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Join us on a historical adventure to uncover new vocabulary...

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Date of birth: January 4 of 1643, to March 31 of 1727

Background: forever changed the way humanity understands the universe, establishing the laws that govern motion and gravity, and laying the mathematical foundations for describing them. His influence extends to almost every field of modern science and engineering.

Relevant Data: Set the bases of

The Three Laws of Motion

Law of Inertia:

Fundamental Law of Dynamics (F=ma):

Law of Action and Reaction:

Law of Universal Gravitation:

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Date of birth: October 19, 1899, to Jun 9, 1974

Background:

He studied law at the University of San Carlos in Guatemala.

He is a key figure in magical realism and Latin American literature of the Boom. His work is deeply influenced by the indigenous cultures and mythologies of Guatemala, particularly those of the Maya.

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He won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1967.

Writer, poet, journalist, diplomat.

He is a key author for understanding 20th-century Latin American literature.

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Date of birth: March 14, 1879, April 18, 1955

Background:

He was deeply curious and taught himself advanced mathematics and philosophy from a young age, but he resented formal education.

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Awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics (awarded in 1922) for his explanation of the photoelectric effect, not for his theory of relativity.

fundamentally changed our understanding of space, time, mass, and energy.

General Theory of Relativity (1915) This was Einstein's magnum opus. It redefined gravity not as a force (as Newton described), but as a curvature of spacetime caused by mass and energy.

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Date of birth

Date of Birth: August 29, 1632 - October 28, 1704

Background

Received a prestigious education at Westminster School in London and then Christ Church, Oxford. Though he studied classical languages and philosophy, he found the traditional Aristotelian curriculum stale and became increasingly interested in medicine and the emerging experimental philosophy of scientists like Robert Boyle and René Descartes.

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His Two Treatises of Government (1689) was a powerful defense of the Glorious Revolution and laid the groundwork for modern liberal democracy.

In An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1689), he launched the modern empirical tradition.

Tabula Rasa: Locke famously argued that the human mind at birth is a "blank slate" (tabula rasa). There are no innate ideas.

Experience as the Source of Knowledge: All knowledge is derived from experience. This comes from two sources:

Sensation: Our sensory perception of the external world.

Reflection: The mind's perception of its own internal operations.

Ideas: Simple ideas from sensation and reflection are combined by the mind into complex ideas.

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Born: April 22, 1724

Died: February 12, 1804

Background: A German philosopher of the Enlightenment. He spent his entire life in Königsberg, working as a professor. He is known for his highly disciplined and routine lifestyle.

Contributions:

Copernican Revolution in Philosophy: Argued that objects must conform to our knowledge (our mental structures), not the other way around.

Categorical Imperative: His central moral philosophy: "Act only according to that maxim whereby you can, at the same time, will that it should become a universal law." In short, only act in ways you would want everyone else to act.

Major Works: Critique of Pure Reason (1781), Critique of Practical Reason (1788), Critique of Judgment (1790).

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Born: July 11, 1872 (El Jícaro, Guatemala)

Died September 26, 1926 (Antigua Guatemala)

Background:  A military officer and politician who served as President of Guatemala from 1921 until he died in 1926.

Contributions:

He is most famous for establishing the Guatemalan quetzal (GTQ) as the national currency in 1925, which replaced the Guatemalan peso.

His government passed important laws on banking and credit, shaping the country's modern financial system.

His presidency continued a period of influence for the United Fruit Company in Guatemala.

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A Polish-born physicist and chemist who conducted pioneering research on radioactivity. Curie was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize, the first person to win Nobel Prizes in two different scientific fields (Physics and Chemistry), and remains the only person to win Nobel Prizes in multiple scientific fields. Her discovery of the elements polonium and radium revolutionized our understanding of atomic structure and laid the groundwork for nuclear physics and cancer treatments.

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Born: September 26, 1849 (Ryazan, Russian Empire)

Died: February 27, 1936 (Leningrad, Soviet Union)

Background: A Russian physiologist and physician. He initially studied digestion in dogs, which led to his most famous discovery.

Contributions:

Classical Conditioning: He discovered that reflexes could be learned (conditioned) through association.

Pavlov's Dogs: His famous experiment where he rang a bell (neutral stimulus) each time he fed dogs. The dogs eventually salivated at the sound of the bell alone, anticipating food.

Nobel Prize: Won the 1904 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his research on the digestive system, which directly led to his work on conditioning.

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Born: January 25, 1882 (London, England)

Died: March 28, 1941 (near Lewes, England)

Background: A pioneering English modernist writer and a central figure in the Bloomsbury Group, an influential collective of intellectuals and artists.

Contributions:

Modernist Innovator: Revolutionized the novel with her use of stream of consciousness, focusing on the inner psychological lives of her characters.

Feminist Icon: Wrote seminal feminist essays, most notably A Room of One's Own, which argued for both literal and intellectual space for women writers.

Major Works: Includes the novels Mrs. Dalloway (1925), To the Lighthouse (1927), and Orlando (1928).

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Born: September 9, 1828 (Yasnaya Polyana, Russian Empire)

Died: November 20, 1910 (Astapovo, Russian Empire)

Background: A Russian count, considered one of the greatest authors of all time. He was also a moral and social philosopher in his later years.

Contributions:

Major Novels: Wrote the epic novels War and Peace (1869) and Anna Karenina (1877), which are masterpieces of realist fiction.

Philosophical Views: Developed a philosophy of Christian anarchism and pacifism, which influenced figures like Gandhi and Martin Luther King Jr.

Legacy: His intense realism and complex characterizations had a profound impact on world literature.

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An Italian polymath of the Renaissance whose areas of interest included invention, drawing, painting, sculpture, architecture, science, music, mathematics, engineering, literature, anatomy, geology, astronomy, botany, paleontology, and cartography. He is widely considered one of the greatest painters of all time, yet his technological ingenuity was equally impressive. His notebooks, filled with scientific observations and inventions, anticipated many modern technologies, from helicopters to solar power. His works like the 'Mona Lisa' and 'The Last Supper' remain among the world's most recognizable paintings.

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The 16th President of the United States who led the nation through the American Civil War, preserved the Union, abolished slavery, strengthened the federal government, and modernized the U.S. economy. Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation of 1863 declared the freedom of slaves in Confederate states. His Gettysburg Address of 1863 became an iconic statement of American national purpose. Despite fierce opposition, Lincoln successfully navigated the country's greatest constitutional, military, and moral crisis.

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Born: October 25, 1881 (Málaga, Spain)

Died: April 8, 1973 (Mougins, France)

Background: A Spanish painter, sculptor, and printmaker who spent most of his adult life in France. He is one of the most influential artists of the 20th century.

Contributions:

Co-Founder of Cubism: Revolutionized European art by breaking objects into geometric shapes and depicting them from multiple viewpoints, notably with the painting Les Demoiselles d'Avignon (1907).

Prolific Output: Created over 20,000 works of art across a vast range of styles and mediums.

Famous Works: Co-created Cubist collages and is the author of the monumental anti-war painting Guernica (1937).

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Born: November 10, 1878 (Guatemala City, Guatemala)

Died: June 14, 1946 (New Orleans, Louisiana, USA)

Background: An army general and politician who served as the President of Guatemala from 1931 to 1944.

Information:

Dictatorship: His rule was an authoritarian, repressive dictatorship. He was known for his strong anti-communist stance and close alliance with the United States and United Fruit Company.

Repression: He created a vast network of spies and secret police, suppressed all political opposition, and passed "vagrancy laws" that forced indigenous people into labor.

Legacy: Widespread discontent with his oppressive rule led to the Guatemalan Revolution of 1944, which forced him to resign and ushered in a decade of democratic reform.