# data[].attributes.body
In ancient Greece, philosophers like Pythagoras and Aristotle began contemplating sound. Pythagoras noted the relationship between string length and pitch, while Aristotle posited that sound travels through the air by the motion of air particles.

# data[].attributes.body
Galileo Galilei made significant contributions to early theories about the speed of sound by associating it with the properties of the medium through which it travels. Galileo was one of the first to suggest that sound travels at a finite speed. He theorized that the speed of sound could be calculated by timing the delay between the appearance of a distant flash of gunfire and when the sound was heard.

# data[].attributes.body
Evangelista Torricelli, an Italian physicist, also made attempts to measure the speed of sound. He is better known for his work with the barometer.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Understanding Torricelli's Law

Torricelli's Law, grounded in the foundations of fluid mechanics, provides a method for predicting the rate at which fluid escapes via a hole from a container. This would be familiar to you if you have ever watched a bath drain or have used a watering can with a single hole. Torricelli's law is a reflection of principles initially laid out by Bernoulli's equation.

Basic Principles of Torricelli's Law

You will appreciate to know that Torricelli's Law states the speed at which fluid will leak out of a hole is directly proportional to the square root of the height of fluid above the hole. Mathematically, this is commonly expressed as:

\[ v = \sqrt{2gh} \]

Where:

v = Speed of outflow

g = Gravitational acceleration

h = Height of fluid above the hole

\(v = \sqrt{2gh}\): This formula is known as Torricelli's law, named after Evangelista Torricelli, the Italian physicist and mathematician.

Consider a theoretical example of a large water storage tank with a small hole at the bottom. After some time, acknowledging the variation of the water pressure at the hole due to water height, you can use Torricelli's law to estimate how fast water is leaking from the tank.

Factors Affecting Torricelli's Law

Despite its simplicity, Torricelli's law is influenced by a few key factors. These factors play a significant role in affecting the rate at which fluids exit a tank.

The main factors include:

Gravity (g): The force with which the earth pulls the fluid downwards directly impacts the speed of the outflow. The greater the gravitational pull, the faster the outflow.

Fluid height (h): As the height of the fluid above the hole increases, the speed of the fluid outflow also increases according to the mathematical formula of Torricelli's law. On the contrary, if the fluid level drops, so will the speed of the fluid outflow.

Since fluids possess viscosity, a certain resistance to flow, Torricelli's law can sometimes fail to accurately predict the rate of flow for viscous fluids or small hole sizes. In these situations, one could employ more complex principles of fluid mechanics.

For example, in practical situations such as fuel efficiency in a vehicle, Torricelli's law plays a key role. The vehicle's tank empties faster when it is full and slower as it gets closer to being empty. This is due to the decrease in height of the fuel above the hole as fuel is consumed.

Derivation of Torricelli's Law

To unpack the complexities of Torricelli's Law, a comprehensive understanding of how it was derived is essential. This law was established on mature principles of both mathematics and physics. The derivation process can be vaguely demanding but a clear systematic approach will make it easy to comprehend. Let's dive into the steps of how to derive Torricelli's Law and the mathematical concepts involved.

Steps to Derive Torricelli's Law

Let's begin with a simplified scenario: a large container, full of fluid with a hole near its bottom. If the hole is small and the height of the fluid in the container is of considerable magnitude, the flow from the hole characteristically forms a fine jet. It is this jet's speed that Torricelli's Law derives. Here are the basic steps:

Start off by visualising a thin slice of the fluid at a horizontal distance \(x\) from the top of the fluid.

Next, consider pressure at this level. This pressure is due to the weight of fluid column above it. This leads us to calculate pressure as \(P = hρg\) where \(ρ\) is the density of the fluid, \(h\) is the height of fluid above the slice, and \(g\) is gravitational acceleration.

Now, remember Bernoulli's equation, which says that the total energy for an ideal fluid flowing in a streamline is constant. Applying this here, the energy per unit volume at the top (point 1) should be equal to the energy per unit volume at the bottom (point 2).

Equating kinetic and potential energy terms, this leads us to: \(P_1 + \frac{1}{2} ρv_1^2 + ρgh_1 = P_2 + \frac{1}{2} ρv_2^2 + ρgh_2\).

As we're dealing with the top of the liquid and the hole at its base, \(P_1 = P_2 = P\) (atmospheric pressure), \(v_1 = 0\) (velocity is zero at the fluid surface), \(h_1 = h\) (height of a fluid) and \(h_2 = 0\).

The equation simplifies to: \(0 = \frac{1}{2} ρv_2^2 + ρgh\).

Solving for \(v_2\) gives Torricelli's Law: \(v_2 = \sqrt{2gh}\).

Mathematical Concepts in the Derivation of Torricelli's Law

The derivation of Torricelli's Law rests on several mathematical and physical principles. The equations that play a significant role in the derivation are essentially grounded in concepts of algebra, calculus, and physics in the form of fluid mechanics and classical mechanics.

Bernoulli's principle: this cornerstone of fluid dynamics is essential to the derivation. What this principle states is that an increase in the speed of a fluid occurs simultaneously with a decrease in its pressure or a decrease in the fluid's potential energy, with the total energy remaining constant.

Algebra: Basic algebraic manipulations are needed in the steps during the derivation process. Specifically, you need an understanding of how to rearrange equations and solve for specific variables.

Calculus: Infinitesimal calculus comes into play when considering the fluid as composed of tiny slices or elements each with its own characteristics. It provides a mathematical way of handling changing quantities and allows us to consider the pressure and velocity at every point in the fluid.

Classical mechanics: The concepts that support Torricelli's Law come from principles of motion, specifically the law of conservation of energy, which is a fundamental concept of physics. This law tells us that energy can be neither created nor destroyed, only transformed from one form to another.

It's interesting to note that while Torricelli's Law is typically explained and derived with an emphasis on fluid dynamics and hydrodynamics, it may also be derived with a more fundamental approach using only the principles of classical mechanics.

Torricelli's Law Differential Equation

In your insightful journey through fluid mechanics, taking a step beyond the basic representation of Torricelli's law is crucial. By expressing Torricelli's law as a differential equation, a macroscopic view of the draining tank scenario can be analysed by incorporating changes in fluid height over time. This approach delivers a more dynamic and temporal understanding of fluid flow systems.

Formulating the Torricelli's Law Differential Equation

A differential equation, by definition, is a mathematical equation involving derivatives of a function. These equations are utilised extensively in various fields of science and engineering to model systems where change is fundamental. In the context of Torricelli's Law, the differential equation affirms the connection between the change in fluid height in the tank and the outflow velocity.

Let's proceed to formulate the differential equation. To start, define \(A\) as the cross-sectional area of the tank and \(a\) as the cross-sectional area of the hole. The volume \(V\) of the fluid in the tank at any time \(t\) is \(V = Ah\), where \(h\) is the height of fluid.

Now, consider the outflow of fluid from the hole. From Torricelli's Law, the fluid velocity \(v\) at the hole is \(\sqrt{2gh}\). Therefore, the volume \(V_o\) of fluid leaving the tank per unit time (rate of outflow) is \(V_o = av = a\sqrt{2gh}\).

Since the height of fluid in the tank changes with time, we can represent the volume \(V\) of fluid in terms of \(h\) and its rate of change \(dh/dt\). Consequently, \(dh/dt = -\frac{a}{A}\sqrt{2gh}\). This is the differential equation expressing Torricelli's Law.

\(\frac{dh}{dt} = -\frac{a}{A}\sqrt{2gh}\): This differential equation is derived from Torricelli's Law, linking the rate of change of the fluid height with the fluid velocity at the hole.

Solving Torricelli's Law Differential Equation

To obtain a solution to the Torricelli's Law differential equation is to find a function \(h(t)\) that satisfies the equation. Specifically, you are looking for a function that depicts how the fluid height varies over time. Do note, the solution will involve an arbitrary constant, symbolising the initial height of the fluid in the tank.

Solving this type of differential equation, called a variable separable equation, involves separating variables \(h\) and \(t\) on respective sides of the equation. Therefore, rewriting the equation gives \(\frac{dh}{\sqrt{h}} = -\frac{a}{A}\sqrt{2g} dt\).

The solution of the differential equation can now be achieved by integrating both sides with respect to their variables. The left side is integrated with respect to \(h\), and the right side with respect to \(t\).

Upon integration, you will be presented with the equation \(2\sqrt{h} = -\frac{a}{A}\sqrt{2g}t + C\), where \(C\) is the constant of integration. Optionally, you can express \(h\) as a function of \(t\), obtaining \(h(t) = \left(\frac{-a\sqrt{2g}t}{2A} + \frac{C}{2}\right)^2\).

This equation provides the variation of the fluid height with time, capturing the essence of fluid outflow under gravity, as originally described by Torricelli's Law.

For instance, if you have a cylindrical tank with a hole at the bottom, knowing the area of the tank and hole allows you to predict how the height of the fluid in the tank will decrease over time, using the solution to the Torricelli's Law differential equation. This has practical implications for managing fluid storage and distribution systems.

Examples of Torricelli's Law

After exploring the fundamental principles, derivation and mathematical models of Torricelli's Law, examining real-world examples can help build a more tangible understanding. Studying these examples will not only help in comprehending its practical applications but also illustrate the profound impacts Torricelli's law has on the engineering domain.

Simple Torricelli's Law Example Scenarios

Let's delve into some simple, but illustrative examples of Torricelli's Law. In these examples, the focus is on visualising the fundamental science captured by the law in pure and straightforward settings. Observe how these settings align with the abstract concepts expressed in the law and the differential equation derived from it.

Draining a Bathtub: Probably the most common everyday example of Torricelli's Law is the draining of water from your bathtub. The rate at which the water drains (the speed at which it leaves the drain hole) is directly related to the height of the water above the outlet, illustrating the principle \(v = \sqrt{2gh}\) that is at the heart of Torricelli's Law.

Flow from a Water Tank: Picture a large, cylindrical water tank with a small outlet at the base. When the outlet is opened, the water gushes out in the form of a jet. The speed of this jet is not constant but decreases as the water level in the tank decreases. This slower rate of flow as the height decreases is a direct consequence of Torricelli's Law.

Beverage Dispenser: A beverage dispenser, with its spigot near the bottom, also adheres to the principles of Torricelli's Law. As the amount of liquid in the dispenser lessens, the pouring speed at the spigot drops, owing to the diminishing height of liquid above it.

A noteworthy feature from such quotidian examples is that the height of the fluid, not the amount or weight, directly impacts the velocity of the outflow. Thus, the flow rate from a small glass and a large tank with the same liquid height would be the same provided the outlet holes are equivalent.

Comprehending Torricelli's Law through Practical Examples

Further comprehension of Torricelli's Law can be achieved by exploring more diverse and tangible examples. Being presented with different settings where Torricelli's Law comes into play will expand your understanding and shed light on the omnipresence of this important principle in our daily lives.

Fuel Tanks: In automobiles, Torricelli's Law is instrumental in understanding how the shape and size of a fuel tank influence fuel consumption rates and fuel gauge reading. As the fuel level descends, the decrease in fuel outflow velocity, according to Torricelli's Law, dictates that the tank's shape will cause the fuel gauge to descend at a non-linear rate.

Water Supply Systems: Municipal water supply systems use large overhead tanks to create pressure for water distribution. The head of water (vertical distance from the tank to your tap or shower) results in water pressure at your tap or shower. This pressure, according to Torricelli's Law, directly determines the flow velocity, in turn influencing the rate at which water is supplied.

Fountains: The operation of a fountain, particularly its sprays or jets, is governed by Torricelli's Law. The height or velocity of a fountain's sprays is determined by the height of the water level in the source reservoir, showcasing how gravitational potential energy is converted into kinetic energy.

Through these examples, it becomes evident how Torricelli's Law, a principle anchored in the science of fluid mechanics, permeates several aspects of your daily life, from car fuel tanks to city water supply systems. These real-life scenarios emphasise the significance of the law and demonstrate how practical applications often demand an extension, if not a re-formulation, of the elementary \(v = \sqrt{2gh}\) expression, hence the importance of the various representations, such as the differential equation form, of Torricelli's Law.

Application of Torricelli's Law

Torricelli's Law has a broad range of applications extending from simple everyday instances or household events to complex engineering systems and environmental scenarios. The core principle of Torricelli's Law, dealing with fluid dynamics and outflow velocities, has been harnessed in diverse fields to model, analyse, and optimise various tasks and processes.

Practical Applications of Torricelli's Law

Torricelli's Law plays a paramount role in understanding numerous practical applications. Its fundamental principles ingeniously aid in addressing significant engineering problems, particularly those involving fluid flow and energy conversions.

A crucial point to note here is the critical relationship encapsulated in Torricelli's Law: The velocity of discharge from a fluid reservoir depends wholly on the fluid height above the point of discharge and the acceleration due to gravity. This abstract principle is essentially a reflection of the broader principle of conservation of energy. It states that at the point of discharge, the gravitational potential energy of the fluid gets converted into kinetic or movement energy, thus propelling the fluid.

An illustration of this application is in pipeline and canal design in civil engineering. Engineers often need to calculate the rate of discharge from pipes under gravity. The size, shape and location of pipelines (or canals) can be optimised to get the desired flow rates using Torricelli's Law.

Similarly, Toricelli's Law also finds significant application in the hydroelectric power industry. The law helps in determining the kinetic energy of water falling from a particular height, which in turn aids in estimating the potential energy available for conversion into electrical energy. Ergo, the law assists in gauging the efficiency and feasibility of potential hydroelectric projects.

Moreover, in the field of medicine and biology, Torricelli's Law is employed in understanding blood flow mechanics. It assists in estimating the velocity of blood ejected by heart ventricles, thereby aiding in diagnosing and treating various cardiovascular conditions.

To recap, the applications of Torricelli's Law are immense, owing to the fundamental nature of the principles it encompasses.

Torricelli's Law in everyday life

Aside from countless applications in engineering and industry, Torricelli's Law displays its relevance and ubiquity even in our day-to-day lives. The law is often hard at work in scenarios that may, at first glance, seem rather ordinary or mundane. This mundane relevance is, in fact, a testament to the profound impact Torricelli's Law has on various aspects of daily life.

A prevalent illustration is the draining of water from storage containers like bathtubs or buckets. When you remove a plug, the fluid drains out, and the outflow velocity is determined by the height of the fluid column above the drain hole. This process, as common as it is, follows Torricelli's Law to the letter.

In another example, consider the functioning of a classic beverage dispenser. When you press the dispensing lever, you witness the fluid flowing out. The speed of this outflow, which according to Torricelli's Law, is a function of the fluid's height above the dispenser's outlet. As you pour more beverages and the fluid level drops, the flow rate decreases, an intuitive observation explained by Torricelli's Law.

Even a simple garden or lawn sprinkler illustrates the principles of Torricelli's Law very effectively. The rate at which water sprays out of each nozzle in the sprinkler, hence the height to which it sprays, is a function of the water pressure at the nozzle, which, in turn, depends on the height of the water column in the connecting hose above the nozzle.

Lastly, an intriguing example of Torricelli's Law in action is observed in the declining fuel gauge of your car. When your car runs on its last bit of fuel, the gauge needle drops at a slower rate. This is because the fuel level and therefore the outflow velocity of fuel from the tank to the engine decrease, following Torricelli's Law.

To sum up, Torricelli's Law manifests in our day-to-day life in myriad ways, often unnoticed. Yet the principles it encapsulates are foundational to the way our world works, especially regarding the flow and dynamics of fluids. Recognising and appreciating these principles can offer a newfound understanding and appreciation for the fluid world around you.

Proof of Torricelli's Law

Demonstrating Torricelli's Law involves delving deeper into the principles of fluid mechanics and validating it by mathematical proof. Understanding the evidence can offer a firm grasp of the law itself, making it tangible in its applications. So, how does one prove Torricelli's Law?

Mathematical Proof of Torricelli's Law

Torricelli's Law, at its heart, is a statement about energy conservation - every bit of potential energy of the fluid transforms into kinetic energy at the outlet point. As such, the mathematical proof of Torricelli's Law hinges mostly on the concept of energy conservation.

To begin with the proof, let's imagine a container filled with an incompressible fluid, such as water, up to a height 'h'. The container has a hole at some point, and the fluid is coming out of this hole. Let us consider the velocity of fluid coming out of the hole as 'v'. We will use this setup to prove the Torricelli's law equation, \(v = \sqrt{2gh}\).

The pressure 'P' at a depth 'h' in a fluid column is given by the equation:

Where \( \rho \) is the density of the liquid and \( g \) is the acceleration due to gravity. Now, at the hole (or exit point), the pressure should be equal to the atmospheric pressure 'Pa' due to the fluid being open to the atmosphere. Considering 'Pa' is zero (for simplicity), we can say that the pressure at the exit point is also zero.

Now, using the Bernoulli's equation (a very reliable principle in fluid dynamics), which states that an increase in the speed of a fluid occurs simultaneously with a decrease in pressure or a decrease in its potential energy. So, at the top of the fluid and at the exit point, the Bernoulli's principle can be written as follows:

\(\frac{1}{2} \rho v^2 + \rho g h = \frac{1}{2} \rho v1^2 + \rho g h1\)

Now, at the top of the fluid \(h1 = h, v1 = 0\) and at the hole \(h = 0, and v = ? \). So, substituting these values into the Bernoulli's equation:

\(\frac{1}{2} \rho 0 + \rho g h = \frac{1}{2} \rho v^2 + \rho g 0\)

which simplifies to \( \rho g h = \frac{1}{2} \rho v^2 \). Solving for \( v \), we get:

And voilà, this is the very equation attributed to Torricelli's Law. Thus, the mathematical proof, rooted in the principles of energy conservation and Bernoulli's Equation corroborates Torricelli's Law.

Verifying Torricelli's Law: A Step-by-Step Guide

Once you comprehend the mathematical representation of Torricelli's Law, the next step is to verify it for yourself. You may need some straightforward apparatus and a structured protocol as a guiding point in your journey to substantiate Torricelli's Law experimentally.

Here is a step-by-step guide to prove Torricelli's Law:

1. Materials: A large container (with a hole at the bottom and a scale along its length), water, and a stopwatch.

2. Setup: Fill the container with water up to a marked height 'h'. Block the hole, and start the stopwatch as soon as you release the blockage.

3. Observation: Observe the water jet coming out from the hole and note down the time 't' it takes to decrease the water level from the height 'h' to a second marked height.

4. Calculations: Calculate the velocity 'v' of the water jet using the equation:

1. Comparison: Compare this experimentally determined velocity 'v' of the water jet with the theoretical prediction of Torricelli's Law equation, \(v = \sqrt{2gh}\), where 'g' is the acceleration due to gravity.

2. Verification: If the experimental value for 'v' closely approximates the theoretical value, it provides validation for Torricelli's Law in a real-world context.

Remember, the key to any experiment lies in careful measurement and repetition. The more accurately and consistently you can measure 'h' and 't', and the more times you repeat the experiment, the greater your confidence will be in the results. Furthermore, ensure the hole (or outlet) is small compared to the container's size to minimise the impact of factors like the fluid's viscosity and the surface tension.

Remember that these are theoretical and ideal conditions. Real-world variables can influence outcomes, but the principles remain consistent. The value of this exercise lies not just in validating a scientific law, but in fostering a deeper understanding of the principles that govern the natural world. By conducting this experiment, you engage directly with these principles and instil a robust scientific comprehension that transcends books and classrooms.

Torricelli's Law - Key takeaways

Torricelli's Law is based on the principles of fluid dynamics, algebra, calculus, and classical mechanics such as the law of conservation of energy.

The derivation of Torricelli's Law can also be approached using the principles of classical mechanics, not just fluid dynamics.

Torricelli's Law can be represented as a differential equation, \( \frac{dh}{dt} = -\frac{a}{A}\sqrt{2gh} \), which provides a more dynamic view of the changes in fluid height over time.

Applying Torricelli's law to real-world examples such as draining bathtubs, flow from water tanks, beverage dispensers, fuel tanks, water supply systems, and fountains helps in comprehending its practical applications.

Torricelli's Law has a broad range of applications from simple everyday instances to complex engineering systems, including pipeline and canal design, hydroelectric power industry, heart ventricle blood flow mechanics, and more.

Test your knowledge with multiple choice flashcards

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Torricelli's Law: ✓ Derivation ✓ Differential Equation ✓ Example ✓ Application ✓ Proof. StudySmarterOriginal!

# data[].attributes.body
Marin Mersenne, a French mathematician, was among the first to try to measure the speed of sound. He conducted experiments by timing the difference between the sight and sound of a gun being fired. He used echo and reverberation methods to estimate the speed of sound in air to be around 428 m/s.

# data[].attributes.body
Pierre Gassendi attempted to measure the speed of sound by comparing the difference in time between the sight of a flash and the sound of a gunshot.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.provider_name
A Moment of Science - Indiana Public Media

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
In the 17th century, the French scientist Pierre Gassendi knew that light traveled faster than sound. When a gun fired far away, he could see the flash of gunshot long before he heard the report. Learn more on this Moment of Science.

# data[].attributes.body
Isaac Newton, who is renowned for his work in physics, contributed to understanding the speed of sound by relating it to the properties of air. He made a crucial error but his work laid the groundwork for future discoveries.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Would you like to try Newton's classic speed of sound experiment? Last month, at Trinity College in Cambridge, my 13-year-old stood at the colonnade where Newton measured the speed of sound. Just like Newton, Daniel clapped his hands once and waited for the echo. Unlike Newton, we used electronics to measure the time it took the sound wave to travel down the outdoor corridor and return to our ears. It seemed almost (but not quite) instantaneous. We recorded the sound of the clap and the echo. Later, using a simple sound-editing program, we found the amount of time that it took Daniel's sound wave to traverse the corridor and return. It was fast. It took just 0.37 seconds.

We couldn't measure the length of the colonnade (which is visible in the top picture) because a security guard bloke denied us access for this important part of the experiment. Besides, we had forgotten our measuring tape back in Calgary. However, we found prints of Trinity College's floor plan. The length of the colonnade turned out to be about 64 metres. So, the round trip for the clap's sound wave was 128 metres. Knowing distance and time, it's a simple step to calculate speed: speed = distance/time = 128m/0.37s = 346 m/s. The accepted nominal speed of sound, at sea level, in dry air, is 343 metres per second. Our observation was within 1% of the accepted value. We did better than Newton, who calculated the speed of sound at 298 m/sec. He was off by 15%, but he didn't have any easy way to measure a tiny time interval such as a third of a second - though I suppose no one stopped him from measuring the colonnade's length.

Newton was the first to publish a speed for sound (in 1686) and to show how he made his calculation. He used a small pendulum to measure the amount of time the echo took. This method was much more accurate than any 17th-century clock, but was cumbersome and finicky. It was well known that the back and forth swing of a long pendulum takes a longer period of time than short pendulum. The formula used by Newton relates the constant force of gravity (g) and the pendulum length (L) to the pendulum's period (T). It's not a tough calculation (though the derivation of the formula was sheer genius). This is what Newton used: T = 2 PI SQRT (L/g). Newton changed the pendulum length until it's swing period was the same as the echo's return. These match using a 3.5 centimeter length. Plugging numbers into the formula gave Newton the time, which he calculated as about 0.42 seconds. His speed of sound was too slow.

We should also note that Newton had assumed that sound waves are isothermal. Laplace, 1816, suggested that sound waves are not isothermal but adiabatic. The work of Laplace corrects Newton's measurements and resulting speed of sound calculation. Other factors (Cambridge's elevation and the temperature and humidity of the air) would have also changed the speed of sound in Newton's original experiment and contributed to his discrepancy, though I suspect that much of the difference is due to the difficulty in accurately synchronizing the pendulum and the hand clap and getting the right time interval - we are talking about a few milliseconds. Nevertheless, Newton gets credit for the first analytical determination of the speed of sound and for publishing his experiment and results in 1686, in Proposition 49 of Book II of the Principia.

Because of his measurement of the speed of sound, Newton also should be noted as one of the many grandparents of geophysics. Modern seismic investigation is based on reflected sound waves. Sound, traveling through the Earth, encounters rocks of varying density and bounces back at each new interface. Such interfaces (rock formations) act like buried stone walls, echoing sound waves back to observers. By measuring the amount of time the reflections take, seismologists can infer the depth to layers and formations hidden underground. Not only did Newton perform the first speed of sound calculation, he also began the study of sound wave propagation and variation through different media - a fundamental property of seismic geophysics. As in all of science, the physics of seismology builds on prior work. And as in all science, experiments are verifiable - sometimes even with a 13-year-old's clapping hands.

About Ron Miksha

Ron Miksha is a bee ecologist working at the University of Calgary. He is also a geophysicist and does a bit of science writing and blogging. Ron has worked as a radio broadcaster, a beekeeper, and Earth scientist. (Ask him about seismic waves.) He's based in Calgary, Alberta, Canada.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Would you like to try Newton's classic speed of sound experiment? Last month, at Trinity College in Cambridge, my 13-year-old stood at the colonnade where Newton measured the speed of sound. Just like Newton, Daniel clapped his hands once and waited for the echo. Unlike Newton, we used electronics to measure the time it took...

# data[].attributes.body
Ultrasound technology relies on high-frequency sound waves to create images. It's crucial in prenatal care to monitor the development of the fetus.

# data[].attributes.body
Jean-Baptiste Biot extended earlier work by examining how the speed of sound varies in gases. His studies concluded that sound travels faster in lighter gases due to reduced density.

# data[].attributes.body
The Doppler effect explains how the frequency of sound changes relative to the movement of the source and observer. It's used in radar and even while listening to passing sirens.

# data[].attributes.body
Noise-cancelling headphones use destructive interference to reduce unwanted ambient sounds, thereby making listening to music much clearer.

# data[].attributes.body
Animals like bats and dolphins use echolocation to navigate and hunt, which is based on emitting sound waves and interpreting the echoes that return.

# data[].attributes.body
Sound barriers are used in aviation to help control noise pollution caused by aircraft, particularly during takeoff and landing.

# data[].attributes.headline
The Influence of Temperature: William Derham

# data[].attributes.subject
The Influence of Temperature: William Derham

# data[].attributes.body
William Derham was the first to observe that the speed of sound changes with air temperature. He conducted his experiments by comparing the sound travel time during various weather conditions.

# data[].attributes.body
Ernst Mach made significant contributions to the study of supersonic motion and shock waves. His research laid the groundwork for the modern understanding of sound waves and their speeds.

# data[].attributes.body
Modern techniques for measuring the speed of sound use precise equipment such as microphones, oscilloscopes, and computers. These methods provide highly accurate measurements and have applications in various fields like medicine, engineering, and meteorology.