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Religious - Primary: Cotton Mather’s account of the Salem witch trials, 1693

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Religious - Primary: Cotton Mather’s account of the Salem witch trials, 1693

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“Wherefore The devil is now making one Attempt more upon us; an Attempt more Difficult, more Surprizing, more snarl’d with unintelligible Circumstances than any that we have hitherto Encountered; an Attempt so Critical, that if we get well through, we shall soon Enjoy Halcyon Days, with all the Vultures of Hell Trodden under our Feet. He has wanted his Incarnate Legions to Persecute us, as the People of God have in the other Hemisphere been Persecuted: he has therefore drawn forth his more spiritual ones to make an attacque upon us. We have been advised by some Credible Christians yet alive, that a Malefactor, accused of Witchcraft as well as Murder, and Executed in this place more than Forty Years ago, did then give Notice of, An Horrible PLOT & against the Country by WITCHCRAFT, and a Foundation of WITCHCRAFT then laid, which if it were not seasonably discovered, would probably Blow up, and pull down all the Churches in the Country.  And we have now with Horror seen the Discovery of such a WITCHCRAFT!”

source: https://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-resources/spotlight-primary-source/cotton-mathers-account-salem-witch-trials-1693

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Religious - Secondary: Early Modern Witch Trials by Dr. Hannah Worthen

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Religious - Secondary: Early Modern Witch Trials by Dr. Hannah Worthen

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"The fear of witches, witchcraft, and bewitchment originated in the medieval period when the Roman Catholic Church taught the dangers of witchcraft and printed texts, such as Malleus Maleficarum, illustrated the horrors of witchcraft. Witchcraft remained within the popular imagination into the early modern period, and after the Reformation it was still perceived to be a threat to the church and a well-ordered society. In times of uncertainty and upheaval witchcraft accusations would increase, and so there were often more witchcraft accusations during times of war and famine. General fears of witchcraft within society could also feed into specific accusations that originated within local community so that somebody disliked by their neighbours might be more vulnerable to being accused. In this resource there are lots of examples of ordinary people being accused of witchcraft by their neighbours. For example, Joan Guppie, whose neighbours believed her to be a witch and who took it upon themselves to try to punish her. There were also waves of accusations as groups of people were rounded up and put on trial together such as the Lancaster witches: a group of women who were tried together 20 years after the famous Pendle witch trials."

source: https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/education/resources/early-modern-witch-trials/?show=all#more

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Early Modern witch trials - The National Archives

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Gender - Primary: Malleus Maleficarum Part 1 Question VI

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Gender - Primary: Malleus Maleficarum Part 1 Question VI

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Primary source for gender perspectives

Malleus Maleficarum Part 1 Question VI (sacred-texts.com)

Selected paragraphs:

Now the wickedness of women is spoken of in Ecclesiasticus xxv: There is no head above the head of a serpent: and there is no wrath above the wrath of a woman. I had rather dwell with a lion and a dragon than to keep house with a wicked woman. And among much which in that place precedes and follows about a wicked woman, he concludes: All wickedness is but little to the wickedness of a woman. And the tears of woman are a deception, for they may spring from true grief, or they may be a snare. When a woman thinks alone, she thinks evil.

Other again have propounded other reasons why there are more superstitious women found than men. And the first is, that they are more credulous; and since the chief aim of the devil is to corrupt faith, therefore he rather attacks them. The second reason is, that women are naturally more impressionable, and more ready to receive the influence of a disembodied spirit; and that when they use this quality well they are very good, but when they use it ill they are very evil.
The third reason is that they have slippery tongues, and are unable to conceal from the fellow-women those things which by evil arts they know; and, since they are weak, they find an easy and secret manner of vindicating themselves by witchcraft.
But the natural reason is that she is more carnal than a man, as is clear from her many carnal abominations. And it should be noted that there was a defect in the formation of the first woman, since she was formed from a bent rib, that is, a rib of the breast, which is bent as it were in a contrary direction to a man. And since through this defect she is an imperfect animal, she always deceives. And it is clear in the case of the first woman that she had little faith; for when the serpent asked why they did not eat of every tree in Paradise, she answered: Of every tree, etc. - lest perchance we die. Thereby she showed that she doubted, and had little in the word of God.

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Gender - Secondary: Martin, Y. B. (2013). The Servants of the Devil; The Demonization of Female Sexuality in the Medieval Patristic Discourse. J. Res. Gender Stud., 3, 48.

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Gender - Secondary: Martin, Y. B. (2013). The Servants of the Devil; The Demonization of Female Sexuality in the Medieval Patristic Discourse. J. Res. Gender Stud., 3, 48.

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Demonization of Female Sexuality: Female sexuality was viewed through an androcentric (male-centered) lens, where women were considered insatiable, irrational, and animalistic. Their sexuality was linked to sin and impurity, primarily through the biblical association with Eve and the fall from Eden, which framed women as inherently sinful and prone to evil​​.

Association with Witchcraft: Medieval theological and medical texts framed women as being more susceptible to demonic influence, which intensified the link between women and witchcraft. The Malleus Maleficarum (1486) became the key treatise that solidified this view, reinforcing that women were inherently more likely to make pacts with the devil​.

Symbolic Violence and Control: The patriarchal system used demonological beliefs to enforce social control over women, delegitimizing their autonomy and positioning them as threats to societal order. This symbolic violence manifested in portraying women as monstrous figures whose sexuality and desires could lead to the destruction of men and societal values​​.

Medieval Perceptions of Monstrosity: Women were often described in monstrous terms, with symbolic associations between their bodies (such as the uterus and menstrual blood) and impurity, danger, and animality. These views fostered the belief that women could use their sexuality to harm men, aligning them with witches​.

Religious Endorsement of Witch Hunts: The papal bull Summis desiderantes affectibus (1484) by Pope Innocent VIII institutionalized the persecution of witches, officially associating women with witchcraft. This laid the foundation for witch hunts, which specifically targeted women as the primary perpetrators of witchcraft​.

Medical and Theological Justifications: Misogynistic views were reinforced by medical treatises that described female bodies as defective, impure, and susceptible to demonic forces. Women’s association with menstrual blood, their supposed uncontrollable sexual desires, and the belief that their reproductive organs were dangerous all contributed to the fear and demonization of women​.

Impact on Women’s Knowledge: Midwives, healers, and women with knowledge of herbs and medical practices were particularly targeted as witches. Their practical knowledge posed a threat to the male-dominated medical and religious institutions, which sought to delegitimize their expertise as diabolical​.

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Medical - Primary: "Medical Examination" and "Trial Evidence for Witch Crafts" in Early Modern Witch Trial

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Medical - Primary: "Medical Examination" and "Trial Evidence for Witch Crafts" in Early Modern Witch Trial

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Medical/scientific perspective primary source

Primary source: Early Modern witch trials - The National Archives

Contains court records and legal documents from witch trials. It provides Indictments, witness testimonies, and examinations  often included descriptions of physical symptoms or "evidence", like descriptions of physical and mental states, and physical examinations of accused witches, searching for supposed "witch marks" or other bodily proof of witchcraft under "Trial evidence for witchcraft - The National Archives” and “Medical examinations - The National Archives”

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Medical - Secondary: Ergotism - The Satan Loosed in Salem

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Medical - Secondary: Ergotism - The Satan Loosed in Salem

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Secondary source:

The author presents a hypothesis that convulsive ergotism, a condition caused by ergot fungus contamination of rye, may have been a key factor in the Salem witchcraft crisis of 1692. The author argues that:

1. The timing and location of the crisis align with conditions favorable for ergot growth in rye crops.

2. The symptoms described in historical accounts match those of convulsive ergotism, including hallucinations, convulsions, and sensory disturbances.

3. The pattern of accusations follows the likely distribution of contaminated rye, particularly in the western part of Salem Village.

4. The abrupt end of the crisis coincides with the likely end of the contaminated food supply.

5. The afflicted individuals' testimonies and behaviors can be explained by ergot poisoning rather than solely by fraud or hysteria.

6. Similar patterns of ergotism and witchcraft accusations occurred in Europe.

The author suggests that while ergotism may have provided the physiological basis for the crisis, the cultural context of Puritan beliefs about witchcraft shaped how these symptoms were interpreted and responded to by the community. This hypothesis offers a new perspective on the Salem witchcraft trials, combining physiological, psychological, and social factors to explain the events of 1692.

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Economic - Primary: How economic behaviour drove witch hunts in pre-modern Germany

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Economic - Primary: How economic behaviour drove witch hunts in pre-modern Germany

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Witch hunts in pre-modern Germany were often tied to economic conditions. Periods of economic hardship, such as poor harvests or inflation, led to an increase in witch trials. Older, poorer women were often targeted, as they were seen as burdens and scapegoats for communal misfortunes. Moreover, regional authorities and elite groups sometimes exploited the witch hunts for political and financial gain, using accusations as a tool to consolidate power or distract from economic crises.

1. The "gragon" folktale from 17th-century Germany tells about peasants who believed they could create wealth by feeding a dragon with milk. In return, the dragon would bring gold to their homes. However, when the dragon stopped delivering wealth, people accused one another of witchcraft, leading to witch hunts. The story illustrates how economic anxieties, particularly during times of hardship, fueled superstitious beliefs and accusations, contributing to the larger phenomenon of witch hunts.

2. In the town of Würzburg, the wealthy bishopric leveraged witch hunts to distract from rising taxes and food scarcity.

3. In Bamberg, elites used witch trials as a political tool to consolidate power during economic instability. Trials were costly, so elites benefited financially from the process, gaining confiscated property from the convicted.

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How economic behaviour drove witch hunts in pre-modern Germany | Aeon Essays

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How a flawed logic of economic scarcity and social climbing spurred witch hunts in early modern Germany

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Economic - Secondary: What caused the Salem witch trials? 

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Economic - Secondary: What caused the Salem witch trials? 

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Gottesman outlines the complex factors behind the Salem witch trials of 1692, in which mass hysteria led to accusations of witchcraft, resulting in the execution of 14 women, five men, and two dogs.

It examines the economic and social theories explaining the hysteria, particularly the effects of the "Little Ice Age" that contributed to economic downturns and food shortages. These hardships may have increased scapegoating, including witch accusations.

The article also highlights the socioeconomic divide between the agrarian Salem Village and wealthier Salem Town. According to Paul Boyer and Stephen Nissenbaum's Salem Possessed, the trials reflected the tension between the village’s rural and business-oriented factions.

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The icon indicates free access to the linked research on JSTOR.

In February 1692, the Massachusetts Bay Colony town of Salem Village found itself at the center of a notorious case of mass hysteria: eight young women accused their neighbors of witchcraft. Trials ensued and, when the episode concluded in May 1693, fourteen women, five men, and two dogs had been executed for their supposed supernatural crimes.

The Salem witch trials occupy a unique place in our collective history. The mystery around the hysteria and miscarriage of justice continue to inspire new critiques, most recently with the recent release of The Witches: Salem, 1692 by Pulitzer Prize-winning Stacy Schiff.

But what caused the mass hysteria, false accusations, and lapses in due process? Scholars have attempted to answer these questions with a variety of economic and physiological theories.

The economic theories of the Salem events tend to be two-fold: the first attributes the witchcraft trials to an economic downturn caused by a "little ice age" that lasted from 1550-1800; the second cites socioeconomic issues in Salem itself.

Emily Oster posits that the "little ice age" caused economic deterioration and food shortages that led to anti-witch fervor in communities in both the United States and Europe in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Temperatures began to drop at the beginning of the fourteenth century, with the coldest periods occurring from 1680 to 1730. The economic hardships and slowdown of population growth could have caused widespread scapegoating which, during this period, manifested itself as persecution of so-called witches, due to the widely accepted belief that "witches existed, were capable of causing physical harm to others and could control natural forces."

Salem Village, where the witchcraft accusations began, was an agrarian, poorer counterpart to the neighboring Salem Town, which was populated by wealthy merchants. According to the oft-cited book Salem Possessed by Paul Boyer and Stephen Nissenbaum, Salem Village was being torn apart by two opposing groups-largely agrarian townsfolk to the west and more business-minded villagers to the east, closer to the Town. "What was going on was not simply a personal quarrel, an economic dispute, or even a struggle for power, but a mortal conflict involving the very nature of the community itself. The fundamental issue was not who was to control the Village, but what its essential character was to be." In a retrospective look at their book for a 2008 William and Mary Quarterly Forum, Boyer and Nissenbaum explain that as tensions between the two groups unfolded, "they followed deeply etched factional fault lines that, in turn, were influenced by anxieties and by differing levels of engagement with and access to the political and commercial opportunities unfolding in Salem Town." As a result of increasing hostility, western villagers accused eastern neighbors of witchcraft.

But some critics including Benjamin C. Ray have called Boyer and Nissenbaum's socio-economic theory into question. For one thing -the map they were using has been called into question. He writes: "A review of the court records shows that the Boyer and Nissenbaum map is, in fact, highly interpretive and considerably incomplete." Ray goes on:

Contrary to Boyer and Nissenbaum's conclusions in Salem Possessed, geo graphic analysis of the accusations in the village shows there was no significant villagewide east-west division between accusers and accused in 1692. Nor was there an east-west divide between households of different economic status.

On the other hand, the physiological theories for the mass hysteria and witchcraft accusations include both fungus poisoning and undiagnosed encephalitis.

Linnda Caporael argues that the girls suffered from convulsive ergotism, a condition caused by ergot, a type of fungus, found in rye and other grains. It produces hallucinatory, LSD-like effects in the afflicted and can cause victims to suffer from vertigo, crawling sensations on the skin, extremity tingling, headaches, hallucinations, and seizure-like muscle contractions. Rye was the most prevalent grain grown in the Massachusetts area at the time, and the damp climate and long storage period could have led to an ergot infestation of the grains.

One of the more controversial theories states that the girls suffered from an outbreak of encephalitis lethargica, an inflammation of the brain spread by insects and birds. Symptoms include fever, headaches, lethargy, double vision, abnormal eye movements, neck rigidity, behavioral changes, and tremors. In her 1999 book, A Fever in Salem, Laurie Winn Carlson argues that in the winter of 1691 and spring of 1692, some of the accusers exhibited these symptoms, and that a doctor had been called in to treat the girls. He couldn't find an underlying physical cause, and therefore concluded that they suffered from possession by witchcraft, a common diagnoses of unseen conditions at the time.

The controversies surrounding the accusations, trials, and executions in Salem, 1692, continue to fascinate historians and we continue to ask why, in a society that should have known better, did this happen? Economic and physiological causes aside, the Salem witchcraft trials continue to act as a parable of caution against extremism in judicial processes.
Editor's note: This post was edited to clarify that Salem Village was where the accusations began, not where the trials took place.

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What Caused the Salem Witch Trials? - JSTOR Daily

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Looking into the underlying causes of the Salem Witch Trials in the 17th century.

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The Malleus Maleficarum, authored by Heinrich Kramer and Jacob Sprenger in the late 15th century, remains one of the most infamous treatises on witchcraft in history. This document, also known as "The Hammer of Witches," served as a manual for the persecution of supposed witches during the height of the European witch hunts. Drawing upon theological, legal, and cultural perspectives, the Malleus Maleficarum propagated misogynistic beliefs, reinforced gender stereotypes, and provided a framework for identifying, prosecuting, and punishing individuals accused of witchcraft. Its legacy extends far beyond its original publication, shaping centuries of witchcraft persecution and influencing societal attitudes towards women, magic, and religious orthodoxy.

Sources from: https://www.britannica.com/topic/Malleus-maleficarum

[See pp. 212-213]

https://archive.org/details/b3136245x/page/n9/mode/2up

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Legal-Secondary: The thesis "The Salem Witch Trials from a Legal Perspective"

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Legal-Secondary: The thesis "The Salem Witch Trials from a Legal Perspective"

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The thesis "The Salem Witch Trials from a Legal Perspective: The Importance of Spectral Evidence Reconsidered" by Susan Kay Ocksreider primarily discusses the legal implications and practices surrounding the Salem Witch Trials, with a particular focus on the controversial use of spectral evidence. Here are the main themes and topics covered in the thesis:

1. Spectral Evidence: The thesis critically examines the role of spectral evidence—testimony regarding apparitions or visions of the accused—as a form of proof in the trials. Ocksreider explores how this type of evidence was accepted in court and its implications for the outcomes of the trials.

2. Legal Procedures: Ocksreider analyzes the legal procedures followed during the Salem Witch Trials, comparing them to English legal precedents. She discusses how the trials deviated from established legal norms and the consequences of these deviations.

3. Judicial Practices: The thesis highlights the practices of the magistrates and judges involved in the trials, including their reliance on unconventional types of evidence and the pressures they faced from the community. Ocksreider argues that these practices contributed to the miscarriages of justice that occurred.

4. Historical Context: Ocksreider places the Salem Witch Trials within a broader historical context, examining the societal fears and religious beliefs that fueled the witch hunts. She discusses how these factors influenced the legal proceedings and the acceptance of dubious evidence.

5. Impact on Modern Legal Standards: The thesis concludes by reflecting on the impact of the Salem Witch Trials on contemporary legal standards, particularly regarding the admissibility of evidence and the importance of due process. Ocksreider argues that the trials serve as a cautionary tale about the dangers of unreliable evidence and the need for fair legal practices.

Source from: https://scholarworks.wm.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4803&context=etd

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The Salem Witch Trials from a Legal Perspective_ The Importance o