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Pregnancy Timeline by George O, Pauli M, Brunel K, Christian K

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Pregnancy Timeline by George O, Pauli M, Brunel K, Christian K

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When a mature follicle ruptures and releases an ovum into the oviduct.

The follicle then becomes a corpus luteum, which stops the menstrual cycle by maintaining a high level of estrogen and progesterone in the blood.

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Several hundred million sperm cells attempt to reach the egg cell, however, most of them do not survive the journey and only a few hundred survive to reach the egg in the oviduct.

Right after the egg is released, it is surrounded by different layers called the zona pellucida and corona radiate, which were a source of nourishment when it was in an ovarian follicle. Once the sperm cells meet these layers, the sperm acrosome releases its enzymes. These enzymes digest a path through the layers, that allow the sperm cells to travel further. The action of hundreds of sperm cells may be necessary to clear the path for only one sperm cell. Once a sperm cell enters the egg, the egg's membrane depolarizes to prevent any other sperm cell from entering.

Once the sperm enters the egg, the nucleus of the egg and sperm cell disappears and the 23 chromosomes in each are joined for a total of 46 chromosomes. The resulting single cell is called a zygote.

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When the egg gets fertilized in the oviduct, it is still a few days away from entering the uterus. During this time, the zygote divides by mitosis, forming two cells. These two cells also divide forming four cells. Then the four divide again to form eight cells and so on. However, the zygote remains the same, but the cells just get smaller. The process of cell division without enlargement of the cells is called cleavage. By the time the zygote divides into 16 cells, it is called a morula.

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The morula reaches the uterus within three to five days after fertilization, where it begins to fill with fluid from the uterus. The whole spherical structure is now called a blastocyst, where two groups of cells form. The outer layer of the blastocyst is called the trophoblast, while the cells within the blastocyst come together to form the inner cell mass.

The trophoblast will develop into a membrane called the chorion. Then the chorion will later develop to form the placenta.

The inner cell mass will develop into the embryo itself.

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Between the fifth and seventh day after fertilization, the blastocyst attaches to the endometrium with the inner cell mass positioned against the endometrium. The trophoblast cells secrete enzymes that digest some of the tissues and blood vessels of the endometrium, then the blastocyst sinks into the uterine wall. This process is called implantation and it is completed by the tenth to the fourteenth day. This is when the woman is said to be pregnant.

At the same time as the implantation starts, the trophoplast starts secreting a hormone called human chronic gonadotropin (hCG). This hormone maintains the corpus luteum, which allows the secretion of estrogen and progesterone to continue to prevent menstruation. Starts at a high level of secretion for the first two months then slows down by the end of the fourth month because the function of the corpus luteum as a source of hormones is less important after the first trimester. By this time, the Placenta secretes sufficient estrogen and progesterone to maintain the endometrium.

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During the second week, the inner cell mass changes. A space called the amniotic cavity between the inner cell mass and the trophoblast is formed and it is where the baby will develop. As the amniotic cavity forms, the inner cell mass flattens into a disk called the embryonic disk.

At first the embryonic disk consists of two layers, an outer ectoderm and an inner endoderm. Then a third layer called the mesoderm forms between the endoderm and the ectoderm. These three layers are called the primary germ layers and the process of forming these germ layers is called gastrulation. After these three layers form, the embryo is now called the gastrula.

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Gastulation marks the start of morphogenesis, a series of events that form different structures and it depends on the ability of the early embryonic cells to differentiate. Differentiation is the cellular process where cells develop to a particular structure and to perform specific functions that are different from other cells.

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What The Primary Germ Layers Develop Into 

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What The Primary Germ Layers Develop Into 

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Ectoderm:
- Outer skin and associated structures
- Nervous tissue and sense organs
- Pituitary gland
- Tooth enamel
- Adrenal medulla
- Eye lens

Mesoderm:
- Dermis of skin
- Cellular lining of blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, body cavities
- Muscle tissue
- Connective tissue
- Adrenal cortex
- Heart
- Internal reproductive organs
- Kidneys and ureters
- Spleen

Endoderm:
- Cellular lining of respiratory tract, digestive tract, urinary bladder, urethra
- Liver
- Gallbladder
- Pancreas
- Thymus
- Tonsils
- Parathyroid glands
- Thyroid glands

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Development of The Primary Germ Layers - Third Week

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Development of The Primary Germ Layers - Third Week

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During the third week, a band of mesoderm cells develops along the embryonic disk and comes together to form a rod-like structure called the notochord, which will form the basic framework of the skeleton.

During this time, the nervous system develops from the ectoderm located just above the notochord. First, cells above the notochord begin to thicken and folds develop on each side. Then the folds fuse to become a tube called the neural tube, which develops into the brain and spinal cord. The process of forming this tube is called neurulation and it marks the start of organ formation.

Soon after neurulation, a reddish bulge that contains the heart forms and the heart starts beating by the eighteenth day.

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Development of The Primary Germ Layers - Fourth Week

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Development of The Primary Germ Layers - Fourth Week

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This is a time of rapid growth and differentiation:
- Blood cells start to form and fill blood vessels.
- Lungs and kidneys take shape.
- Small buds, which develop into arms and legs appear.
- A head is visible, as well as early eyes, ears, and nose.
- The mother might now suspect that she is pregnant and the embryo is 0.6 cm.

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Development of The Primary Germ Layers - Fifth Week

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Development of The Primary Germ Layers - Fifth Week

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- The head is very large compared with its body.
- The eyes open but no eyelids or irises.
- Cells in the brain are differentiated very quickly.
- The embryo is 1.3 cm.

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Development of The Primary Germ Layers - Sixth Week

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Development of The Primary Germ Layers - Sixth Week

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- The brain continues its rapid development
- Limbs lengthen and flex slightly
- Gonads are starting to produce hormones that will influence the development of the external genitalia.

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Development of The Primary Germ Layers - Seventh and Eighth Week

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Development of The Primary Germ Layers - Seventh and Eighth Week

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- Embryo has distinct human characteristics.
- Organs are formed.
- The nervous system is starting to coordinate body activity.
- A skeleton of cartilage has formed.
- Eyes are well developed but the lids are closed to protect from random finger movement.
- Nostrils are developed but plugged with mucus.
- Genetic sex has been determined but the physical sex is not yet apparent because the external genitalia is still forming.

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Development of The Primary Germ Layers - By The End of The Eighth Week

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Development of The Primary Germ Layers - By The End of The Eighth Week

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- 90% of the organs and other structures that make up a human are established.
- From this time on, organs enlarge and mature until birth.
- Embryo is now a fetus.

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Extra Embryonic Membranes And What They Develop Into

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Extra Embryonic Membranes And What They Develop Into

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Between the third and eighth week, at the same time as the development of the primary germ layers, extra embryonic membranes are also developing. These membranes are the allantois, amnion, chorion, and yolk sac.

Allantois:
- Foundation for the umbilical cord.
- Degenerates during the second month and the remainder becomes part of the urinary bladder.

Amnion:
- Develops from the embryonic disk.
- Grows to enclose the embryo completely and it is only penetrated by the umbilical cord.
- Protected the embryo from trauma and temperature fluctuations.
- Allows freedom of movement.
- Prevents limbs from sticking to the body.

Chorion:
- Encloses all of the other extra embryonic membranes as well as the embryo.
- Forms the fetal portion of the placenta.

Yolk sac:
- Contributes to the formation of the digestive tract.
- Produces the first blood cells and future egg or sperm cells.
- Unlike other yolk sac in other vertebrates, human yolk sac serve no nutritive function.

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The beginning of the placenta is established by the end of the second week after finger-like projections from the chorion extend into the uterine lining. The placenta is a disk-shaped organ that is rich in blood vessels. The embryo is attached to the uterine wall by the placenta and metabolic exchange occurs through it. The placenta is fully developed by the tenth week. The blood system of the mother and the embryo are separate, but they lie very close to each other in the placenta, which allows for nutrients and other things to be transported between the mother and the embryo. Functions of the placenta include:

Nutritional Functions:
- Transports nutrients from the mother's blood to the fetus’s blood.
- Stores nutrients in early pregnancy and releases them later.

Excretory Functions:
- Transport wastes from the fetal blood to the mother's blood.

Respiratory Functions:
- Transport oxygen from the mother to the fetus.
- Transport carbon dioxide from the fetus to the mother.

Endocrine Functions:
- Secretes hormones.
- Allows hormones to diffuse from the fetus to the mother and from the mother to the fetus.

Immune Functions:
- Transports antibodies from the mother into the fetus’s blood to provide passive immunity.

The placenta does not filter out substances such as alcohol, which can diffuse across the membrane, thus causing harm to the embryo or fetus.

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Near the end of the eighth week, the umbilical cord forms. The umbilical cord is a rope-like structure that leads from the navel area of the fetus to the center of the placenta. It contains two arteries that transport oxygen-depleted blood from the fetus to the placenta. It also contains one vein which brings oxygen-rich blood from the mother to the fetus.

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- During the fourth month pregnancy, the heartbeat of the fetus  is strong enough to hear through a strethoscope
- the bones of the fetus begin to form and develop
-  the legs start to develop as well and the mother may start to feel movements from her womb
-symptoms of the mother may include: growing belly and breasts, skin changes, nasal problems, dental issues, dizziness, leg cramps, vaginal discharge, urinary tract infections
- the mother would typically feel less tired compared to the first trimester
- appetite may increase
- the uterus grows to the height of the belly button around                    Week 20
-weaker gums and more prone to bleeding

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-face starts to look human
-body is larger than head
-skin is bright pink
-Scalp gains hair
-formation of the hair
-lips have sucking movement
-heartbeat can be heard through stethoscope
-the fetus is about 14cm in length and 100g at the end of the month

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-body is covered in fine hair called lanugo
-skin secretes oil to protect it from amniotic fluid
-fetus is bent forward into “fetal position” because it starts to outgrow the amniotic sac
-the mother can start to feel movements
-the skin is still bright pink
-the fetus is about 19cm in length and 200-450g at the end of the month

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-the eyes start to open
-formation of the eyelashes
-the skink is wrinkled, pink, and translucent
-the fetus is about 27-35cm in length and 550-800g at the end of the month

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fetal cells form rapidly, connecting to form more and more intricate networks

Testes in males descend into scrotum

Layer of fat develops beneath skin

Digestive and respiratory system usually last to mature

Infants born prematurely have difficulty digesting milk or breathing

Proper Nutrition is important during all of pregnancy including for both mother and the fetus

Nutrition is especially important during the third trimester. Poor Nutrition damages placenta

With poor nutrition it could lead to low birth weight,short stature,delayed sexual development and learning disabilities

About 266 Days or 40 Weeks. A multi-trillion cell id bring ready to be born.

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-the skin is wrinkled and red
-the fetus turns to an upside down position
-the bone marrow is the only site for red blood cell formation
-testes go down into the scrotum
-the fetus can usually survive if born early
-the fetus is about 32-42cm in length and 1100-1350g at the end of the month

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-the fatty deposition makes the fetus softer and more plump
-the skin is less wrinkled and lighter
-twins can be born at this stage
-the fetus is about 41-45cm in length and 2000-2300g at the end of the month

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-more fat deposition occurs
-shedding of the lanugo
-the nails extend and can go beyond the finger tips
-birth is expected at any time
-the fetus is about 50cm in length and 3200-3500g at the end of the month

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teratogens:any agent that cause structural abnormality due to exposure

Smoking can constrict the fetus’ blood vessels, stoping fetus from getting enough oxygen

Can lead to underweight babies

Also increases risk of premature birth, stillbirths, miscarriage, behavioural problems, and reduced intelligence

Alcohol: decreased weight, height, head size, malformations of face and head in babies

Learning and memory difficulties, aggression and personality disorders

Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder(FASD)

Many OTC meds

Antibiotics, acne meds, anti-thyroid drugs, some anti0cancer drugs

Large amounts of nutrients can build dependency for baby

Vitamin C: after birth, baby can have scurvy

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all the events of Parturition are referred to as labor

Usually begin with uterine contractions

The uterus experiences contractions throughout pregnancy

At first, lasting about 20-30 seconds and are light, occurring every 15-20 minutes

Near the end of pregnancy. Contractions are stronger and more frequent, every 15-20 minutes

Uterine contractions are induced by a stretching of the cervix

Releases oxytocin from posterior pituitary

Stimulates the uterine muscles, both directly and through the action of prostaglandins(a group of lipids with hormone-like actions that your body makes primarily at sites of tissue damage or infection)

Some mothers choose to give birth in a squatting position to allow gravity to help

Others prefer to give birth in water, to lessen the shock of the baby’s entry into the atmospheric environment.

Once the baby is breathing normally, he umbilical cord is clamped, cut and tied(no nerves)

Baby is cut off from source of nutrients

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Dilation stage: Uterine contractions and oxytocin cause cervix to open, or dilate

Amniotic sac breaks and the amniotic fluid is released through the vagina.

Lasts usually from 2-20 hrs

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Explusion stage:

forceful contractions push the baby through the cervix to the birth canal.

As the baby moves, the head rotates, making it easier for the body to pass through.

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Placental stage:

10-15 minutes after baby is born

Placenta and umbilical cord are expelled from the uterus

The expelled placenta is called the afterbirth

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Feedback loop of Oxytocin during Childbirth

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Oxytocin is released from the posterior pituitary gland by the stretching of the cervix

Oxytocin stimulates the uterine muscles  through the action of prostaglandins

The contractions of the uterus push the baby the fetus downward and the cervix stretches even more

The stretching the of the cervix causes a positive feedback loop to cause more uterine contractions and the release of oxytocin until the baby is born

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Hormones control onset of lactation

Secretion and formation of breast milk

Prolactin: hormone needed for milk production(not secreted during pregnancy)

High levels of estrogen and progesterone suppress its production

After birth, anterior pituitary releases prolactin

Colostrum:thin yellowish fluid similar to milk, contains more protein n less fat

Contains antibodies from mother, provides baby with protection from various infectious agents

When a baby suckles, it stimulates nerve endings in nipples and areola(area out of nipples)

Nerve impulses travel to hypothalamus

Stimulates posterior pituitary to release oxytocin

Oxytocin causes contractions within the mammary lobules

Mammary lobules contain alveoli(sacs with cells that produce milk

Lobules end in mammary ducts at the nipple

Contractions within lobules causes milk to flow to the ducts where baby can suck it out

If suckling stops, milk production stops within a few days

Increased suckling increases milk production

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What is Sterility and Infertility?

Sterility is the inability of men and women to produce a child. When a couple has been trying to conceive children for a year or more unsuccessfully but are unsuccessful they are considered infertile.  Roughly 16% of couples in Canada face infertility (1 in 6).

Reasons For Infertility...

Men
- Destruction to the ductus deference or epididymis; can be cause from STI
- Low Sperm count; can be caused by overheated testicles, smoking, or alchol ingestion
-High proportion of abnormal or non-viable sperm; caused by overheated testicles, exposure to toxins, chemicals, or radiation,  or STI
-Inability to achieve erection/ejaculate; caused by vascular disease, nervous system injury, hormonal imbalance, medication smoking, or alcohol ingestion

Women
- Blocked oviducts; caused by STI
- Failure to ovulate; caused by hormonal imbalance
- Endometriosis: A painful condition in which endometrial tissue grow outside the uterus. Endometriosis affects roughly 10% of reproductive age women
-Damaged eggs; caused by environmental factors such as exposure to toxins

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Technologies That Enhance Reproductive Potential 

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Technologies That Enhance Reproductive Potential 

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Artificial Insemination (AI)

Ilya Ivanov is a Russian Soviet biologist who founded the worlds first centre for artificially impregnating hormones. This procedure expanded to human and is now known as Artificial Insemination.

A procedure which deposits a sperm into the vagina to allow fertilization. This device can be used when a man is sterile or infertile to allow the couple to conceive. The Sperm are concentrated before being placed in the vagina and can be donated from partner or sperm bank.

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In Vitro Fertilization(IVF) and Gamete Intrafallopian Transfer(GIFT) 

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In Vitro Fertilization(IVF) and Gamete Intrafallopian Transfer(GIFT) 

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In Vitro Fertilization (IVF)

Patrick Steptoe and Robert Edwards first developed in vitro fertilization (IVF) as an assisted reproductive technology in the 1970s to treat female infertility brought on by damaged or clogged fallopian tubes. The first IVF baby was born 1978. Ultrasounds are used to identify specific follicles that are close to ovulation and immature eggs can be retrieved directly from the follicles. From there eggs are combined with sperm in laboratory glassware where the gametes are then fertilized. After fertilization eggs are placed in the uterus.

Gamete Intrafallopian Transfer (GIFT)

The Gamete Intrafallopian Transfer was created in 1984 and has had higher success rates than IVF. The GIFT procedure makes use of many eggs taken from the ovaries. The intended sperm and the eggs are put into a small, flexible tube called a catheter. The gametes  are then inserted by a surgical procedure called laparoscopy into the fallopian tubes.

Surrogate Mothers

A surrogate mother is a women who becomes impregnated and carries a baby for another. Using the father's sperm, a woman is artificially inseminated (using IVF or GIFT). After that, they deliver the kid for you and your partner to raise.

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Many women looking to enhance their chanced of pregnancy use a method called super-ovulation. The result of super-ovulation is the release of several mature eggs during one menstrual cycle. The medicine stimulates the ovaries, medicines include letrozole or gonadotropins, or other follicle-stimulating hormone medicines.

Folltropin
Both male and female infertility can be treated with follitropin beta injections. Follicle-stimulating hormone, the substance in question, is a synthetic hormone (FSH). The pituitary gland produces FSH within the body. FSH aids in the development of sperm and eggs in men's testicles and women's ovaries, respectively.

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Technologies That Reduce Reproductive Potential

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Technologies That Reduce Reproductive Potential

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Abstinence

Avoidance of Sexual Intercourse. This additionally prevents the potential transmission of STI.

Natural Family Planning

When a couple refrains from having sexual intercourse during the time of the woman's cycle when she is most fertile.  During her menstrual cycle, a woman keeps track of various fertility signs to determine when she is most likely to become pregnant.

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Tubal ligation

Created 1880, Tubal Ligation is a surgical procedure which involves the cutting of the oviducts and tying off the cut ends. The procedure ensures that the ovum never encounters sperm and never reaches the uterus, instead the ovum disintegrates in the oviduct. The effectiveness is nearly 100% however, the procedure does not protect against sexual transmitted infections.

Vasectomy

Created 1823, the vasectomy is a on operation which makes the man sterile. In the procedure the ductus deferens are cut and tied preventing the chances of sperm from reaching the eggs . The man is able to have an erection and ejaculate but semen does not contain sperm

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Hormone treatment include medicine that balances the reproductive homrones within the women's body. These medications can be taken, orally, by injection, or by implants under the skin.  The artificial hormones mimic the effect of progesterone and inhibit the release of FSH and LH from the anterior pituitary, as a result teh women does not ovulate.

Emergency Hormone Treatment

An example of an emergency hormone treatment is the morning after pill. This specific pill delivers high doses of synthetic estrogen and progesterone. These hormones disrupt the ovarian cycle and can prevent or delay ovulation. If fertilization has already taken place, hormones can prevent the embryo from implanting in the uterus.

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-Physical barriers are designed to prevent sperm from reaching the ovum. An example of this contraceptive are condoms.

-Spermicides: These products are inserted into the vagina before any genital contact occurs or sexual intercourse begins. Chemical barriers kill the sperm before it reached the egg.

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What is Ethics?

The definition of ethics is "moral principles that govern a person's behaviour or the conducting of an activity." As it investigates what is morally right or wrong, just or unjust, ethics looks at the intellectual justification for our moral judgements. Reproductive Technologies have raised many a number of difficult questions which we will explore throughout the next slides.

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- What rights should a zygote have? In the process of assisted insemination multiple gametes are gathered and fertilized but only a few are implanted and brought to term, the rest are destroyed. Many citizens find the destruction of the gametes immoral as well as they buying and selling of human life.

-  What rights should gamete donors and surrogate parents have? Should donors have rights as a parent? Additionally, should donors have the right to remain anonymous? If a surrogate mother decides she wants to keep the baby she is carrying for someone else, does she have the right to keep it?

- How far should reproductive technology go? As technology advances ethical and moral questions arise to "what extent should people be able to design their kids". Couples using IVF or GIFT have to opportunity to select the sex of their baby as it is simple to sort sperm into a likely "X "or "Y" chromosome category. Additionally, zygotes can be tested for genetic disorders before being implanted.

- Should everyone have the right to be a parent? Should individuals with minimal fundings have the opportunity to produce children with reproductive technologies? Should couples with sterility have easier access than someone who just wants to start a family?

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The previous questions were only a few of many moral, and ethical questions about assisted reproductive technology which citizen has the right to ask. Canadian government, courts, families and other individuals or groups will continue to debate reproduction-related questions.

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Blastocyst (15.1): Mammalian embryo at the stage in which it is implanted in the wall of the uterus and consists of a nearly hollow ball of cells: trophoblast and inner cell mass

Cleavage (15.1): Process of cell division without cell growth; after fertilization, the zygote undergoes repeated cleavage without increasing in overall size

Differentiation (15.1): Cellular process that enables a cell to develop a particular shape and to preform specific functions that are different from functions of other cells

Extra-Embryonic Membrane(15.1): Any in an intricate system of membranes external to the embryo; responsible for the protection, nutrition, respiration, and excretion of the embryo fetus

Fertilization (15.1): The joining of a male and female gamete to form a single cell that contains 23 chromosomes from each parent (46 total)

Morphogenesis (15.1): Series of events that form distinct structures of a developing organism

Ovulation (15.1): Process by which a single follicle in an ovary matures and ruptures releasing the ovum into the oviduct

Zona Pellucida(15.1): Thin clear layer of protein and carbohydrates surrounding the plasma membrane of the egg

Zygote (15.1): Cell formed by the union of two gametes; the product of fertilization

Lactation (15.2): The formation of breast milk by the mammary glands

Parturition (15.2): The act or process of giving birth to young

Teratogen(15.2): Any agent that causes a structural abnormality of the developing fetus due to exposure during pregnancy

Artificial Insemination (15.3): Process by which sperm is collected, concentrated, and placed in the female vagina

In-Virto Fertilization (15.3): Technique in which egg cells are fertilized outside the females body

Reproductive Technology (15.3): Any technology that enhances or reduces reproductive potential

Tubal Ligation (15.3): A surgical sterilization procedure in women that involves the cutting the oviducts and tying off the cut ends to ensure that the ovum does not encounter sperm or reach the uterus.

Vasectomy (15.3): A sterilization procedure in men; involves cutting and tying the ductus deferens

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Gonadotropin (GnRH) : Hormone produced by the hypothalamus; acts on the anterior pituitary gland to cause it to release two different sex hormones: luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

Luteinizing Hormone (LH): reproductive hormone produced by the anterior pituitary; in the ovaries, triggers ovulation, stimulates the formation of the corpus luteum, and stimulates estrogen production and release of testosterone

Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH): Reproductive hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland; stimulates the development of the sex organs and gamete production males and females

Human Chronic Gondotropin(hCG): Hormone secreted by the trophoblast at the time of implantation of the embryo; prevents degeneration of corpus luteum

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Pregnancy Timeline Sources:

Colbourne, Helen. Inquiry into Biology. McGraw-Hill Ryerson, 2007.

Moroy, Alberto. “Fertilization.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., https://www.britannica.com/science/fertilization-reproduction.

unknown. “Blastocyst Culture: Factsheet.” Life Fertility Clinic, 28 July 2021, https://www.lifefertility.com.au/resources/factsheets/blastocyst-culture/.