too.
The dialogue between a dancer and art is abundant - what new forms of artistic expression and freedoms do you think you've explored in your own visual narrative?
I have the impression - especially now, after a year where we've all felt insecure, isolated, fearful - that color can reassure us. It can rock us, bring a softness, take us elsewhere. Color is not something easy. It's necessary to master it, to dare to appropriate it, to try. It's an emotional relationship.
Do you keep anything around your studio or home for daily inspiration?

Do you prefer to work at a certain time of day or night?
These are very important for sure. These simple everyday nuances of life (as you so well said, thank you!) are going into our bodies, they affect us even indirectly. For my work they are essential. Rhythms are important too. And directions.
Do you have any kind of personal rituals that have become part of your artistic process?
This is a difficult question. I don't think I "found something;" I just let go, truly. But I like the dialogue between dance and art and the possibilities of feelings are bigger.

Nothing special except materials. My motivation is intrinsic and nearly always here. I like to have paper, linen, pigments and some medium to start when the energy arrives.
The various commissions you've worked on allow you to further open up your practice and be seen by different audiences. Which have been personal highlights for you?
I used to love painting at night time. Now as I work at the studio - it takes an hour to walk there - this is more difficult. Days are good too! I like going to the studio every day from early morning to the end of the afternoon.
Who or what were some of your earliest influences?
Sure. Unrolling the linen or paper on the floor, choosing a dress, fixing the video camera on the ceiling ... and then "dive" into the dance. Also walking to the studio. During this time I am in my dreams, looking at the people around me, planning an ideal future in my head. A time to disconnect before entering the studio and really focusing on what happens here.
What is your favorite dance-inspired painting and why?

What are you currently working on?
The first commissioned work I did was the set for Roksanda's fashion show in London in 2018. I was working at home and painting on huge panels in a short period of time. The support was different, the technique, the size. The day before the show I went to London to install the decor, panels of painted fabrics in the space, reshaping and creating a different world. During the show my work clearly became a part of the whole presentation, the set and clothes reciprocally highlighting each other. Being commissioned and working with other people is great for melting different arts and techniques. Each time I am forced to look further, to dare to explore other techniques, other supports and especially often faster timings. They're great chances for me to evolve.

Pina Bausch. Her gestures and her presence moves me so much. As a kid, I liked Jean Tinguely (Swiss sculptor), and Nikki de Saint Phalle (French-American sculptor), both for their joyful and playful work and later for their collaboration as an "artist couple."
Caroline's solo exhibition "Fugue" will be in Paris at the DoubleV Gallery, 37 R ue Chapon, from May 10th for private viewings only, and open to the public from May 20th to June 10th 2021.
In its way (even if it is not a real "dance") I will say any painting by Pollock. Because it's raw, spontaneous, urgent, like a shout or a song, becoming an incredible beautiful mess.

I just finished packing paintings for a solo show entitled "Fugue" that will take place in Paris this month, and I also have two other solo exhibitions planned for this year: one in Milan in mid-September, and one at the Mary MacGill Gallery in Germantown, New York in October entitled "The Importance of Pink," but there are no fixed dates for those yet.

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Caroline Denervaud's Paintings Are a Dialogue Between Art and Dance - Sight Unseen

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It was French artist Yves Klein who, in 1960, first used women's bodies as canvases, covering them in blue paint to study the impressions they made on paper, while an orchestra played on.

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Emma McIntyre “Pearl Diver” at Château Shatto, Los Angeles — Mousse Magazine and Publishing

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This show was selected as part of Los Angeles Oomph—a roundup of the best contemporary art exhibitions and events held by galleries, museums, and institutions

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Emma McIntyre, 32, grew up in Auckland, New Zealand, and now lives in Los Angeles under big sunsets that fill the whole sky. Her paintings of color, light, and movement glow from within. In 2022 she has had solo shows of her acid landscapes, mythological scenes, and pure musical abstraction at Air de Paris ("Up Bubbles Her Amorous Breath") and Coastal Signs in Auckland ("Madonna of the Pomegranate"). Some of McIntyre's works draw you into an illusory space; others are formalist-flat. All her large paintings begin on the floor: usually she'll start with an oil ground and pour diluted oil paint onto it, or washed-out ink or acrylic, or an oxidization solution if she's making a rust work. Her processes are experimental and instinctive, her results varied and highly unpredictable. These are paintings of chaos and chance.

Next she'll usually pour on another layer and sometimes bring in other textures by brushing or wiping the paint with rags. Then she'll move her linen onto the wall for the subsequent layers, "which are usually applied in a few hours in a frenzy of brushes and rags, stamps, rollers, limbs, and whatever else is at hand. The technique at this point is improvisational; a lot of spontaneous action with various colors and brushes until the image starts to resolve itself," McIntyre explains. "Sometimes it feels like I can almost see the finished work, and the painting process is about finding it."

Some paintings are marked by prints of her naked body or the scrape of her fingernails. These are compositions rich with sensuality, pleasure, and warm flowery atmospheres, sometimes inspired by 18th-century French fêtes galantes.

"I look to some of the Rococo artists, Fragonard and Watteau in particular, for their sensual materiality and touch; erotic content conveyed not only through subject but through paint handling," she continues. "Fragonard's frothing and ebullient forms, spilling and excessive, are most effective when offset by a lacuna somewhere in the painting. Withholding and restraint, or whatever else you might call it, are important aspects of desire. I've adapted this strategy in my own work, whether through a centripetal composition with an empty center, or through areas of blankness created by opacity or the blankness of untouched gesso." Her paintings often dance around the edges, but close to their heart there is a pause, a rest, a sunny glade that pulls you right in.
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Inside Emma McIntyre's Unrestrained Body Works

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Emma McIntyre, 32, grew up in Auckland, New Zealand, and now lives in Los Angeles under big sunsets that fill the whole sky. Her paintings of color, light, and movement glow from within.

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What is the course about?

- exploring different pathways into making abstract paintings
- providing a stimulating atmosphere for personal discovery
- encouraging an imaginative, sensitive and individual handling of paint.
- becoming familiar with visual language by looking at a variety of artists' work.

What will we cover?

- Visual language in painting: colour, composition, tone and paint application.
- Different methods of arriving at abstraction: eg. starting from observation, using experimental methods, conceptual systems and translating different sensory information.

What will I achieve?
By the end of this course you should be able to...

- Select the pictorial and material means with which to express a range of ideas, sensations and emotions.
- Use with greater confidence the visual language common to both representation and abstraction.
- Be more confident with your use of colour.

What level is the course and do I need any particular skills?

This is a course for anyone with an open mind and/or some basic drawing or painting skills.

You should be able to follow simple written and verbal instructions, demonstrations, hand-outs and health and safety information, and will be invited to take part in group discussion.

How will I be taught, and will there be any work outside the class?

You will be guided through several processes to produce abstract paintings referring to specific artists or genres. As the course progresses you will develop an individual approach to making abstract paintings. Experimentation will be encouraged.

There will be practical projects, individual guidance and encouragement, group discussion and examination of artists' work, including a gallery visit.

Are there any other costs? Is there anything I need to bring?

All the standard art materials that you will need are provided.

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When I've finished, what course can I do next?

You may be able to progress onto courses such as 'Painting; Content and Meaning', 'Reading a Paint Surface', 'Contemporary Painting Studio', or Painting 1 or 2 depending on your level.

REBECCA BOYD ALLEN After receiving a BFA degree from Kansas State University, Rebecca moved to New York and studied at the New York Studio School. There, she studied with a vast assortment of New York artists, many with ties to the abstract expressionist movement. The Studio School selected her as an exchangee student to study at the Slade School of Art in London for one year. Returning to New York, she received her MFA from Parsons School of Design. She has been teaching in London for over 20 years and created numerous courses, based on specific exhibitions and the permanent collection, at Dulwich Picture Gallery. Since 2010 she has been teaching at City Lit with courses including Life Drawing, Life Painting, Painting 2, Ways into Abstract Painting and many Watercolour courses. She has a background in figurative work, which has included observation, memory, and a love for tone and colour. More recent work is rooted in observation, yet more abstract in appearance, focusing on process and largely done using watercolour.

Please note: We reserve the right to change our tutors from those advertised. This happens rarely, but if it does, we are unable to refund fees due to this. Our tutors may have different teaching styles; however we guarantee a consistent quality of teaching in all our courses.

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Encounter different approaches to making abstract paintings while developing your skills in using a variety of painting materials. With reference to the work of abstract artists explore the visual language common to both representation and abstraction, eg. colour, composition, tone and paint application.

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Kaarina Kaikkonen's huge site-specific installation contrasts with the former factory's brutalist architecture. It consists of hundreds of second-hand shirts that together to create flowing forms. The garments, which seem to be holding hands, speak of the history of clothing production while creating a dialogue between the masculine and the feminine.

The shirts have been neatly organized by color into a form resembling the interior hull. The garments' rhythmic repetition and past lives call to mind the fragility of human beings. The exhibition 'Are We Still Going On?' and other artworks at the Collezione Maramotti can be seen until 21 April 2013, at Reggio Emilia, Italy.
+ Kaarina Kaikkonen
Via Ignant
Photos by Kaarina Kaikkonen

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Finnish Artist Kaarina Kaikkonen Creates Dreamlike Landscapes From Second Hand Clothes

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Kaarina Kaikkonen's huge site-specific installation contrasts with the former factory's brutalist architecture. It consists of hundreds of second-hand shirts that together to create flowing forms. The garments, which seem to be holding hands, speak of the history of clothing production while creating a dialogue between the masculine and the feminine.

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Irving Penn, Issey Miyake Fashion, White and Black, New York, 1990

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In conjunction with LG, 180 Studios presents an immersive installation-based art exhibition in the newly renovated FACT Space in the lower basement of the 180 The Strand building. 13 installations are taking visitors on a journey through the transformation of physical confines situated in 180’s brut…

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London-based photographer and filmmaker Gabriel Moses will unveil his first exhibition at 180 Studios this April, featuring around 50 photographs from his career across fashion, music and sport, including never-before-seen images.

The exhibition will also see the premiere of two new short films, including Ijó, commissioned by 180 Studios, that follows a group of young ballet dancers in Lagos, Nigeria, exploring common themes within Moses' work through the intersections of art, family and culture.

Inspired at a young age by black and white ancestral photography, identity and community has continuously shaped Moses' aesthetic - drawing on his South London roots and Nigerian Heritage, as well as images by acclaimed artists such as Gordon Parks and Malick Sidibé, to create work that is reflective and feels emotionally resonant.

Moses' photographs, characterised by the use of deep, moody colour palettes, engage with various cultural references to create soulful and beautiful imagery that is truly captivating and tells a story.

A self-taught photographer, Moses was offered his first directing role with Nike at the age of eighteen and went on to be the youngest photographer to shoot a cover for Dazed. He has collaborated with brands and designers including Adidas, Beats by Dre, Dior, Moncler, Supreme, Apple, Burberry, Virgil Abloh and Pharrell. His photographs have been featured in publications including Harper's Bazaar, The Face, i-D, 032c and The New York Times.

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London-based photographer and filmmaker Gabriel Moses will unveil his first exhibition at 180 Studios this April, featuring around 50 photographs from his career across fashion, music and sport, including never-before-seen images.

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Reading Time: 4 minutes

Research and intuition guide the Hungarian artist as he creates expressive works animating form and colour. We visit his east London studio, where a visual wonderland of thoughts and ideas engulf the walls

A crisp winter light bathes the geometric front of what was once a Dudley Stationery factory in Hackney Wick, East London. Outside, alternating rows of windows and washed-out blue squares divide its flat facade, crowned by a wall of grey bricks. Inside, sun seeps through the panes of glass punctuating the ground floor, leaking into the shadowy staircase on one side.

Artist Marton Perlaki's studio sits several floors up, at the end of a dark corridor behind a door coated in rough strokes of pink paint. One of 60 studios and workspaces spread over the building's four floors, it's a modest space: small and white. Light pours down from the slanted windows on one ceiling; a desk nestles in an alcove; books, art materials and archive boxes line the shelves. But the walls are alive - consumed by vivid photograms and found imagery. A vast photogram occupies one corner - a shifting blue background fragmented by sinuous lines, elegantly curving across the paper. Nearby, a photograph captures two earthy-toned butterflies feasting on the fiery flesh of citrus fruit.

"It's like I focus my daydreaming," says Perlaki, as we sit down amid the kaleidoscopic forms and colours. "I think about what excites me and what I want to do, and then I try not to think about it while creating. These days I consciously do not plan anything. I absorb information and ideas and then create things intuitively." The walls reveal this. Perlaki's mind spins an invisible web of intricate connections between the deceptively chaotic visual references overwhelming the room; a wonderland of thoughts and ideas in flux. "I discover islands of ideas, connections and conversations between the pictures," continues Perlaki, gesturing to an image of a small seal with an "extremely cute" expression and then one picturing meiosis. "It's all inspiration but also a way of making sense of how I think."

Perlaki grew up in 1980s Budapest, Hungary, part of a family where classical music and theatre were central. "I knew I was too shy to have many talents as an actor, but I was fascinated by the stage, sets and lights. The visual experience of theatre," Perlaki reflected in an interview with IGNANT . "I guess this subconsciously pushed me towards drawing at first, then photography, and film later." Perlaki initially majored in photojournalism at the Bàlint György Journalist Academy, Budapest, followed by an MA in cinematography at the Budapest University of Theatre and Film Arts. It was photography, however, that ultimately compelled him. Perlaki developed a distinctive artistic style that also spans drawing, painting and collage - a practice that animates rich colours and abstract forms and in which figurative photographs exude a surreal playfulness.

Following university, Perlaki moved to New York City, remaining there for seven years before relocating to London, where he moved into his current studio. It's a place in which he can work and think uninterrupted. "I like being alone, silently creating," says the artist. "I use the space for things you need a space for. Things that require more solitude. The studio is important because it keeps me focused."

Focus is crucial for an artist whose process involves extensive research and forethought. "I may develop a deeper interest in something," he explains. "I gather information and my thoughts begin to spread out in various ways. I let them do this and eventually channel them into something." Intuition governs Perlaki's creative process, unconscious impulses guiding him in a manner reminiscent of the Surrealist technique of automatic writing. "I do think that's the way to create. It means you inevitably have to let go of any expectations, which is the hardest thing to do." In this way, Perlaki's process subverts the idea of framing reality so readily associated with photography. "I'm not trying to illustrate anything. I dance around a theme... I keep my practice as open as possible."

Incidentally, Perlaki 'dances' to create the photograms visible throughout the studio. "I work in complete darkness," he says, describing the process as drawing with lights at a distance from light-sensitive paper in a pitch-black darkroom. "It's like a funny dance." As we talk, Perlaki stands, gesturing to a stack of books on a shelf: his sketchbooks. The pages erupt with intricate drawings, experiments in colour for his photograms, and notes in Hungarian. Despite the deceptively effortless appearance of the finished photograms, the process is laborious. Perlaki purchases most of the little lights he uses from pound shops and experiments repeatedly with them on a smaller scale, religiously recording the techniques he employs.

In this way, Perlaki's practice is a symbiosis of chaos and precision - an approach that blends an insatiable curiosity and emotional rawness with meticulous technique. The result is something distinct - an oeuvre that challenges conventional conceptions of photography. "For me, the most important thing is not visual similarity, but emotional connection," reflects Perlaki. "People expect photography to be akin to reality. But it doesn't have to be incredibly specific to be relatable." The photographer likens the medium to music: "They both involve a specific way of creating, but it's not about that - it's about the indescribable emotional effect, which may not be the same for me or you." Indeed, gazing into the celestial blue photogram hanging on a studio wall, a web of feelings envelopes me: a sort of visual satisfaction, but also a deep tranquillity. To stand in Perlaki's studio is to be immersed in a world of colour, form and experimentation. A fleeting opportunity to explore the magic of Perlaki's mind itself.

Marton Perlaki's new book Both Eyes Open, published by Loose Joints, is available to pre-order.

Hannah Abel-Hirsch joined British Journal of Photography in 2017, where she is currently Assistant Editor. Previously, she was an Editorial Assistant at Magnum Photos, and a Studio Assistant for Susan Meiselas and Mary Ellen Mark in New York. Before which, she completed a BA in History of Art at University College London. Her words have also appeared on Magnum Photos, 1000 Words, and in the Royal Academy of Arts magazine.

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Last autumn I was awarded money from the Assistant Curator Training Fund to attend an 'Introduction to Sculpture' course at City Lit, an adult education college based in Covent Garden. I started as an Assistant Curator in the Sculpture department in April last year, and as a haptic learner I wanted to gain a better understanding of the range of materials and techniques used by many different sculptors. The course is designed to provide an introductory overview into a variety of basic sculptural techniques, and the initial sessions took the form of short projects to produce a series of small models or maquettes. In the latter weeks we were able to develop one of these skills through a small personal sculpture project. Prior to this course I had never had the opportunity to work practically in the medium of sculpture, so I had great fun experimenting!

In the first session we began by working in clay and made a series of small forms and shapes. We investigated sculpture as both a subtractive and additive process, the importance of developing the structural integrity of the form and the spatial possibilities of a form, and we explored both the occupied and unoccupied spaces of the clay. This session involved the continual making and re-making of different shapes, and was a fun start to the course; forcing us to think spatially and materially rather than jumping straight to aesthetics and style.

In the second session we made a square relief in clay, and our tutor encouraged us to experiment with types of mark making. We used a range of modern sculptural tools, which remain almost identical to those used traditionally by sculptors to create work in the museum's collection (see Fig.1). These tools can be used to help build forms and add fine detail where fingers cannot, draw in the soft clay, and practically can aid in the removal of excess clay. The eventual aim was to cast the relief, so our tutor also encouraged us to create a wide variety of surface textures and depths protruding into and out of the relief surface.

Once we had completed our relief we then cast it to create a mould. This involved carefully mixing plaster with water, allowing it to slowly thicken until it became a workable consistency (the thickness of custard!). I then covered the relief in layers of plaster, allowing each layer to dry before re-mixing and applying new layers of plaster to create a solid mould (see below).

Once the clay was completely and thickly covered with plaster, I returned to it a week later to remove the clay from the plaster mould. Using a wire ended tool, I was able to carefully dig out the clay to reveal the mould below. This process had to be undertaken very carefully so as not to damage the negative plaster mould below, and I used a paintbrush and water to remove very small pieces of clay and to clean the mould afterwards.

This simple casting technique demonstrates the basic process of mould making, and a similar technique would have been used to create the casts on display in the Cast Courts. In the 19 th century moulds were often made from plaster, but could also be made from gutta percha, gelatine, or clay. Today moulds continue to be made in plaster, and silicone is often used as a quick and effective alternative, but the process of casting differs little from the 19 th century practice.

Flatter, smaller objects in low relief (such as my clay relief) usually require only one mould to cast the object. For more complex objects, with a raised surface (such as for David below), the mould would have to be made from many sections, known as piece-moulds. These pieces are held together in the so-called mother-mould, in order to create a mould of the whole object. Once the object has been cast from this mother-mould, the piece-moulds can be easily removed one by one, to create a cast of the three-dimensional object. The process I used differs in that I had to destroy the original clay relief to produce my negative mould, whereas the casts in the museum collection were made from moulds that could be removed without damaging the original work.

Unfortunately, during my course there was not enough time to then cast my original clay relief from the negative mould. However, if I were to do this I would need to mix plaster and water and pour this into the prepared mould. Prior to pouring in the plaster, the mould should be coated with a separating or paring agent to prevent the newly poured plaster sticking to them. The smooth liquid state and slight expansion while setting allows quick drying plaster to infill even the most intricate contours of a mould. Once set the mould could then be removed to leave a finished plaster reproduction of my original clay relief.

Having completed casting we then had the opportunity to try out wood carving and stone carving, and I also made a small sculpture in metal over the next few weeks. These were all great fun, and required us to use a range of different tools and equipment in the workshop. However, the results were not worthy of a photograph! In the second half of the course we were encouraged to develop an individual project, and I chose to continue working in plaster.

Working on the Cast Courts project requires me to spend a lot of my time studying and caring for the plaster casts in our collection, and in this course I really enjoyed learning how to make a very basic mould. However casting is not the only way plaster has been used historically by sculptors, and I therefore decided to continue working in the medium to gain a better understanding of how else plaster can be used. Plaster is a highly versatile and adaptable material which dries quickly and enables work to be produced rapidly in a variety of ways. Historically plaster has been used as an essential part of many sculptor's practice, and is frequently used in either the development process or to realise the final work. In Figures 7-10 I have picked out a couple of objects made from plaster in our collection to demonstrate the versatility of the material, and how it has been used by different sculptors.

My decision to develop a project in plaster was also influenced by a recent trip that I had taken to Barbara Hepworth's studio in St Ives, and so I decided to create a plaster sculpture inspired by this trip. I would have liked to create a figurative sculpture, however using plaster to create a rounded form is much quicker and was better suited to the five weeks I had to complete my small sculpture.

To make a form in plaster it is usual to make an armature to create structure and support the material. In this instance I used chicken wire to create the basic outline of my form, but aluminum is often used by many sculptors. The shape is then solidified by building up the surface with scrim, a strong coarse fabric, soaked in plaster. Once this is dry it is then possible to build up the layers of plaster (this time a much thicker and gloopier consistency!) to create the form. Then using a series of rasps, rifflers, and files, the plaster can be shaved down and smoothed to create the desired finish. I have documented this process in a series of photographs below.

This course was a fantastic opportunity to familiarise myself with a range of sculptural techniques, and I very much enjoyed getting my hands dirty! Working in plaster was particularly enjoyable, and it was great to gain a better understanding of how the material can be used to create a variety of different results. If you'd like to learn more about the range of different materials and techniques used in the medium of sculpture please visit Gallery 111 at the V&A where we explore these processes through a variety of objects and films. However, having the opportunity to try out a number of techniques was hugely informative and if you are interested in learning about a specific technique I would highly recommend giving it a go!

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Last autumn I was awarded money from the Assistant Curator Training Fund to attend an 'Introduction to Sculpture' course at City Lit, an adult education college based in Covent Garden. I started as an Assistant Curator in the Sculpture department in April last year, and as a haptic learner I wanted to gain a better understanding of the range of materials and techniques used by many different sculptors.

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Experimental sculpture in plaster and clay

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Explore the possibilities of modelling in clay and plaster. Taking inspiration from contemporary sculpture, work from found objects to develop your imagination, explore techniques of modelling, casting and transform forms according to your imagination. All levels of experience welcome.

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What is the course about?

This is an introductory course aimed at teaching you how to create your own artwork using this fascinating, easy to use, process. You will learn how to prepare and make a range of artwork using cyanotype printing, explore the process using photos, artwork and physical objects to produce your very own prints to take home with you.

What will we cover?

- Learn the simple chemistry behind preparing paper for cyanotype printing
- Historical and contemporary use of the process
- Exposure times and exposure methods
- Developing and drying prints
- How to make simple photograms, photographs and artwork for cyanotype printing
- Some basic Photoshop.

What will I achieve?
By the end of this course you should be able to...

- Mix and prepare a light sensitive solution for cyanotype printing
- Coat and prepare paper for cyanotype printing
- Exposing and developing cyanotype prepared paper
- Prepare artwork and photographs for cyanotype printing
- Make your own series of prints onto paper.

What level is the course and do I need any particular skills?

All welcome, no previous skills required.

How will I be taught, and will there be any work outside the class?

Demonstration, examples, practical work, working individually and in small groups, individual tutoring and group discussions.

Are there any other costs? Is there anything I need to bring?

Yes, a photograph saved onto a memory stick, and/or 2-D objects to make prints from such as plants, textiles, feathers, netting, paper shapes etc - anything that may cast an interesting shadow. All other necessary materials will be provided for.

When I've finished, what course can I do next?

You may wish to follow on with further photo transfer process courses such as screenprinting VS989 screenprinting for graphic arts or Screenprinting one or two. Your tutor can advise.

General information and advice on courses at City Lit is available from the Information and Advice Shop, open daily 11:00 - 19:00 Monday to Friday, 10:00 - 14:00 Saturday during term and 12.00 - 17.00 Monday to Friday during non-term. See the course guide for further details.

Gareth Berwyn was born in Bangor, N. Wales in 1981. A Fine Art graduate from The London Guild Hall University 2003. After studying Gareth honed his understanding of printmaking by working with industry professional printmakers doing editioning. Gareth apprenticed under a number of professional printers as a technician and assistant http://www.muttonfistpress.com https://www.instagram.com/garethberwyn/ gareth-berwyn.com

Please note: We reserve the right to change our tutors from those advertised. This happens rarely, but if it does, we are unable to refund fees due to this. Our tutors may have different teaching styles; however we guarantee a consistent quality of teaching in all our courses.

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JavaScript seems to be disabled in your browser. For the best experience on our site, be sure to turn on Javascript in your browser. This is an introductory course aimed at teaching you how to create your own artwork using this fascinating, easy to use, process.

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JavaScript seems to be disabled in your browser. For the best experience on our site, be sure to turn on Javascript in your browser.

What is the course about?

This course is for students who are ready to develop their own ideas in painting, with reference to the work of contemporary artists and experimental processes. Students should have completed Painting 1 and Painting 2, or higher level courses such as the City Lit Fine Art course, Foundation course or equivalent level courses.
The emphasis will be on the process of development from idea /sketch to finished painting. Informed by contemporary art practice students will be encouraged to expand their approach to making a painting, using research, experimentation, layering of imagery, exploration of materials etc. We will explore different methods of painting with reference to a particular contemporary artist to see how this affects the imagery or contributes to the meaning of the work.
This course offers students higher level guidance with the freedom to explore their own ideas.

What will we cover?

- Source material and development of subject matter: eg. sketchbook ideas, working from photographs and projections.
- Experimenting with image making materials, i.e. paint, drawing materials and mixing media and collage.
- Discussion of the visual language in painting.
- Issues in contemporary painting.

What will I achieve?
By the end of this course you should be able to...

- Use a sketchbook/photograph as a research tool for a painting/artwork.
- Expand and develop your initial visual ideas using a variety of art materials and processes.
- Make a sustained painting or series of works over several weeks.
- Develop your ability to make decisions about the development of your own work.
- Use the work of current artists as a reference and influence on your own art practice.

What level is the course and do I need any particular skills?

You will need to be able to demonstrate experience in painting methods and processes up to an intermediate level. This course encourages you to build off of prior skills and knowledge in order to develop your own painting work.

How will I be taught, and will there be any work outside the class?

The course is delivered through a series of practical projects, self-directed with individual tutor guidance and encouragement. You will also engage in group discussions and examination of artists' work to develop a more critical approach.
The contemporary painting studio course requires a level of commitment, and therefore independent study outside the studio is recommended and encouraged. As part of the course, you will have access to Google classroom as a designated Virtual Learning Environment (VLE). There you will have access to hand-outs, tutor presentations and be able to share ideas and work with peers outside of course hours.

Are there any other costs? Is there anything I need to bring?

Access to basic painting and drawing materials will be available as part of this course. We advise you to bring along a sketchbook for recording ideas, notes and feedback (A5 or A4 size) alongside any imagery to support your projects. You may wish to bring your own brushes and painting tools, alongside canvas or board as the course you're your work progresses.
Need art supplies? As a City Lit student, our partners London Graphic Centre offer 15% student discount, from pencils to printing services. To get LGC student discount, students will need to show proof/ confirmation of enrolment of them being a student at City Lit. You can apply in-store or by simply emailing info@londongraphics.co.uk with a scan or photo of relevant confirmation. The student discount does not apply to products that are already discounted or on offer. More information can be found here- https://www.londongraphics.co.uk/studentdiscounts/.

When I've finished, what course can I do next?

Any of the advanced painting classes, including advanced courses such as; the one year 'Extended Drawing for Artists and Makers', 'City Lit sculpture course', 'The year of Portrait and Figure', 'City Lit Fine Art course' and 'Developing Art Practice'.

We're sorry. We don't have a bio ready for the tutor of this class at the moment, but we're working on it! Watch this space.

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Develop your own ideas in painting with reference to the work of contemporary artists and experimental processes on this higher level course. Ideal for students who have completed 'Painting 1', 'Painting 2' or equivalent painting courses. Please note that this course uses water-based oil paints only and acrylics.

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What is the course about?

This course is designed to give you an exciting hands-on introduction to the basic principles of sculpture in our purpose-built well-equipped studio in the heart of London. This course is perfect for beginners who want to try out a range of sculptural techniques and materials, providing you with an excellent grounding in the subject. In each of the five classes you will be taught a different sculptural process by a tutor who is a specialist in that area. You will have an opportunity to shape, join, carve and cast from moulds you have made. The materials you will be working with include, metal, wood, clay and plaster. You will be supported in each class to develop your skills and ideas through making, to become familiar with the sculpture workshop, tools and terminology. Additionally, you will be introduced to the history of sculpture and take inspiration from other artists.

What will we cover?

The course will cover a range of techniques within each material or process.

Monday 17th April: Clay sculpture with Shelley Wilson
Monday 24th April: Papier mache sculpture with Ro Sylvester
Monday 1st May: No class, Bank Holiday
Monday 8th May: Wood carving with Alex Harley
Monday 15th May: Mould making and casting with Ro Sylvester
Monday 22nd May: Metalwork with Andrew Revell.

What will I achieve?
By the end of this course you should be able to...

-A knowledge of appropriate materials for making sculpture.
-Use additive sculpture making, for example modelling with clay.
-Use subtractive sculpture making, for example carving.
-Use sculptural technical terms.
-Use specialist tools.

What level is the course and do I need any particular skills?

This course is designed for complete beginners but is also well suited to those with some experience, or those returning to making who wish to refresh their skills.

How will I be taught, and will there be any work outside the class?

You will be fully supported by a specialist tutor. Teaching methods include demonstrations by the tutor to the whole group, practical activities and one-to-one feedback and guidance.

Are there any other costs? Is there anything I need to bring?

All essential materials and equipment will be provided and are included in the course fee.

You must wear sturdy shoes, that cover the whole foot (no open toe). Please also wear old working clothes or bring overalls.

We also recommend that you bring a sketchbook/notebook and pencils to sketch and make notes. A camera is also useful to photograph your work.

When I've finished, what course can I do next?

The City Lit sculpture department offers a wide range of exciting courses that will allow you to progress from beginner to advanced and learn a range of techniques. After this course you may wish to join a similar course to develop your skills further or try something completely different. We offer courses in prop making, metal, clay, wax, carving in stone and wood, mould making and casting in Jesmonite, or pewter and much more! Alternatively, you may wish to progress onto the year-long City Lit Sculpture course VU841, which helps you to build your own individual sculpture practice and culminates with an exhibition.

We are constantly adding new courses. Please ask your tutor for advice or browse the City Lit website for inspiration. It is also possible to contact our visual arts team by emailing visualarts@citylit.ac.uk, or calling (telephone temporarily unavailable) Monday - Friday 10am - 5pm.

Please note: We reserve the right to change our tutors from those advertised. This happens rarely, but if it does, we are unable to refund fees due to this. Our tutors may have different teaching styles; however we guarantee a consistent quality of teaching in all our courses.

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The ultimate introduction to sculpture at City Lit. In each class of this five-day hands-on course you will be introduced to a different sculptural technique and material, by a tutor who is a specialist in that area. This will provide you with a showcase of our sculpture facilities and teaching talent at City Lit.

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We see a lot of homeware, jewellery and even furniture now made of Jesmonite. We are so aware of how Jesmonite is used in construction and building. But what we're seeing more and more of is sculptors using Jesmonite.

Sculptors are discovering the benefits of using our non-toxic, water based material and are getting more and more inventive with it - We've previously featured the work of Mari-Ruth Odi.
Sculptors
You'll find lots of interesting and exciting sculpts if you search for the hashtag #jesmonitesculptures on Instagram including the amazing work of Art and York, Gallery 57, Suezan, Marion Brandis, Barry Reigate, Lily Minilli, Ragleth Gallery and White gold project.

It really is incredible, the effects they create and the finishes they manage sculpting using Jesmonite. Here we speak to two other sculptors about how they're using Jesmonite in their work.

Erie Iguchi, based in Tokyo, Japan, creates beautiful work after using Jesmonite for three years.

She mainly creates vibrant and funny high heels in an array of designs - because they are symbolic of women, both of dressing up beautifully and the possible gender discrimination through expectation that women must wear high heels at a fomal place.

Erie also always uses an aspect of an animal in her high heel sculptures to show the instinct or wild side of women.
Smear Jesmonite directly on
She said: "I like Jesmonite because it is a water based resin so it doesn't smell like chemicals and I can use it anywhere.

"You can also change the texture much more easily than chemical resin, which I was using before.

"It can be hard while polishing, to prepare for painting but the end product is very impressive.

"I make a prototype model by clay and make a mould by silicon then pour the Jesmonite, often then smearing the Jesmonite directly on to the sculpt before polishing it."

Erie is doing an exhibition at Rempahrenpah gallery and has won several prizes for her work at competitions in Tokyo.

For more information on Erie and her work follow her on Instagram and visit her website.
Buildings on the wall
Northern Ireland based John Donnelly uses Jesmonite to create sculptures in his spare time based on the environment around him.

Influenced by model making as part of his university studies into architecture, John now creates pieces exploring buildings across the island of Ireland.

He didn't feel comfortable selling models using regular plaster, but since discovering Jesmonite in 2016 his work reached a much higher standard and he set up his company Model Citizen - and now has work in homes across the globe.

"I have been really impressed with the clarity and detail without getting air bubbles or creating dust, since I have been using Jesmonite, he said".

"It is consistent and I am seeing results again and again, Jesmonite is a really handy way of recreating my work.

"The curing time is fantastic and I am looking to start exploring with pigments and other mixes.

"I do get a kick out of my work being in people's homes, it is nice to see posts on social media of people in New York with my models."

John has also started running presentations and classes on how to use Jesmonite at Ulster Museum and said it is a great example of how quickly you can pick up the material and run with it.

For more from John Donnelly follow his Instagram or visit his website.

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Spotlight on sculptors creating with Jesmonite | Jesmonite

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We see a lot of homeware, jewellery and even furniture now made of Jesmonite. We are so aware of how Jesmonite is used in construction and building. But what we're seeing more and more of is sculptors using Jesmonite.

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Tate glossary definition for found object: A natural or man-made object (or fragment of an object) found (or sometimes bought) by an artist and kept because of some intrinsic interest the artist sees in it

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Joseph Heinrich Beuys ( , German: [ˈjoːzɛf ˈbɔʏs]; 12 May 1921 - 23 January 1986) was a German artist, teacher, performance artist, and art theorist whose work reflected concepts of humanism, sociology, and anthroposophy. He was a founder of a provocative art movement known as Fluxus and was a key figure in the development of Happenings.

Beuys is known for his "extended definition of art" in which the ideas of social sculpture could potentially reshape society and politics. He frequently held open public debates on a wide range of subjects, including political, environmental, social, and long-term cultural issues.

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jetzt brechen wir hier den scheiß ab’. galerie rené block

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Joseph Heinrich Beuys ( , German: [ˈjoːzɛf ˈbɔʏs]; 12 May 1921 - 23 January 1986) was a German artist, teacher, performance artist, and art theorist whose work reflected concepts of humanism, sociology, and anthroposophy. He was a founder of a provocative art movement known as Fluxus and was a key figure in the development of Happenings.

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It's been a couple of years since we first tried out the 3Doodler - a pen that lets you draw in three dimensions using molten plastic that hardens when it comes into contact with the air. Since then, we've seen a revised version of the product hit shelves, and now the company is back again with yet another refinement - the 3Doodler Create. The new pen brings improved reliability and some cool new design elements.

The concept behind Wobbleworks' pens is simple, but compelling. They let the user create three dimensional objects in moments, and while it's difficult to get the hang of at first, it's certainly a blast to use.

Since hitting Kickstarter back in 2013, the company has been working to refine the product, slimming it down and making it more lightweight, making a range of accessories to enhance the experience, while also building a more child-friendly version that doesn't get quite so hot.

The 3Doodler Create isn't a revolution of the concept - it does essentially the same thing as before - but a handful of refinements should make for the best 3D sketching experience yet.

The build is a little sleeker this time around, with an aluminum case available in a "smoky blue" finish, with pink, yellow, green and bright blue colors arriving soon.

Things have changed internally, too, with a refined drive system, which the company says will allow for a smoother, more reliable experience when using the pen. There's also an ambient light bar added at the back of the device to indicate when it's switched on, and a transparent panel on the side that lets you get a peak at the pen's internal mechanisms working.

The new pen is available for order right now direct from the company for US$99. For that price you get a single pen, power adapter, a set of colored plastic strands and some tools for cleaning, nozzle removal and adjusting temperature.

There's also good news for those who picked up the older 3Doodler 2.0 pen, with owners of that device getting a significant 50 percent discount on the 3Doodler Create.

Source: Wobbleworks

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The most popular 3D printing pen gets a makeover - meet the 3Doodler Create

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It's been a couple of years since we first tried out the 3Doodler - a pen that lets you draw in three dimensions using molten plastic that hardens when it comes into contact with the air. Since then, we've seen a revised version of the product hit shelves, and now the company is back again with yet...

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For over forty years, Barbara Kasten has created photographs and sculptural installations that play with our sense of perception and explore the interplay of light, shadow, color, and form. Kasten (b. 1936, lives and works in Chicago) is best known for abstract photographs that she has made since the 1970s, in which she investigates the mechanics of photography and the visual experience of constructed space. Important influences on Kasten's work include the modernist architecture of her native city of Chicago, Constructivism, and the interdisciplinary approach of the Bauhaus school, in particular the work of László Moholy-Nagy.

In recent years, Kasten has worked increasingly with video projections and acrylic forms, creating vibrant installations that combine sculpture and video to explore the three-dimensional, architectural space that was the hallmark of her earlier photographic work. The AAM exhibition Scenarios celebrates Kasten's expansive body of sculptural non-photographic work, through which the artist extends her exploration of spatial constructions into the viewers' space and experience.

Among the works in the AAM exhibition will be examples from Kasten's recent series Progressions (2017 onward), in which the artist affixes fluorescent acrylic shapes to the surfaces of her face-mounted photographs, creating a colorful and dynamic interplay between the sculptural relief elements and the acrylic forms depicted in her photographs. The site-specific work Elevation, installed outside of the galleries, interacts with AAM architect Shigeru Ban's exterior grid of the woven slats that wrap around the museum. Scenarios will also mark the first museum exhibition in the United States to include three of the artist's ambitious video installations, making it the most comprehensive presentation of Kasten's non-photographic work to date.

This exhibition is curated by Max Weintraub, AAM Curator at Large.

We are excited to present an Artist Conversation between Barbara Kasten and fellow artist Irena Haiduk (b. Belgrade, 1982, lives and works in New York) on December 10 at 4:00 p.m. in conjunction with this exhibition. In this live Zoom conversation, Kasten and Haiduk will discuss the role of the studio in their work, and the vital distinction between taking pictures and making images. Learn more here

AAM exhibitions are made possible by the Marx Exhibition Fund. General exhibition support is provided by the Toby Devan Lewis Visiting Artist Fund. Additional support is provided by the AAM National Council.

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Barbara Kasten: Scenarios - Aspen Art Museum

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The Aspen Art Museum is a non-collecting institution presenting the newest, most important evolutions in international contemporary art. Our innovative and timely exhibitions, education and public programs, immersive activities, and community happenings actively engage audiences in thought-provoking experiences of art, culture, and society.

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Art + Commerce - Artists - Stylists - Ibrahim Kamara

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This post explains how to make your own photogram. The technique harks back to the origins of photography, one of the first means of creating an image or recording a copy of a document was to create a photogram - also referred to as Rayographs after Man Ray. It is called a contact print because the object is in contact with the photo paper, it really is that simple. There are affiliate links in this post, check my mission statement to learn more.
I find it always helps to have a darkroom mascot, someone who is always there to keep you company. Someone you can rely on, who is always smiling and will never let you down...
Photographers that you can research for your A-Level or GCSE photography project are:
Man Ray, Christian Schad, Martha Madigan and Lazslo Moholy Nagy.

The below image is plastic drinks bottles containing a little bit of water.
What you will need

darkroom

chemical baths- develop, stop, fixer and water bath - Ilford Chemicals

photo paper - cheapest on amazon

enlarger/studio flash head/on camera flash/flashgun/desk lamp

Darkroom chemicals - CHECK
THE DARKROOM IS A BLOODY MESS - but I don't really care
STEP 1
Lay out your objects on the enlarger or clear surface.

In this example I used cling film. Any transparent or translucent object will work - go nuts, try loads of things.

Keep your surface clear!!! When you turn the lights off it's so easy to knock things over if you're not careful.

STEP 2

Turn on the red safety light

STEP 3

Take a piece of photographic paper out of the box and place it on the table
Remember to seal the rest of the paper back up
STEP 4

Place object on top of photographic paper (I used cling film to see what it looked like)

STEP 5

Expose paper to light

Note: your exposure time will vary depending on your light source - patience and practice is key. Make notes of your exposure times if you don't have an enlarger and expose for less time if the image comes out black and more time if it comes out white.

STEP 6

Place photographic paper face down in the developer for a few minutes

Then place in the stop bath for ten seconds

Place in the Fixer for five minutes

Place in the water bath/sink

STEP 6

Turn on the lights and either examine your masterpiece or adjust exposure time for the next print.

The cling film came out like this, which was pretty cool and has got potential to be developed.

The above is the negative version.

Scan your photograms and invert them on Photoshop (ctrl+I) to see the positive image.
Get creative
This is a photogram of Sugar and a close up showing the detail.

I created this by tilting the enlarger head so the sugar cast a shadow.

Because I touched the edge of the paper it has created a similar result to a chemigram - I'm pretty sure you could layer these ideas to create something brand new

This is sugar, however this time I held a lens in front of the paper in order to bend the light across it

Don't be boring and copy Moholy Nagy and put strips of negative film across it.

Layer ideas

Why not develop a photograph onto the paper and then create a photogram on top of that before developing?

Or mix a photogram and a chemigram?
The Process recap
Use the cling film to create an x-ray effect, or try and make it look like a jellyfish?

Make sure you have laid out all of the items you intend to make a print of in easy to reach locations. Turn on the red lights, make sure the safety filter is deployed on the enlarger and turn on the enlarger preview lights. Raise or lower the enlarger to match the size of photographic paper you're using, place the paper on the enlarger making sure that the light covers all of the paper. Arrange your objects on top of the page, taking care over your composition. Remember what ever is touching the paper will be sharper than those that are hovering slightly above it. Again exposure time may take some tweaking, fresh developer should give you an exposure time of one to two seconds. When the print is in the developer, if it looks like its turning black, don't take it out for fear of losing your print and make sure you leave it for at least two minutes. If you take it out two early you'll never know what correct exposure should be for your prints, if its completely black, you've overexposed it, sure you lost that image but going forward you'll have a much better idea for all future prints. Also if you take your print out too early just to save it, it will probably be streaky anyway, so let it do its thing and learn from the outcome.

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How to create contact prints, photograms and rayographs - Photography Project

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This post explains how to make your own photogram. The technique harks back to the origins of photography, one of the first means of creating an image or recording a copy of a document was to create a photogram - also referred to as Rayographs after Man Ray.

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https://www.mckinsey.com/~/media/mckinsey/industries/retail/our%20insights/state%20of%20fashion/2022/the-state-of-fashion-2022.pdf

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Featuring Angus James MacEwan, senior vice president of marketing & US business of Highsnobiety, Antoine Gregory, founder of Black Fashion Fair and Soraya Lamari, publishing director of The Perfect Magazine, in conversation with senior editorial associate Alexandra Mondalek.

To prepare for the upcoming webinar:

If you don't already have Zoom installed on your device, make sure to install Zoom for desktop devices now. If you need to connect via a mobile device, you can install the Zoom app ahead of time:
- Get Zoom for your Android device here

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BoF LIVE: A Survival Strategy for Fashion Magazines

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Join us on Wednesday, June 1 at 16:00 BST / 11:00 EDT as BoF's senior editorial associate Alexandra Mondalek along with Highsnobiety's Angus James MacEwan, Black Fashion Fair's Antoine Gregory and The Perfect Magazine's Soraya Lamari discuss what publishers, marketers and brands need to know about the future of print.

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HODAKOVA: The suit deconstructor that makes upcycling wearable

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It's not an easier way to produce, but nothing is easy until you have practiced it for a long time. Then you become a pro. What is the hardest thing about running a brand? Are there any elements that you are struggling with? The hardest is to do everything for the first time.

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HODAKOVA - emergent designer

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"Schiaparelli is an incredibly magical world where everything feels possible'.

"The mission of this brand is really to inspire people."

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Fluid stability in Jackson Pollock’s paintings

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Fluid stability in Jackson Pollock’s paintings

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The artist avoided conditions that would generate hydrodynamic instabilities and frustrate his conceptions.

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Jackson Pollock

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Anna Lomax is an artist and designer, working within the field of Creative Direction and Set Design from still life through to large scale sculptural installation.

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Memphis Design is an influential postmodern style that emerged from the celebrated Memphis Design collective of Milan-based designers in the early 1980s. It was spearheaded by the legendary Italian designer Ettore Sottsass (1917-2007), and had an outsize impact on 80s design, challenging the status quo with its fearless mishmash of styles. Not for the faint of heart, Memphis Design was a polarizing style with its bold colors, clashing patterns, and radical approach to design. Today Memphis Design is the stuff of museum retrospectives and an enduring source of inspiration for modern-day interior designers, fashion designers, graphic and type designers, set and costume designers and more.

History of Memphis Design

Austrian-born, Italian architect and designer Ettore Sottsass formed the Memphis Design Group in his Milan living room in 1980, where he assembled a collective of daring designers from around the globe united in a desire to shake up the design world. They introduced their eye-catching, controversial, rule-breaking style with 55 pieces that debuted at Milan's Salone del Mobile (now called the Milan Furniture Fair) in 1981, creating a buzzy love-it-or-hate-it kind of style that became instantly famous around the globe.

With its ornamental style infused with pop culture and historical references, Memphis Design was a reaction to the clean, linear midcentury modern aesthetic of the 1950s and 60s and the minimalism of the 1970s. Sottsass himself came out of the Radical Design and anti-design movements in Italy starting in the 1960s. His early work included sculptural furniture that he called " totems" that are now housed in prominent international museums like the Met in New York City. Memphis Design was influenced by the revived interest in the 1920s Art Deco movement as well as mid-century Pop Art, both of which were popular styles in the 1980s, with some 1950s kitsch thrown in for good measure. Some people found Memphis Design delightful. Others found it garish. One critic memorably described it as " a shotgun wedding between Bauhaus and Fisher-Price."

Sottsass and his cohorts designed decorative metal and glass objects, home accessories, ceramics, lighting, textiles, furniture, buildings, interiors, and brand identities that were unexpected, playful, rule-breaking, and full of the idealism that the best designers have to make the world a better place. "When I was young, all we ever heard about was functionalism, functionalism, functionalism," Sottsass once said. "It's not enough. Design should also be sensual and exciting."

Memphis Design influenced the popular culture, inspiring the set of popular TV shows like Pee- wee's Playhouse and Saved By the Bell. Celebrity 1980s superfans of the design style included legendary fashion designer Karl Lagerfeld and David Bowie. But Memphis Design was never everybody's cup of tea, and the movement had fizzled before the decade was out, with Sottsass himself leaving the collective in 1985 and some of its other leading designers pursuing solo careers once the band broke up for good in 1988. In the 1990s, the Memphis-Milano brand was purchased by Alberto Bianchi Albrici, who continues to produce the collective's original 1980s designs. And starting in the 2010s as nostalgia for 80s style has returned, Memphis Design has become a wellspring of inspiration for multi-disciplinary designers, including fashion houses such as Christian Dior and Missoni, and new generations of interior designers, type designers, filmmakers and more.

So why was this Italian-born design movement called Memphis Design? Its name is a reference to the Bob Dylan song, Stuck Inside of Mobile with the Memphis Blues Again, from his 1966 Blonde on Blonde album that had been playing on a loop the night the Memphis Design collective had its first official meeting in Sottsass' living room.

Key Characteristics of Memphis Design

Challenged notions of conventional good taste

Flouted the prevailing Bauhaus design philosophy that form follows function

Designed to provoke an emotional response

Loud, brash, spirited, playful, uninhibited

Use of bright colors in unorthodox combinations

Deliberate use of bold, clashing patterns

Use of simple geometric shapes

Use of black-and-white graphics

Rounded edges and curves

A fondness for squiggles

Use of materials such as terrazzo and plastic laminate in various finishes

Defying expectations by using unusual shapes in place of conventional ones, such as round legs on a table

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Memphis Design is an influential postmodern style that emerged from the celebrated Memphis Design collective of Milan-based designers in the early 1980s. It was spearheaded by the legendary Italian designer Ettore Sottsass (1917-2007), and had an outsize impact on 80s design, challenging the status quo with its fearless mishmash of styles.

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Pablo Picasso, 1910, Girl with a Mandolin (Fanny Tellier), oil on canvas, 100.3 × 73.6 cm, Museum of Modern Art, New York

Cubism is an early-20th-century avant-garde art movement that revolutionized European painting and sculpture, and inspired related artistic movements in music, literature, and architecture. In Cubist works of art, the subjects are analysed, broken up, and reassembled in an abstract form-instead of depicting objects from a single perspective, the artist depicts the subject from multiple perspectives to represent the subject in a greater context. Cubism has been considered the most influential art movement of the 20th century. The term cubism is broadly associated with a variety of artworks produced in Paris ( Montmartre and Montparnasse) or near Paris ( Puteaux) during the 1910s and throughout the 1920s.

The movement was pioneered by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque, and joined by Jean Metzinger, Albert Gleizes, Robert Delaunay, Henri Le Fauconnier, Juan Gris, and Fernand Léger. One primary influence that led to Cubism was the representation of three-dimensional form in the late works of Paul Cézanne. A retrospective of Cézanne's paintings was held at the of 1904, current works were displayed at the 1905 and 1906 Salon d'Automne , followed by two commemorative retrospectives after his death in 1907.

In France, offshoots of Cubism developed, including Orphism, abstract art and later Purism. The impact of Cubism was far-reaching and wide-ranging. In France and other countries Futurism, Suprematism, Dada, Constructivism, Vorticism, De Stijl and Art Deco developed in response to Cubism. Early Futurist paintings hold in common with Cubism the fusing of the past and the present, the representation of different views of the subject pictured at the same time or successively, also called multiple perspective, simultaneity or multiplicity, while Constructivism was influenced by Picasso's technique of constructing sculpture from separate elements. Other common threads between these disparate movements include the faceting or simplification of geometric forms, and the association of mechanization and modern life.

Historians have divided the history of Cubism into phases. In one scheme, the first phase of Cubism, known as Analytic Cubism, a phrase coined by Juan Gris a posteriori, was both radical and influential as a short but highly significant art movement between 1910 and 1912 in France. A second phase, Synthetic Cubism, remained vital until around 1919, when the Surrealist movement gained popularity. English art historian Douglas Cooper proposed another scheme, describing three phases of Cubism in his book, The Cubist Epoch. According to Cooper there was "Early Cubism", (from 1906 to 1908) when the movement was initially developed in the studios of Picasso and Braque; the second phase being called "High Cubism", (from 1909 to 1914) during which time Juan Gris emerged as an important exponent (after 1911); and finally Cooper referred to "Late Cubism" (from 1914 to 1921) as the last phase of Cubism as a radical avant-garde movement. Douglas Cooper's restrictive use of these terms to distinguish the work of Braque, Picasso, Gris (from 1911) and Léger (to a lesser extent) implied an intentional value judgement.

Pablo Picasso, Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, 1907, considered to be a major step towards the founding of the Cubist movement[13]

Pablo Picasso, 1909-10, Figure dans un Fauteuil (Seated Nude, Femme nue assise), oil on canvas, 92.1 × 73 cm, Tate Modern, London

Cubism burgeoned between 1907 and 1911. Pablo Picasso's 1907 painting Les Demoiselles d'Avignon has often been considered a proto-Cubist work.

In 1908, in his review of Georges Braque's exhibition at Kahnweiler's gallery, the critic Louis Vauxcelles called Braque a daring man who despises form, "reducing everything, places and a figures and houses, to geometric schemas, to cubes".

Vauxcelles recounted how Matisse told him at the time, "Braque has just sent in [to the 1908 Salon d'Automne ] a painting made of little cubes". The critic Charles Morice relayed Matisse's words and spoke of Braque's little cubes. The motif of the viaduct at l'Estaque had inspired Braque to produce three paintings marked by the simplification of form and deconstruction of perspective.

Georges Braque's 1908 Houses at L'Estaque (and related works) prompted Vauxcelles, in Gil Blas, 25 March 1909, to refer to bizarreries cubiques (cubic oddities). Gertrude Stein referred to landscapes made by Picasso in 1909, such as Reservoir at Horta de Ebro, as the first Cubist paintings. The first organized group exhibition by Cubists took place at the Salon des Indépendants in Paris during the spring of 1911 in a room called 'Salle 41'; it included works by Jean Metzinger, Albert Gleizes, Fernand Léger, Robert Delaunay and Henri Le Fauconnier, yet no works by Picasso or Braque were exhibited.

By 1911 Picasso was recognized as the inventor of Cubism, while Braque's importance and precedence was argued later, with respect to his treatment of space, volume and mass in the L'Estaque landscapes. But "this view of Cubism is associated with a distinctly restrictive definition of which artists are properly to be called Cubists," wrote the art historian Christopher Green: "Marginalizing the contribution of the artists who exhibited at the Salon des Indépendants in 1911 [...]"

The assertion that the Cubist depiction of space, mass, time, and volume supports (rather than contradicts) the flatness of the canvas was made by Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler as early as 1920, but it was subject to criticism in the 1950s and 1960s, especially by Clement Greenberg.

Contemporary views of Cubism are complex, formed to some extent in response to the "Salle 41" Cubists, whose methods were too distinct from those of Picasso and Braque to be considered merely secondary to them. Alternative interpretations of Cubism have therefore developed. Wider views of Cubism include artists who were later associated with the "Salle 41" artists, e.g., Francis Picabia; the brothers Jacques Villon, Raymond Duchamp-Villon and Marcel Duchamp, who beginning in late 1911 formed the core of the Section d'Or (or the Puteaux Group); the sculptors Alexander Archipenko, Joseph Csaky and Ossip Zadkine as well as Jacques Lipchitz and Henri Laurens; and painters such as Louis Marcoussis, Roger de La Fresnaye, František Kupka, Diego Rivera, Léopold Survage, Auguste Herbin, André Lhote, Gino Severini (after 1916), María Blanchard (after 1916) and Georges Valmier (after 1918). More fundamentally, Christopher Green argues that Douglas Cooper's terms were "later undermined by interpretations of the work of Picasso, Braque, Gris and Léger that stress iconographic and ideological questions rather than methods of representation."

John Berger identifies the essence of Cubism with the mechanical diagram. "The metaphorical model of Cubism is the diagram: The diagram being a visible symbolic representation of invisible processes, forces, structures. A diagram need not eschew certain aspects of appearance but these too will be treated as signs not as imitations or recreations."

Albert Gleizes, L'Homme au Balcon, Man on a Balcony (Portrait of Dr. Théo Morinaud), 1912, oil on canvas, 195.6 × 114.9 cm (77 × 45 1/4 in.), Philadelphia Museum of Art. Completed the same year that Albert Gleizes co-authored the book Du "Cubisme" with Jean Metzinger. Exhibited at Salon d'Automne , Paris, 1912, Armory show, New York, Chicago, Boston, 1913.

There was a distinct difference between Kahnweiler's Cubists and the Salon Cubists. Prior to 1914, Picasso, Braque, Gris and Léger (to a lesser extent) gained the support of a single committed art dealer in Paris, Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler, who guaranteed them an annual income for the exclusive right to buy their works. Kahnweiler sold only to a small circle of connoisseurs. His support gave his artists the freedom to experiment in relative privacy. Picasso worked in Montmartre until 1912, while Braque and Gris remained there until after the First World War. Léger was based in Montparnasse.

In contrast, the Salon Cubists built their reputation primarily by exhibiting regularly at the Salon d'Automne and the Salon des Indépendants, both major non-academic Salons in Paris. They were inevitably more aware of public response and the need to communicate. Already in 1910 a group began to form which included Metzinger, Gleizes, Delaunay and Léger. They met regularly at Henri le Fauconnier's studio near the boulevard du Montparnasse. These soirées often included writers such as Guillaume Apollinaire and André Salmon. Together with other young artists, the group wanted to emphasise a research into form, in opposition to the Neo-Impressionist emphasis on color.

Louis Vauxcelles, in his review of the 26th Salon des Indépendants (1910), made a passing and imprecise reference to Metzinger, Gleizes, Delaunay, Léger and Le Fauconnier as "ignorant geometers, reducing the human body, the site, to pallid cubes." At the 1910 Salon d'Automne , a few months later, Metzinger exhibited his highly fractured Nu à la cheminée (Nude), which was subsequently reproduced in both Du "Cubisme" (1912) and Les Peintres Cubistes (1913).

The first public controversy generated by Cubism resulted from Salon showings at the Indépendants during the spring of 1911. This showing by Metzinger, Gleizes, Delaunay, le Fauconnier and Léger brought Cubism to the attention of the general public for the first time. Amongst the Cubist works presented, Robert Delaunay exhibited his Eiffel Tower, Tour Eiffel (Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York).

The "Cubists" Dominate Paris' Fall Salon, The New York Times, October 8, 1911. Picasso's 1908 Seated Woman (Meditation) is reproduced along with a photograph of the artist in his studio (upper left). Metzinger's Baigneuses (1908-09) is reproduced top right. Also reproduced are works by Derain, Matisse, Friesz, Herbin, and a photo of Braque.

At the Salon d'Automne of the same year, in addition to the Indépendants group of Salle 41, were exhibited works by André Lhote, Marcel Duchamp, Jacques Villon, Roger de La Fresnaye, André Dunoyer de Segonzac and František Kupka. The exhibition was reviewed in the October 8, 1911 issue of The New York Times. This article was published a year after Gelett Burgess' The Wild Men of Paris, and two years prior to the Armory Show, which introduced astonished Americans, accustomed to realistic art, to the experimental styles of the European avant garde, including Fauvism, Cubism, and Futurism. The 1911 New York Times article portrayed works by Picasso, Matisse, Derain, Metzinger and others dated before 1909; not exhibited at the 1911 Salon. The article was titled The "Cubists" Dominate Paris' Fall Salon and subtitled Eccentric School of Painting Increases Its Vogue in the Current Art Exhibition - What Its Followers Attempt to Do.

Among all the paintings on exhibition at the Paris Fall Salon none is attracting so much attention as the extraordinary productions of the so-called "Cubist" school. In fact, dispatches from Paris suggest that these works are easily the main feature of the exhibition. [...]

In spite of the crazy nature of the "Cubist" theories the number of those professing them is fairly respectable. Georges Braque, André Derain, Picasso, Czobel, Othon Friesz, Herbin, Metzinger-these are a few of the names signed to canvases before which Paris has stood and now again stands in blank amazement.

What do they mean? Have those responsible for them taken leave of their senses? Is it art or madness? Who knows?

Salon des Indépendants

The subsequent 1912 Salon des Indépendants located in Paris (20 March to 16 May 1912) was marked by the presentation of Marcel Duchamp's Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2, which itself caused a scandal, even amongst the Cubists. It was in fact rejected by the hanging committee, which included his brothers and other Cubists. Although the work was shown in the Salon de la Section d'Or in October 1912 and the 1913 Armory Show in New York, Duchamp never forgave his brothers and former colleagues for censoring his work. Juan Gris, a new addition to the Salon scene, exhibited his Portrait of Picasso (Art Institute of Chicago), while Metzinger's two showings included La Femme au Cheval (Woman with a horse) 1911-1912 ( National Gallery of Denmark). Delaunay's monumental La Ville de Paris (Musée d'art moderne de la Ville de Paris) and Léger's La Noce, The Wedding (Musée National d'Art Moderne, Paris), were also exhibited.

Galeries Dalmau

In 1912, Galeries Dalmau presented the first declared group exhibition of Cubism worldwide ( Exposició d'Art Cubista), with a controversial showing by Jean Metzinger, Albert Gleizes, Juan Gris, Marie Laurencin and Marcel Duchamp (Barcelona, 20 April to 10 May 1912). The Dalmau exhibition comprised 83 works by 26 artists. Jacques Nayral's association with Gleizes led him to write the Preface for the Cubist exhibition, which was fully translated and reproduced in the newspaper La Veu de Catalunya. Duchamp's Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2 was exhibited for the first time.

Extensive media coverage (in newspapers and magazines) before, during and after the exhibition launched the Galeries Dalmau as a force in the development and propagation of modernism in Europe. While press coverage was extensive, it was not always positive. Articles were published in the newspapers Esquella de La Torratxa and El Noticiero Universal attacking the Cubists with a series of caricatures laced with derogatory text. Art historian Jaime Brihuega writes of the Dalmau show: "No doubt that the exhibition produced a strong commotion in the public, who welcomed it with a lot of suspicion.

Salon d'Automne

The Cubist contribution to the 1912 Salon d'Automne created scandal regarding the use of government owned buildings, such as the Grand Palais, to exhibit such artwork. The indignation of the politician Jean Pierre Philippe Lampué made the front page of Le Journal, 5 October 1912. The controversy spread to the Municipal Council of Paris, leading to a debate in the Chambre des Députés about the use of public funds to provide the venue for such art. The Cubists were defended by the Socialist deputy, Marcel Sembat.

It was against this background of public anger that Jean Metzinger and Albert Gleizes wrote (published by Eugène Figuière in 1912, translated to English and Russian in 1913). Among the works exhibited were Le Fauconnier's vast composition Les Montagnards attaqués par des ours (Mountaineers Attacked by Bears) now at Rhode Island School of Design Museum, Joseph Csaky's Deux Femme, Two Women (a sculpture now lost), in addition to the highly abstract paintings by Kupka, Amorpha (The National Gallery, Prague), and Picabia, La Source (The Spring) (Museum of Modern Art, New York).

Abstraction and the ready-made

Robert Delaunay, Simultaneous Windows on the City, 1912, 46 x 40 cm, Hamburger Kunsthalle, an example of Abstract Cubism

The most extreme forms of Cubism were not those practiced by Picasso and Braque, who resisted total abstraction. Other Cubists, by contrast, especially František Kupka, and those considered Orphists by Apollinaire (Delaunay, Léger, Picabia and Duchamp), accepted abstraction by removing visible subject matter entirely. Kupka's two entries at the 1912 Salon d'Automne, Amorpha-Fugue à deux couleurs and Amorpha chromatique chaude, were highly abstract (or nonrepresentational) and metaphysical in orientation. Both Duchamp in 1912 and Picabia from 1912 to 1914 developed an expressive and allusive abstraction dedicated to complex emotional and sexual themes. Beginning in 1912 Delaunay painted a series of paintings entitled Simultaneous Windows, followed by a series entitled Formes Circulaires, in which he combined planar structures with bright prismatic hues; based on the optical characteristics of juxtaposed colors his departure from reality in the depiction of imagery was quasi-complete. In 1913-14 Léger produced a series entitled Contrasts of Forms, giving a similar stress to color, line and form. His Cubism, despite its abstract qualities, was associated with themes of mechanization and modern life. Apollinaire supported these early developments of abstract Cubism in Les Peintres cubistes (1913), writing of a new "pure" painting in which the subject was vacated. But in spite of his use of the term Orphism these works were so different that they defy attempts to place them in a single category.

Also labeled an Orphist by Apollinaire, Marcel Duchamp was responsible for another extreme development inspired by Cubism. The ready-made arose from a joint consideration that the work itself is considered an object (just as a painting), and that it uses the material detritus of the world (as collage and papier collé in the Cubist construction and Assemblage). The next logical step, for Duchamp, was to present an ordinary object as a self-sufficient work of art representing only itself. In 1913 he attached a bicycle wheel to a kitchen stool and in 1914 selected a bottle-drying rack as a sculpture in its own right.

Section d'Or

The Salon d'Automne of 1912, held in Paris at the Grand Palais from 1 October to 8 November. Joseph Csaky's sculpture Groupe de femmes of 1911-12 is exhibited to the left, in front of two sculptures by Amedeo Modigliani. Other works by Section d'Or artists are shown (left to right): František Kupka, Francis Picabia, Jean Metzinger and Henri Le Fauconnier.

The Section d'Or, also known as Groupe de Puteaux, founded by some of the most conspicuous Cubists, was a collective of painters, sculptors and critics associated with Cubism and Orphism, active from 1911 through about 1914, coming to prominence in the wake of their controversial showing at the 1911 Salon des Indépendants. The Salon de la Section d'Or at the Galerie La Boétie in Paris, October 1912, was arguably the most important pre-World War I Cubist exhibition; exposing Cubism to a wide audience. Over 200 works were displayed, and the fact that many of the artists showed artworks representative of their development from 1909 to 1912 gave the exhibition the allure of a Cubist retrospective.

The group seems to have adopted the name Section d'Or to distinguish themselves from the narrower definition of Cubism developed in parallel by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque in the Montmartre quarter of Paris, and to show that Cubism, rather than being an isolated art-form, represented the continuation of a grand tradition (indeed, the golden ratio had fascinated Western intellectuals of diverse interests for at least 2,400 years).

The idea of the Section d'Or originated in the course of conversations between Metzinger, Gleizes and Jacques Villon. The group's title was suggested by Villon, after reading a 1910 translation of Leonardo da Vinci's Trattato della Pittura by Joséphin Péladan.

During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Europeans were discovering African, Polynesian, Micronesian and Native American art. Artists such as Paul Gauguin, Henri Matisse, and Pablo Picasso were intrigued and inspired by the stark power and simplicity of styles of those foreign cultures. Around 1906, Picasso met Matisse through Gertrude Stein, at a time when both artists had recently acquired an interest in primitivism, Iberian sculpture, African art and African tribal masks. They became friendly rivals and competed with each other throughout their careers, perhaps leading to Picasso entering a new period in his work by 1907, marked by the influence of Greek, Iberian and African art. Picasso's paintings of 1907 have been characterized as Protocubism, as notably seen in Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, the antecedent of Cubism.

Paul Cézanne, Quarry Bibémus, 1898-1900, Museum Folkwang, Essen, Germany

The art historian Douglas Cooper states that Paul Gauguin and Paul Cézanne "were particularly influential to the formation of Cubism and especially important to the paintings of Picasso during 1906 and 1907". Cooper goes on to say: "The Demoiselles is generally referred to as the first Cubist picture. This is an exaggeration, for although it was a major first step towards Cubism it is not yet Cubist. The disruptive, expressionist element in it is even contrary to the spirit of Cubism, which looked at the world in a detached, realistic spirit. Nevertheless, the Demoiselles is the logical picture to take as the starting point for Cubism, because it marks the birth of a new pictorial idiom, because in it Picasso violently overturned established conventions and because all that followed grew out of it."

The most serious objection to regarding the Demoiselles as the origin of Cubism, with its evident influence of primitive art, is that "such deductions are unhistorical", wrote the art historian Daniel Robbins. This familiar explanation "fails to give adequate consideration to the complexities of a flourishing art that existed just before and during the period when Picasso's new painting developed." Between 1905 and 1908, a conscious search for a new style caused rapid changes in art across France, Germany, The Netherlands, Italy, and Russia. The Impressionists had used a double point of view, and both Les Nabis and the Symbolists (who also admired Cézanne) flattened the picture plane, reducing their subjects to simple geometric forms. Neo-Impressionist structure and subject matter, most notably to be seen in the works of Georges Seurat (e.g., Parade de Cirque, and ), was another important influence. There were also parallels in the development of literature and social thought.

In addition to Seurat, the roots of cubism are to be found in the two distinct tendencies of Cézanne's later work: first his breaking of the painted surface into small multifaceted areas of paint, thereby emphasizing the plural viewpoint given by binocular vision, and second his interest in the simplification of natural forms into cylinders, spheres, and cones. However, the cubists explored this concept further than Cézanne. They represented all the surfaces of depicted objects in a single picture plane, as if the objects had all their faces visible at the same time. This new kind of depiction revolutionized the way objects could be visualized in painting and art.

Jean Metzinger, 1911-12, La Femme au Cheval, Woman with a horse, Statens Museum for Kunst, National Gallery of Denmark. Exhibited at the 1912 Salon des Indépendants, and published in Apollinaire's 1913 The Cubist Painters, Aesthetic Meditations. Provenance: Jacques Nayral, Niels Bohr

The historical study of Cubism began in the late 1920s, drawing at first from sources of limited data, namely the opinions of Guillaume Apollinaire. It came to rely heavily on Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler's book Der Weg zum Kubismus (published in 1920), which centered on the developments of Picasso, Braque, Léger, and Gris. The terms "analytical" and "synthetic" which subsequently emerged have been widely accepted since the mid-1930s. Both terms are historical impositions that occurred after the facts they identify. Neither phase was designated as such at the time corresponding works were created. "If Kahnweiler considers Cubism as Picasso and Braque," wrote Daniel Robbins, "our only fault is in subjecting other Cubists' works to the rigors of that limited definition."

The traditional interpretation of "Cubism", formulated post facto as a means of understanding the works of Braque and Picasso, has affected our appreciation of other twentieth-century artists. It is difficult to apply to painters such as Jean Metzinger, Albert Gleizes, Robert Delaunay and Henri Le Fauconnier, whose fundamental differences from traditional Cubism compelled Kahnweiler to question whether to call them Cubists at all. According to Daniel Robbins, "To suggest that merely because these artists developed differently or varied from the traditional pattern they deserved to be relegated to a secondary or satellite role in Cubism is a profound mistake."

The history of the term "Cubism" usually stresses the fact that Matisse referred to "cubes" in connection with a painting by Braque in 1908, and that the term was published twice by the critic Louis Vauxcelles in a similar context. However, the word "cube" was used in 1906 by another critic, Louis Chassevent, with reference not to Picasso or Braque but rather to Metzinger and Delaunay:

"M. Metzinger is a mosaicist like M. Signac but he brings more precision to the cutting of his cubes of color which appear to have been made mechanically [...]".

The critical use of the word "cube" goes back at least to May 1901 when Jean Béral, reviewing the work of Henri-Edmond Cross at the Indépendants in Art et Littérature, commented that he "uses a large and square pointillism, giving the impression of mosaic. One even wonders why the artist has not used cubes of solid matter diversely colored: they would make pretty revetments." (Robert Herbert, 1968, p. 221)

The term Cubism did not come into general usage until 1911, mainly with reference to Metzinger, Gleizes, Delaunay, and Léger. In 1911, the poet and critic Guillaume Apollinaire accepted the term on behalf of a group of artists invited to exhibit at the Brussels Indépendants. The following year, in preparation for the Salon de la Section d'Or, Metzinger and Gleizes wrote and published in an effort to dispel the confusion raging around the word, and as a major defence of Cubism (which had caused a public scandal following the 1911 Salon des Indépendants and the 1912 Salon d'Automne in Paris). Clarifying their aims as artists, this work was the first theoretical treatise on Cubism and it still remains the clearest and most intelligible. The result, not solely a collaboration between its two authors, reflected discussions by the circle of artists who met in Puteaux and Courbevoie. It mirrored the attitudes of the "artists of Passy", which included Picabia and the Duchamp brothers, to whom sections of it were read prior to publication. The concept developed in Du "Cubisme" of observing a subject from different points in space and time simultaneously, i.e., the act of moving around an object to seize it from several successive angles fused into a single image (multiple viewpoints, mobile perspective, simultaneity or multiplicity), is a generally recognized device used by the Cubists.

The 1912 manifesto by Metzinger and Gleizes was followed in 1913 by Les Peintres Cubistes, a collection of reflections and commentaries by Guillaume Apollinaire. Apollinaire had been closely involved with Picasso beginning in 1905, and Braque beginning in 1907, but gave as much attention to artists such as Metzinger, Gleizes, Delaunay, Picabia, and Duchamp.

The fact that the 1912 exhibition had been curated to show the successive stages through which Cubism had transited, and that had been published for the occasion, indicates the artists' intention of making their work comprehensible to a wide audience (art critics, art collectors, art dealers and the general public). Undoubtedly, due to the great success of the exhibition, Cubism became avant-garde movement recognized as a genre or style in art with a specific common philosophy or goal.

Jean Metzinger, 1914-15, Soldat jouant aux échecs (Soldier at a Game of Chess, Le Soldat à la partie d'échecs), oil on canvas, 81.3 × 61 cm, Smart Museum of Art, University of Chicago

A significant modification of Cubism between 1914 and 1916 was signaled by a shift towards a strong emphasis on large overlapping geometric planes and flat surface activity. This grouping of styles of painting and sculpture, especially significant between 1917 and 1920, was practiced by several artists; particularly those under contract with the art dealer and collector Léonce Rosenberg. The tightening of the compositions, the clarity and sense of order reflected in these works, led to its being referred to by the critic Maurice Raynal as 'crystal' Cubism. Considerations manifested by Cubists prior to the outset of World War I-such as the fourth dimension, dynamism of modern life, the occult, and Henri Bergson's concept of duration -had now been vacated, replaced by a purely formal frame of reference.

Crystal Cubism, and its associative rappel à l'ordre, has been linked with an inclination-by those who served the armed forces and by those who remained in the civilian sector-to escape the realities of the Great War, both during and directly following the conflict. The purifying of Cubism from 1914 through the mid-1920s, with its cohesive unity and voluntary constraints, has been linked to a much broader ideological transformation towards conservatism in both French society and French culture.

Cubism after 1918

Pablo Picasso, Three Musicians (1921), Museum of Modern Art. Three Musicians is a classic example of synthetic cubism.[58]

Pablo Picasso, 1921, Nous autres musiciens (Three Musicians), oil on canvas, 204.5 × 188.3 cm, Philadelphia Museum of Art

The most innovative period of Cubism was before 1914.[citation needed ] After World War I, with the support given by the dealer Léonce Rosenberg, Cubism returned as a central issue for artists, and continued as such until the mid-1920s when its avant-garde status was rendered questionable by the emergence of geometric abstraction and Surrealism in Paris. Many Cubists, including Picasso, Braque, Gris, Léger, Gleizes, Metzinger and Emilio Pettoruti while developing other styles, returned periodically to Cubism, even well after 1925. Cubism reemerged during the 1920s and the 1930s in the work of the American Stuart Davis and the Englishman Ben Nicholson. In France, however, Cubism experienced a decline beginning in about 1925. Léonce Rosenberg exhibited not only the artists stranded by Kahnweiler's exile but others including Laurens, Lipchitz, Metzinger, Gleizes, Csaky, Herbin and Severini. In 1918 Rosenberg presented a series of Cubist exhibitions at his Galerie de l'Effort Moderne in Paris. Attempts were made by Louis Vauxcelles to argue that Cubism was dead, but these exhibitions, along with a well-organized Cubist show at the 1920 Salon des Indépendants and a revival of the Salon de la Section d'Or in the same year, demonstrated it was still alive.

The reemergence of Cubism coincided with the appearance from about 1917-24 of a coherent body of theoretical writing by Pierre Reverdy, Maurice Raynal and Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler and, among the artists, by Gris, Léger and Gleizes. The occasional return to classicism-figurative work either exclusively or alongside Cubist work-experienced by many artists during this period (called Neoclassicism) has been linked to the tendency to evade the realities of the war and also to the cultural dominance of a classical or Latin image of France during and immediately following the war. Cubism after 1918 can be seen as part of a wide ideological shift towards conservatism in both French society and culture. Yet, Cubism itself remained evolutionary both within the oeuvre of individual artists, such as Gris and Metzinger, and across the work of artists as different from each other as Braque, Léger and Gleizes. Cubism as a publicly debated movement became relatively unified and open to definition. Its theoretical purity made it a gauge against which such diverse tendencies as Realism or Naturalism, Dada, Surrealism and abstraction could be compared.

Diego Rivera, Portrait de Messieurs Kawashima et Foujita, 1914

Influence in Asia

Japan and China were among the first countries in Asia to be influenced by Cubism. Contact first occurred via European texts translated and published in Japanese art journals in the 1910s. In the 1920s, Japanese and Chinese artists who studied in Paris, for example those enrolled at the École nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts, brought back with them both an understanding of modern art movements, including Cubism. Notable works exhibiting Cubist qualities were Tetsugorō Yorozu's Self Portrait with Red Eyes (1912) and Fang Ganmin's Melody in Autumn (1934).

Intentions and criticism

Juan Gris, Portrait of Pablo Picasso, 1912, oil on canvas, Art Institute of Chicago[61]

The Cubism of Picasso and Braque had more than a technical or formal significance, and the distinct attitudes and intentions of the Salon Cubists produced different kinds of Cubism, rather than a derivative of their work. "It is by no means clear, in any case," wrote Christopher Green, "to what extent these other Cubists depended on Picasso and Braque for their development of such techniques as faceting, 'passage' and multiple perspective; they could well have arrived at such practices with little knowledge of 'true' Cubism in its early stages, guided above all by their own understanding of Cézanne." The works exhibited by these Cubists at the 1911 and 1912 Salons extended beyond the conventional Cézanne-like subjects-the posed model, still-life and landscape-favored by Picasso and Braque to include large-scale modern-life subjects. Aimed at a large public, these works stressed the use of multiple perspective and complex planar faceting for expressive effect while preserving the eloquence of subjects endowed with literary and philosophical connotations.

In Du "Cubisme" Metzinger and Gleizes explicitly related the sense of time to multiple perspective, giving symbolic expression to the notion of 'duration' proposed by the philosopher Henri Bergson according to which life is subjectively experienced as a continuum, with the past flowing into the present and the present merging into the future. The Salon Cubists used the faceted treatment of solid and space and effects of multiple viewpoints to convey a physical and psychological sense of the fluidity of consciousness, blurring the distinctions between past, present and future. One of the major theoretical innovations made by the Salon Cubists, independently of Picasso and Braque, was that of simultaneity, drawing to greater or lesser extent on theories of Henri Poincaré, Ernst Mach, Charles Henry, Maurice Princet, and Henri Bergson. With simultaneity, the concept of separate spatial and temporal dimensions was comprehensively challenged. Linear perspective developed during the Renaissance was vacated. The subject matter was no longer considered from a specific point of view at a moment in time, but built following a selection of successive viewpoints, i.e., as if viewed simultaneously from numerous angles (and in multiple dimensions) with the eye free to roam from one to the other.

This technique of representing simultaneity, multiple viewpoints (or relative motion) is pushed to a high degree of complexity in Metzinger's Nu à la cheminée, exhibited at the 1910 Salon d'Automne; Gleizes' monumental Le Dépiquage des Moissons (Harvest Threshing), exhibited at the 1912 Salon de la Section d'Or; Le Fauconnier's Abundance shown at the Indépendants of 1911; and Delaunay's City of Paris, exhibited at the Indépendants in 1912. These ambitious works are some of the largest paintings in the history of Cubism. Léger's The Wedding, also shown at the Salon des Indépendants in 1912, gave form to the notion of simultaneity by presenting different motifs as occurring within a single temporal frame, where responses to the past and present interpenetrate with collective force. The conjunction of such subject matter with simultaneity aligns Salon Cubism with early Futurist paintings by Umberto Boccioni, Gino Severini and Carlo Carrà; themselves made in response to early Cubism.

Cubism and modern European art was introduced into the United States at the now legendary 1913 Armory Show in New York City, which then traveled to Chicago and Boston. In the Armory show Pablo Picasso exhibited La Femme au pot de moutarde (1910), the sculpture Head of a Woman (Fernande) (1909-10), Les Arbres (1907) amongst other cubist works. Jacques Villon exhibited seven important and large drypoints, while his brother Marcel Duchamp shocked the American public with his painting Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2 (1912). Francis Picabia exhibited his abstractions La Danse à la source and La Procession, Seville (both of 1912). Albert Gleizes exhibited La Femme aux phlox (1910) and L'Homme au balcon (1912), two highly stylized and faceted cubist works. Georges Braque, Fernand Léger, Raymond Duchamp-Villon, Roger de La Fresnaye and Alexander Archipenko also contributed examples of their cubist works.

Just as in painting, Cubist sculpture is rooted in Paul Cézanne's reduction of painted objects into component planes and geometric solids (cubes, spheres, cylinders, and cones). And just as in painting, it became a pervasive influence and contributed fundamentally to Constructivism and Futurism.

Cubist sculpture developed in parallel to Cubist painting. During the autumn of 1909 Picasso sculpted Head of a Woman (Fernande) with positive features depicted by negative space and vice versa. According to Douglas Cooper: "The first true Cubist sculpture was Picasso's impressive Woman's Head, modeled in 1909-10, a counterpart in three dimensions to many similar analytical and faceted heads in his paintings at the time." These positive/negative reversals were ambitiously exploited by Alexander Archipenko in 1912-13, for example in Woman Walking. Joseph Csaky, after Archipenko, was the first sculptor in Paris to join the Cubists, with whom he exhibited from 1911 onwards. They were followed by Raymond Duchamp-Villon and then in 1914 by Jacques Lipchitz, Henri Laurens and Ossip Zadkine.

Indeed, Cubist construction was as influential as any pictorial Cubist innovation. It was the stimulus behind the proto-Constructivist work of both Naum Gabo and Vladimir Tatlin and thus the starting-point for the entire constructive tendency in 20th-century modernist sculpture.

Le Corbusier, Assembly building, Chandigarh, India

Cubism formed an important link between early-20th-century art and architecture. The historical, theoretical, and socio-political relationships between avant-garde practices in painting, sculpture and architecture had early ramifications in France, Germany, the Netherlands and Czechoslovakia. Though there are many points of intersection between Cubism and architecture, only a few direct links between them can be drawn. Most often the connections are made by reference to shared formal characteristics: faceting of form, spatial ambiguity, transparency, and multiplicity.

Architectural interest in Cubism centered on the dissolution and reconstitution of three-dimensional form, using simple geometric shapes, juxtaposed without the illusions of classical perspective. Diverse elements could be superimposed, made transparent or penetrate one another, while retaining their spatial relationships. Cubism had become an influential factor in the development of modern architecture from 1912 ( La Maison Cubiste, by Raymond Duchamp-Villon and André Mare) onwards, developing in parallel with architects such as Peter Behrens and Walter Gropius, with the simplification of building design, the use of materials appropriate to industrial production, and the increased use of glass.

Le Corbusier, Centre Le Corbusier (Heidi Weber Museum) in Zürich-Seefeld (Zürichhorn)

Cubism was relevant to an architecture seeking a style that needed not refer to the past. Thus, what had become a revolution in both painting and sculpture was applied as part of "a profound reorientation towards a changed world". The Cubo-Futurist ideas of Filippo Tommaso Marinetti influenced attitudes in avant-garde architecture. The influential De Stijl movement embraced the aesthetic principles of Neo-plasticism developed by Piet Mondrian under the influence of Cubism in Paris. De Stijl was also linked by Gino Severini to Cubist theory through the writings of Albert Gleizes. However, the linking of basic geometric forms with inherent beauty and ease of industrial application-which had been prefigured by Marcel Duchamp from 1914-was left to the founders of Purism, Amédée Ozenfant and Charles-Édouard Jeanneret (better known as Le Corbusier,) who exhibited paintings together in Paris and published Après le cubisme in 1918. Le Corbusier's ambition had been to translate the properties of his own style of Cubism to architecture. Between 1918 and 1922, Le Corbusier concentrated his efforts on Purist theory and painting. In 1922, Le Corbusier and his cousin Jeanneret opened a studio in Paris at 35 rue de Sèvres. His theoretical studies soon advanced into many different architectural projects.

Raymond Duchamp-Villon, 1912, Study for La Maison Cubiste, Projet d'Hotel (Cubist House). Image published in Les Peintres Cubistes, by Guillaume Apollinaire, 17 March 1913

Le Salon Bourgeois, designed by André Mare for La Maison Cubiste, in the decorative arts section of the Salon d'Automne , 1912, Paris. Metzinger's Femme à l'Éventail on the left wall

At the 1912 an architectural installation was exhibited that quickly became known as Maison Cubiste (Cubist House), with architecture by Raymond Duchamp-Villon and interior decoration by André Mare along with a group of collaborators. Metzinger and Gleizes in , written during the assemblage of the "Maison Cubiste", wrote about the autonomous nature of art, stressing the point that decorative considerations should not govern the spirit of art. Decorative work, to them, was the "antithesis of the picture". "The true picture" wrote Metzinger and Gleizes, "bears its raison d'être within itself. It can be moved from a church to a drawing-room, from a museum to a study. Essentially independent, necessarily complete, it need not immediately satisfy the mind: on the contrary, it should lead it, little by little, towards the fictitious depths in which the coordinative light resides. It does not harmonize with this or that ensemble; it harmonizes with things in general, with the universe: it is an organism...".

La Maison Cubiste was a fully furnished model house, with a facade, a staircase, wrought iron banisters, and two rooms: a living room-the Salon Bourgeois, where paintings by Marcel Duchamp, Metzinger ( Woman with a Fan), Gleizes, Laurencin and Léger were hung, and a bedroom. It was an example of L'art décoratif, a home within which Cubist art could be displayed in the comfort and style of modern, bourgeois life. Spectators at the Salon d'Automne passed through the plaster facade, designed by Duchamp-Villon, to the two furnished rooms. This architectural installation was subsequently exhibited at the 1913 Armory Show, New York, Chicago and Boston, listed in the catalogue of the New York exhibit as Raymond Duchamp-Villon, number 609, and entitled "Facade architectural, plaster" ( Façade architecturale).

Jacques Doucet's hôtel particulier, 33 rue Saint-James, Neuilly-sur-Seine

The furnishings, wallpaper, upholstery and carpets of the interior were designed by André Mare, and were early examples of the influence of cubism on what would become Art Deco. They were composed of very brightly colored roses and other floral patterns in stylized geometric forms.

Mare called the living room in which Cubist paintings were hung the Salon Bourgeois. Léger described this name as 'perfect'. In a letter to Mare prior to the exhibition Léger wrote: "Your idea is absolutely splendid for us, really splendid. People will see Cubism in its domestic setting, which is very important.

"Mare's ensembles were accepted as frames for Cubist works because they allowed paintings and sculptures their independence", Christopher Green wrote, "creating a play of contrasts, hence the involvement not only of Gleizes and Metzinger themselves, but of Marie Laurencin, the Duchamp brothers (Raymond Duchamp-Villon designed the facade) and Mare's old friends Léger and Roger La Fresnaye".

In 1927, Cubists Joseph Csaky, Jacques Lipchitz, Louis Marcoussis, Henri Laurens, the sculptor Gustave Miklos, and others collaborated in the decoration of a Studio House, rue Saint-James, Neuilly-sur-Seine, designed by the architect Paul Ruaud and owned by the French fashion designer Jacques Doucet, also a collector of Post-Impressionist and Cubist paintings (including Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, which he bought directly from Picasso's studio). Laurens designed the fountain, Csaky designed Doucet's staircase, Lipchitz made the fireplace mantel, and Marcoussis made a Cubist rug.

Czech Cubist architecture

House of the Black Madonna in Prague, built by Josef Gočár in 1912

The original Cubist architecture is very rare. Cubism was applied to architecture only in Bohemia (today Czech Republic) and especially in its capital, Prague. Czech architects were the first and only ones to ever design original Cubist buildings. Cubist architecture flourished for the most part between 1910 and 1914, but the Cubist or Cubism-influenced buildings were also built after World War I. After the war, the architectural style called Rondo-Cubism was developed in Prague fusing the Cubist architecture with round shapes.

Villa Kovařovic in Prague by Josef Chochol

In their theoretical rules, the Cubist architects expressed the requirement of dynamism, which would surmount the matter and calm contained in it, through a creative idea, so that the result would evoke feelings of dynamism and expressive plasticity in the viewer. This should be achieved by shapes derived from pyramids, cubes and prisms, by arrangements and compositions of oblique surfaces, mainly triangular, sculpted facades in protruding crystal-like units, reminiscent of the so-called diamond cut, or even cavernous that are reminiscent of the late Gothic architecture. In this way, the entire surfaces of the facades including even the gables and dormers are sculpted. The grilles as well as other architectural ornaments attain a three-dimensional form. Thus, new forms of windows and doors were also created, e. g. hexagonal windows. Czech Cubist architects also designed Cubist furniture.

The leading Cubist architects were Pavel Janák, Josef Gočár, Vlastislav Hofman, Emil Králíček and Josef Chochol. They worked mostly in Prague but also in other Bohemian towns. The best-known Cubist building is the House of the Black Madonna in the Old Town of Prague built in 1912 by Josef Gočár with the only Cubist café in the world, Grand Café Orient. Vlastislav Hofman built the entrance pavilions of Ďáblice Cemetery in 1912-1914, Josef Chochol designed several residential houses under Vyšehrad. A Cubist streetlamp has also been preserved near the Wenceslas Square, designed by Emil Králíček in 1912, who also built the Diamond House in the New Town of Prague around 1913.

Cubic coffee service, by Erik Magnussen, 1927, in a temporary exhibition called the "Jazz Age" at the Cleveland Museum of Art, US

The influence of Cubism extended to other artistic fields, outside painting and sculpture. In literature, the written works of Gertrude Stein employ repetition and repetitive phrases as building blocks in both passages and whole chapters. Most of Stein's important works utilize this technique, including the novel The Making of Americans (1906-08). Not only were they the first important patrons of Cubism, Gertrude Stein and her brother Leo were also important influences on Cubism as well. In turn, Picasso was an important influence on Stein's writing. In the field of American fiction, William Faulkner's 1930 novel As I Lay Dying can be read as an interaction with the cubist mode. The novel features narratives of the diverse experiences of 15 characters which, when taken together, produce a single cohesive body.

The poets generally associated with Cubism are Guillaume Apollinaire, Blaise Cendrars, Jean Cocteau, Max Jacob, André Salmon and Pierre Reverdy. As American poet Kenneth Rexroth explains, Cubism in poetry "is the conscious, deliberate dissociation and recombination of elements into a new artistic entity made self-sufficient by its rigorous architecture. This is quite different from the free association of the Surrealists and the combination of unconscious utterance and political nihilism of Dada." Nonetheless, the Cubist poets' influence on both Cubism and the later movements of Dada and Surrealism was profound; Louis Aragon, founding member of Surrealism, said that for Breton, Soupault, Éluard and himself, Reverdy was "our immediate elder, the exemplary poet." Though not as well remembered as the Cubist painters, these poets continue to influence and inspire; American poets John Ashbery and Ron Padgett have recently produced new translations of Reverdy's work. Wallace Stevens' " Thirteen Ways of Looking at a Blackbird" is also said to demonstrate how cubism's multiple perspectives can be translated into poetry.

John Berger said: "It is almost impossible to exaggerate the importance of Cubism. It was a revolution in the visual arts as great as that which took place in the early Renaissance. Its effects on later art, on film, and on architecture are already so numerous that we hardly notice them."

Jean Metzinger, 1910-11, ( Two Nudes, Two Women), oil on canvas, 92 x 66 cm, Gothenburg Museum of Art, Sweden. Exhibited at the first Cubist manifestation, Room 41 of the 1911 Salon des Indépendants, Paris

Pablo Picasso, 1911, La Femme au Violon, oil on canvas, private collection, on long-term loan to Bavarian State Painting Collections, Pinakothek der Moderne, Munich

Francis Picabia, 1912, La Source ( The Spring), oil on canvas, 249.6 x 249.3 cm, Museum of Modern Art, New York

Pablo Picasso, 1913-14, Femme assise dans un fauteuil (Eva), Woman in an Armchair, oil on canvas, 149.9 x 99.4 cm, Leonard A. Lauder Cubist Collection

Pablo Picasso, 1918, Arlequin au violon (Harlequin with Violin), oil on canvas, 142 x 100.3 cm, The Cleveland Museum of Art, Ohio

Gino Severini, 1919, Bohémien Jouant de L'Accordéon (The Accordion Player), Museo del Novecento, Milan

Paintings by Albert Gleizes, 1910-11, Paysage, Landscape; Juan Gris (drawing); Jean Metzinger, c.1911, Nature morte, Compotier et cruche décorée de cerfs. Published on the front page of El Correo Catalán, 25 April 1912

(center) Jean Metzinger, c.1913, Le Fumeur (Man with Pipe), Carnegie Museum of Art, Pittsburgh; (left) Alexander Archipenko, 1914, Danseuse du Médrano (Médrano II), (right) Archipenko, 1913, Pierrot-carrousel, Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York. Published in Le Petit Comtois, 13 March 1914

Paintings by Gino Severini, 1911, La Danse du Pan-Pan, and Severini, 1913, L'autobus. Published in "Les Annales politiques et littéraires", Le Paradoxe Cubiste, 14 March 1920

Paintings by Gino Severini, 1911, Souvenirs de Voyage; Albert Gleizes, 1912, Man on a Balcony, L'Homme au balcon; Severini, 1912-13, Portrait de Mlle Jeanne Paul-Fort; Luigi Russolo, 1911-12, La Révolte. Published in "Les Annales politiques et littéraires", Le Paradoxe Cubiste (continued), n. 1916, 14 March 1920

Jean Metzinger, c.1911, Nature morte, Compotier et cruche décorée de cerfs; Juan Gris, 1911, Study for Man in a Café; Marie Laurencin, c.1911, Testa ab plechs; August Agero, sculpture, Bust; Juan Gris, 1912, Guitar and Glasses, or Banjo and Glasses. Published in Veu de Catalunya, 25 April 1912

Jean Metzinger, 1911, Le goûter (Tea Time), Philadelphia Museum of Art. Published in Le Journal, 30 September 1911

Paintings by Juan Gris, Bodegón; August Agero (sculpture); Jean Metzinger, 1910-11, Deux Nus, Two Nudes, Gothenburg Museum of Art; Marie Laurencin (acrylic); Albert Gleizes, 1911, Paysage, Landscape. Published in La Publicidad, 26 April 1912

Umberto Boccioni, 1911, La rue entre dans la maison; Luigi Russolo, 1911, Souvenir d'une nuit. Published in Les Annales politiques et littéraires, 1 December 1912

Francis Picabia, paintings published in the New York Tribune, 9 March 1913. Picabia held his first one-man show in New York, Exhibition of New York studies by Francis Picabia, at 291 art gallery (formerly Little Galleries of the Photo-Secession), March 17 - April 5, 1913

Albert Gleizes, (left) in front of his painting Jazz; Jean Crotti (center) studying his Femme à la toque rouge; Marcel Duchamp (right) at his drawing board, in front of Jacques Villon's Portrait de M. J. B. peintre, The Sun, New York, 2 January 1916

Albert Gleizes (with Chal Post, 1915); Marcel Duchamp (with his brother Jacques Villon's Portrait de M. J. B. peintre (Jacques Bon) 1914); Jean Crotti; Hugo Robus; Stanton Macdonald-Wright; and Frances Simpson Stevens (center), Every Week, Vol. 4, No. 14, April 2, 1917, p. 14

Alfred H. Barr, Jr., Cubism and Abstract Art, New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1936.

Cauman, John (2001). Inheriting Cubism: The Impact of Cubism on American Art, 1909-1936. New York: Hollis Taggart Galleries. ISBN 0-9705723-4-4.

Cooper, Douglas (1970). The Cubist Epoch. London: Phaidon in association with the Los Angeles County Museum of Art & the Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 0-87587-041-4.

Paolo Vincenzo Genovese, Cubismo in architettura, Mancosu Editore, Roma, 2010. In Italian.

John Golding, Cubism: A History and an Analysis, 1907-1914, New York: Wittenborn, 1959.

Richardson, John. A Life Of Picasso, The Cubist Rebel 1907-1916. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1991. ISBN 978-0-307-26665-1

Mark Antliff and Patricia Leighten, A Cubism Reader, Documents and Criticism, 1906-1914, The University of Chicago Press, 2008

Christopher Green, Cubism and its Enemies, Modern Movements and Reaction in French Art, 1916-28, Yale University Press, New Haven and London, 1987

Mikhail Lifshitz, The Crisis of Ugliness: From Cubism to Pop-Art. Translated and with an Introduction by David Riff. Leiden: BRILL, 2018 (originally published in Russian by Iskusstvo, 1968)

Daniel Robbins, Sources of Cubism and Futurism, Art Journal, Vol. 41, No. 4, (Winter 1981)

Cécile Debray, Françoise Lucbert, La Section d'or, 1912-1920-1925, Musées de Châteauroux, Musée Fabre, exhibition catalogue, Éditions Cercle d'art, Paris, 2000

Ian Johnston, Preliminary Notes on Cubist Architecture in Prague, 2004

Cubism, Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, Metropolitan Museum of Art

Cubist pioneer Diego Rivera

Cubism, Agence Photographique de la Réunion des musées nationaux et du Grand Palais des Champs-Elysées (RMN)

Czech Cubist Architecture

Cubism, Guggenheim Collection Online

Index of Historic Collectors and Dealers of Cubism, Leonard A. Lauder Research Center for Modern Art, Metropolitan Museum of Art

Elizabeth Carlson, Cubist Fashion: Mainstreaming Modernism after the Armory, Winterthur Portfolio, Vol. 48, No. 1 (Spring 2014), pp. 1-28. doi:10.1086/675687

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Cubism is an early-20th-century avant-garde art movement that revolutionized European painting and sculpture, and inspired related artistic movements in music, literature, and architecture. In Cubist works of art, the subjects are analysed, broken up, and reassembled in an abstract form-instead of depicting objects from a single perspective, the artist depicts the subject from multiple perspectives to represent the subject in a greater context.

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The Lumière Brothers Center for Photography presents a retrospective exhibition of Guy Bourdin, one of the most influential photographers of the second half of the 20th century, the French artist, innovator and revolutionary of fashion photography.

The exhibition will feature more than 50 of the photographer's most recognizable works from variousyears, from the 1950s to the mid-1980s. For forty years, Guy Bourdin surprised and shocked readers of glossy magazines with provocative images, pushing the boundaries of commercial photography and changing the viewer's perception of fashion photography.

Bourdin started his career as a painter and studied photography while serving in the army in the late 1940s. In the early 1950s, he became the protégé of one of the most significant photographers of the 20th century, Man Ray.

Guy Bourdin is best known for his vivid color shots with unusual, surreal, sometimes provocative compositions and paradoxical plots. Evenin the early black-and-white images, which will also be presented at the exposition, you can see how certain techniques were born, which wouldbe developed in later works donein color. As an uncompromising photographer, Guy Bourdin always defended his artistic freedom and never obeyed the rules of fashion photography and the dictates of editors. Bourdin was one of the first photographers working in commercial photography to refuse direct product presentation in favor of an artistic image. He drew inspiration from literature, cinema, and art history, inspired by the work of surrealists Man Ray and René Magritte, photographs of Edward Weston, and the films of Luis Buñuel and Alfred Hitchcock.

Guy Bourdin shot for Chanel, Chloé, Issey Miyake, Emanuel Ungaro, Gianni Versace, Pentax, Bloomingdale's and many other brands. For 14 years, he created advertising campaigns for the fashion house Charles Jourdan.

Today, the work of Man Ray's apprentice, an author who influenced several generations of photographers, is stored in the collections of the largest museums in the world, such as Tate Modern, the Victoria and Albert Museum (V&A), the National Portrait Gallery (London), the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA), International Center for Photography (ICP) (New York), Getty Museum (Los Angeles), and San Francisco Museum of Modern Art (SFMOMA).

Guy Bourdin's first solo exhibition was held at the Victoria and Albert Museum (V&A) in 2003. Exhibitions were also held at the FOAM Museum (Amsterdam, 2004), Jeu de Paume (Paris, 2004), Tokyo Metropolitan Museum of Photography (2006), Somerset House (London, 2014), Fotografiska (Stockholm, 2015), Helmut Newton Foundation (Berlin, 2017) and many others.
Guy Bourdin : Follow Me
February 28 - May 17, 2020
The Lumière Brothers Center for Photography
3 Bolotnaya embankment, bld. 1

Moscow, Russia, 119072
www.lumiere.ru

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Guy Bourdin : Follow Me - The Eye of Photography Magazine

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The Lumière Brothers Center for Photography presents a retrospective exhibition of Guy Bourdin, one of the most influential photographers of the second half of the 20th century, the French artist, innovator and revolutionary of fashion photography. The exhibition will feature more than 50 of the photographer's most recognizable works from variousyears, from the 1950s to the mid-1980s.

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Their relationship wasn't all crème de menthe cheers and monkey fur coats, though. Behind the creativity and fabulousness was a mutually beneficial arrangement. "They absolutely recognized each other's genius and had a deep respect," says Hine. In Schiaparelli, Dalí gained entry into the world of Parisian high society, and with that came many of his wealthy benefactors. In Schiap herself, he also gained posh conduit for his ideas. (In his biography he wrote that the "divine spirit" of Dalí descended on 21 Place Vendôme, Schaip's couture maison.) In Dalí, Schiap earned an art world pedigree that other designers, including her rival, Coco Chanel, desperately coveted. Together they were an unstoppable force on the Parisian scene of the '30s, he with his slicked-back hair, curled mustache, and stunts, she with a cutting wit and those leopard-skin boots. Between 1934 and 1936, each appeared on the cover of Time magazine. She was the first fashion designer and businesswoman to do so. But there's another lens that makes the relationship between Surrealism's most prolific artist and fashion's most shocking designer even more interesting.

At the core of Dalí's and Schiaparelli's work is an ideological mission to create something new. Both deeply believed that their work in art, fashion, film, advertisement, dance-whatever!-was in service of their quest for newness and novelty. Each wrote extensive screeds detailing the tenets of their beliefs; Dalí's came in several forms including his autobiography, The Secret Life, and Schiaparelli's in her autobiography, Shocking Life. What's interesting about looking back on their subversive and surreal work is that these pieces were made in a time when it seemed like the world was ending, a time not unlike our own. Surrealism was a vehicle of horror and also a fantastical escape. It was without reason and yet in service of practicality. To be a Surrealist was to revel in contradiction, and Dalí's and Schiap's work rejected and reflected the terrors of their world. The Tear Dress is at once a breathtaking garment, a trompe l'oeil trick and a piece that foreshadows the bodily horrors of war. The same could be said of the Skeleton Dress.

While Dalí's and Schiaparelli's sense of irony has persisted in the contemporary era-think of Margiela's high-low subversions, McQueen's terrible beauties, or Demna Gvasalia's haute couture Crocs-their sense of mission and transportive fantasy has maintained less ground. When was the last time a fashion designer issued a manifesto instead of an accessories lookbook? "You don't have that sense of abandon [today]. That's really curious because I think there's a great parallel in the times," says Hine. "The ideas of going beyond [reality] are even more vital today. Being able to laugh at the ironies of the world, and try to create something new, and try to be uplifting. It's important. But I'm struck by the kind of blandness of things in fashion today." But there is hope. Toward the end of a meandering tour, our talk edged toward Thom Browne's recent Parisian show, complete with exaggerated bodies, pointe shoes, and a human-powered unicorn. The museum director had one word: "Wow!"
"Dalí & Schiaparelli, In Daring Fashion" is open at The Dalí Museum in St. Petersburg, Florida from October 14 through January 18, 2018.

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Dalí & Schiaparelli, In Daring Fashion Proves They Were the Best at Art-Fashion Collaborations

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Their relationship wasn't all crème de menthe cheers and monkey fur coats, though. Behind the creativity and fabulousness was a mutually beneficial arrangement. "They absolutely recognized each other's genius and had a deep respect," says Hine. In Schiaparelli, Dalí gained entry into the world of Parisian high society, and with that came many of his wealthy benefactors.

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PORTFOLIO CENTRAL SAINT MARTINS - CUBO DI RUBIK

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PORTFOLIO CENTRAL SAINT MARTINS - CUBO DI RUBIK

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Vari Research Journals che formano un cubo di Rubik. Ogni libro é di uno dei ha la copertina come uno dei colori primari

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La metafora di Rubik

Mi piace pensare alla vita, al percorso che ogni persona compie come al Cubo di Rubik. Appena nati si è come un cubo nuovo, con ogni faccia colorata al suo posto, con i colori in perfetto equilibrio.

Il primo desiderio e buttarsi a capofitto nel gioco degli incastri, girare, provare gli ingranaggi, divertirsi... un po' come nell'adolescenza ;)
Lo scopo del gioco è di risalire alla posizione originale dei cubetti portando il cubo ad avere per ogni faccia un colore uguale. Il cubo, nella versione 3x3x3, può assumere ben 43.252.003.274.489.856.000 di combinazioni possibili.
Anche lo scopo della vita di ognuno è quello di ripristinare tutte le 6 facce come all'origine, ma ci rendiamo conto che è veramente complicato.
Spesso ci accontentiamo di sistemare una sola faccia di un unico colore, lasciando le altre 5 nel pieno caos. I più bravi riescono anche a sistemarne 2, altri 3 ... ma le restanti facce rimangono sempre composte di caotici colori in libertà , senza senso...

Ieri è successo che le mie 6 facce si siano riallineate per un attimo. Come la chiusura di un cerchio, di un ciclo, ieri sono tornata indietro di 13 anni e ho visto il mio cubo come se fosse nuovo. Tutto questo grazie ad una persona che mi ha rintracciata tramite FB (e io che stavo meditando di chiudere l'account).

Tutto questo mi ha permesso di rivedere questi 13 anni di vita con un'ottica completamente diversa, e di dare il giusto peso a tutto ciò che mi è accaduto: piccole cose sono diventate essenziali, grandi dolori sono diventati briciole inconsistenti.

Mi sento come se fossi nuovamente pronta a giocare con i miei colori, e a divertirmi con essi.

La vita riserva strane sorprese.

La foto mostra il Rubitone (Rubik + Pantone) da un concept di Ignacio Pilotto (Argentina)
Cosa aggiungere... lo voglio! Forse è il troppo lavorare sul web che mi spinge a desiderare tutto ciò che mi ricorda la carta stampata? ;)

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La metafora di Rubik - Valentina Cinelli

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Mi piace pensare alla vita, al percorso che ogni persona compie come al Cubo di Rubik. Appena nati si è come un cubo nuovo, con ogni faccia colorata al suo posto, con i colori in perfetto equilibrio. Il primo desiderio e buttarsi a capofitto nel...

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KidSuper Broke Paris Fashion Week - The Weirdest Runway Show I’ve Ever Seen

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Margiela - Artisanal Collection - James Turrell

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Margiela - Artisanal Collection - James Turrell

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Maison Margiela Artisanal Co-Ed Collection Autumn-Winter 2020 | S.W.A.L.K.

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riflessione sugli stereotipi femminili

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Creare una pagina instagram/archivio delle immagini che mi ispirano dei magazine di moda

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Buble up theory - Street Style: From Sidewalk to Catwalk (V&A London)

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Buble up theory - Street Style: From Sidewalk to Catwalk (V&A London)

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This exhibition is the first to chart the development of international street clothing, from the sharp zoot suits of 1940s Harlem to the colourful, layered and recycled look of the 1990s New Age Traveller. Bikers, Surfers, Rockabillies and Hipsters rub shoulders with Goths, Rockers, Rastas and Punks in this explosion of street culture. Alongside original clothing - Teddy Boy suits, leather Biker jackets, Two Tone suits, Goosedown jackets, jeans, kaftans, DMs, baseball hats, cowboy boots, Psychedelic shirts - music, photographs, video and accessories all help to unravel the complex factors influencing the development of streetstyle. Placing the clothes in their cultural context, the exhibitions provides a comprehensive overview of post-war youth culture, offering new interpretations of the dynamics of dress.

For the first time, innovative street designers such as Jimmy Jumble, Sarah Ratty, Oz, Clare Tranter and Craig Morrison are presented alongside the famous names of high fashion: Karl Lagerfeld for Chanel, Donna Karan, Yves-Saint Laurent, Joe Casely-Hayford, Vivienne Westwood, Helen Storey, Calvin Klein and Gianni Versace who have all acknowledged the street as a potent source of inspiration.

Image © Victoria and Albert Museum, London

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Streetstyle: From Sidewalk to Catwalk, 1940 to Tomorrow - Exhibiting Fashion

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This exhibition is the first to chart the development of international street clothing, from the sharp zoot suits of 1940s Harlem to the colourful, layered and recycled look of the 1990s New Age Traveller. Bikers, Surfers, Rockabillies and Hipsters rub shoulders with Goths, Rockers, Rastas and Punks in this explosion of street culture.

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Understanding Surrealism | Art History 101

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Individuality and Group Association - SURREALISM

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Individuality and Group Association - SURREALISM