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Common Name: Clustered Coral, Pink-tipped Coral Mushroom or Cauliflower Mushroom

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Common Name: Clustered Coral, Pink-tipped Coral Mushroom or Cauliflower Mushroom

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Scientific Name: Mentha × Piperita, also known as Mentha balsamea

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Scientific Name: Mentha × Piperita, also known as Mentha balsamea

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Common Name: Stonewort, Skunkweed, Sandgrass, or muskgrass.

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Common Name: Stonewort, Skunkweed, Sandgrass, or muskgrass.

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Grows in bodies of freshwater in low, dense mats, or sparsely where nutrient levels are low. Chara can benefit water quality and clarity. It is a good stabilizer and is considered valuable fish habitat. However, due to its ability to grow rapidly, Chara can take over a small pond if left untreated.

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Chara is home to insects and other small aquatic animals, which are important foods for waterfowl trout, bluegills, smallmouth bass, and largemouth bass.

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Chara is cosmopolitan meaning it is everywhere in the world. This specific kind is found very commonly in North American bodies of water.

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Permanent water bodies (lakes, streams, wetlands) with the cover of rocks, logs, or trees. They mate in late summer, early fall, or early spring and the females can lay 80 to 575 eggs. When the eggs hatch, three to six weeks later, the young stay with the female for several weeks until they reach full maturity. Then they go off on their own and can live up to 3-4 years.

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Rusty crayfish eat pretty much anything they can find, like plants, snails, clams, insects, other crayfish, fish eggs and small fish. They eat 2-3 times more than the native crawfish in this area. Some of their main predators are bass and sunfish.

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These Crawfish are native to the Ohio River basin including parts of Kentucky, Ohio, and Indiana. However they are invasive species in the Great Lakes states, New England, South and North Carolina, and Tennessee, They have also made their way into parts of Canada. Rusty crayfish are collected and used as bait and have been transferred by this means to many water bodies throughout Michigan and the U.S.

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Rusty Crayfish

(Faxonius rusticus)
*Established in Michigan waters*
RESTRICTED IN MICHIGAN
Identification:

Lobster-like, brown body, up to 6 inches with claws

Oversized claws have an oval opening when closed and black bands at tips

Mature crayfish have a dark, rusty spot on each side of the carapace

Joseph A. Tomelleri

US Geological Survey Bugwood.org

Doug Watkinson Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO)

Habitat: Permanent water bodies (lakes, streams, wetlands) with cover of rocks, logs or trees. Rusty crayfish do not burrow like other crayfish.

Diet: Rusty crayfish are voracious eaters, consuming 2-3 times as much per day as native crayfish. Rusty crayfish eat whatever is available, including plants, snails, clams, insects, other crayfish, fish eggs and small fish.

Native Range: Ohio River basin including parts of Kentucky, Ohio and Indiana.

U.S. Distribution: Great Lakes states, New England south to North Carolina and Tennessee, western states including Colorado, Wyoming and Oregon. Also present in Ontario, Canada.

Local Concern: Rusty crayfish destroy aquatic plant beds, affecting the fish and organisms that require this habitat. Their broad diet can impact native populations and ecosystems. Rusty crayfish also limit habitat and food sources used by native crayfish.

Means of Introduction: Rusty crayfish are collected and used as bait and have been transferred by this means to many water bodies throughout Michigan and the U.S.
MORE INFORMATION: Rusty Crayfish Invasive Species Alert - Printable PDF
Status and Strategy for Rusty Crayfish Management This document provides in-depth information about Rusty Crayfish in the State of Michigan including identification, distribution, management, and control options.
Crayfish of Michigan Poster Video: Michigan Crayfish Regulations & Recipe

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Invasive Species - (Orconectes rusticus) Restricted in Michigan Rusty Crayfish are lobster-like with a brown body up to 6 inches in length and oversized claws that have an oval opening when closed and black bands at the tips. Mature crayfish have a dark, rusty spot on each side of the carapace.

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Bumblebees live in nests made in pre-existing cavities on the landscape like rock piles, empty mouse burrows, and under layers of dense vegetation. The queen lays eggs in the hive made of waxen pots after filling them with nectar and pollen. Female worker bees are produced first, then males, and then new queens. The larvae of the normal bees will develop in the hive until ready to work. The new queens will hatch usually after the colony starts to die out in the fall and once they are ready to leave they will find a place too hibernate and mate for next season.

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A Bumblebees diet consists mostly of nectar, pollen, and honey acquired from flowers found around the hive. Animals that will sometimes eat bees include birds and spiders, badgers, bears, skunks, foxes, minks, weasels, field mice, and shrews.

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Bumblebees live over much of the world but are most common in temperate climates like North America. They are absent from most of Africa and the lowlands of India. Other than that they live pretty much everywhere.

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bumblebee | Description, Species, Life Cycle, & Facts

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Bumblebee, common name for any member of the insect tribe Bombini. They occur over much of the world but are most common in temperate climates. Bumblebees are robust and hairy, often black with yellow or orange stripes. They are social insects and commonly nest in the ground.

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Leopard frogs are found in a wide variety of habitats, including marshlands, brush lands, and forests. They prefer places with permanent, slow-moving water and aquatic vegetation. But they can sometimes be found in agricultural areas and on golf courses. In the spring these frogs mate and lay eggs in the water near them attached to aquatic vegetation. About 1-3 weeks later they will hatch and the tadpoles will live in the body of water until they develop into frogs!

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Tadpoles will eat algae, diatoms, and small animal matter filtered from the water or scraped from surfaces. The adult frogs eat terrestrial invertebrates, including spiders, insects, and their larvae, slugs, snails, and earthworms. They can also eat smaller frogs like spring peepers. These frogs can be eaten by fish, herons, other larger frogs, birds of prey, snakes, waterfowl, and mammals like raccoons, and foxes. The tadpoles and eggs are commonly eaten by turtles, diving beetles, giant water bugs, dragongfly larvae, and leeches.

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It is native to Canada and the United States.

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Lithobates pipiens

What do they look like?

Leopard frogs are from 5 to 11.1 cm long. They are green or greenish-brown dorsally, with round, brown spots arranged on their back, sides, and legs. These spots usually have a whitish or yellow border. There is a distinct, white dorso-lateral fold along the length of the back extending from each eye. A white line runs on either side of the mouth, from the nose to the shoulder. The underside is white or greenish white. ( Harding, 1997)

As with most frogs, males are smaller than females. Males have thickened thumb pads and paired vocal sacs that inflate over their shoulders as they call. ( Harding, 1997)

Tadpoles are greenish or brown, with yellow or black speckles frequently visible. The belly is white and somewhat transparent, with the intestinal coils visible through the skin. Tadpoles reach a maximum size of 8.4 cm. ( Harding, 1997)

Where do they live?

Leopard frogs are native to the Nearctic region. They are found throughout much of North America, from as far north as the Hudson Bay, along the eastern seaboard to northern Virginia and west to British Columbia, eastern Washington, and Oregon. The western part of the range extends as far south as New Mexico, Arizona, Colorado, Utah, and portions of California and Nevada. Populations in the west are fragmented and some are declining.

What kind of habitat do they need?

Leopard frogs are found in a wide variety of habitats, including marshlands, brushlands, and forests. They prefer the presence of permanent, slow-moving water, including aquatic vegetation, but can be found in agricultural areas and on golf courses. Leopard frogs are well-adapted to cold and can be found at elevations up to 3,350 meters. They are commonly known as meadow frogs or grass frogs because they tend to stray far from the water when it is not breeding season. They prefer open areas to woods. ( Fryer and Tunstall, 2001)

How do they grow?

The small, black and white eggs are laid in clusters and attached to submerged vegetation. When Leopard frog eggs are laid they are roughly 1.7 mm in diameter, but swell to 5 mm when they come in contact with water. Clusters of eggs may act to increase heat absorption by the mass or to protect some eggs from predation. Hatching occurs after 1 to 3 weeks, varying with water temperature, and metamorphosis occurs after 70 to 110 days as a tadpole. Froglets are 2 to 3 cm long at metamorphosis. ( Harding, 1997)

How do they reproduce?

Leopard frogs gather at communal breeding ponds in the spring, where males call to attract females. If successful, a male will hold a female in "amplexus", using his specialized thumbs, and fertilize her eggs as they leave her body. Mating pairs may move to an area of the pond where other pairs have laid their eggs before they add their own. ( Harding, 1997)

Mating occurs from March to June, but peaks in April. Females lay from 300 to 6500 eggs in globular clusters in breeding ponds. After metamorphosis, sexual maturity is reached in 1 to 3 years, depending on conditions. ( Harding, 1997)

How often does reproduction occur?

Leopard frogs breed once yearly.

Breeding season

Leopard frogs breed from March to June.

Range number of offspring

300 to 6500

Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)

1 to 3 years

Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male)

1 to 3 years

Most parental investment occurs prior to fertilization. Females will provide the eggs with nourishment to grow and will attempt to attach them to underwater vegetation in a tight cluster, after which the eggs are left to develop on their own. ( Fryer and Tunstall, 2001; Harding, 1997)

How long do they live?

Leopard frogs may live up to 9 years in the wild, although very few leopard frogs will live for this long. Most mortality occurs as a tadpole or newly transformed froglet, when as many as 95% will die. ( Harding, 1997)

How do they behave?

Leopard frogs are solitary outside of the breeding season, but tolerant of other leopard frogs. They do not establish territories, except in the breeding pond, where males will establish small calling territories. They are most active at night during the breeding season and most active during the day when foraging. Leopard frogs migrate to breeding ponds in the spring and may disperse away from water during the summer to forage in meadows and grasslands. They obtain water by absorbing dew from plants during this time. In the winter they travel back to their "home" pond, a permanent body of water, and overwinter in the mud and organic debris at the bottom. ( Harding, 1997)

Home Range

Leopard frogs do not establish home ranges.

How do they communicate with each other?

Leopard frogs use calls to attract mates during breeding season. Male advertisement calls are described as sounding like a low, rumbling snore with occasional clicks and croaks. Males and non-receptive females will give a chuckle-like "release" call when clasped by a male hoping to mate. Outside of breeding season there is little need to communicate with conspecifics. They may scream loudly when they have been seized by a predator or squawk as they jump to avoid a predator. Frogs in general are quite sensitive to movement in detecting prey visually. ( Fryer and Tunstall, 2001; Harding, 1997)

What do they eat?

Leopard frog tadpoles are mainly herbivorous, eating algae, diatoms, and small animal matter filtered from the water or scraped from surfaces. Once they metamorphose into a frog, leopard frogs eat terrestrial invertebrates, including spiders, insects and their larvae, slugs, snails, and earthworms. Large adults may also eat small vertebrates, such as smaller frogs (spring peepers, ( Pseudacris crucifer, and chorus frogs, Pseudacris triseriata). Fryer and Tunstall, 2001; Harding, 1997)

What eats them and how do they avoid being eaten?

Many predators take advantage of leopard frog prey. Adults are taken by fish ( ( bass and pike), herons, green frogs, bullfrogs, garter snakes, water snakes, hawks, gulls, raccoons, foxes, mink, and otters, as well as other predators. Eggs are eaten by leeches, newts, and turtles. Tadpoles are preyed on by diving beetles, giant water bugs, dragongfly larvae, and most of the vertebrates that prey on adults. Harding, 1997)

Leopard frogs do not have distasteful skin secretions, they rely on their quick responses to leap into the water or make erratic hops to escape capture. Their coloration makes them blend into their surroundings when in vegetation. In areas where they co-occur with pickerel frogs ( ( Lithobates palustris), leopard frogs have spots that are squarish, like those of pickerel frogs. Because pickerel frogs have distasteful skin secretions, it is thought that perhaps leopard frogs in those areas are mimicing pickerel frogs to avoid predation. Harding, 1997)

What roles do they have in the ecosystem?

Leopard frogs are important predators of their invertebrate prey and eggs and adults can act as important food sources for small to medium-sized predators.

Do they cause problems?

There are no negative impacts of leopard frogs on humans.

How do they interact with us?

Leopard frogs are eaten by humans (frog legs), and are used as test subjects in many biomedical research projects, both as adults and as tadpoles. Leopard frogs are also taken for use in biology classrooms. Leopard frogs are valuable members of the ecosystems in which they live, controlling invertebrate pests and acting as an important food source to larger predators. They may also act as indicator species for environmental health and water quality. ( Fryer and Tunstall, 2001; Harding, 1997)

Are they endangered?

Leopard frogs were once common and widespread throughout much of North America. However, some populations have experienced serious declines. In the Great Lakes area, leopard frogs were abundant through the 1970's, after which they experienced a population decline. They remain uncommon in this area, although they can be locally abundant. In the western states, the status of many leopard frog populations remains unstudied. Leopard frogs, along with many other frog species, are at risk of poisoning by pesticides, including atrazine and organochlorines, herbicides, such as nitrates, and other water contaminants. Atrazine has been demonstrated to induce reproductive abnormalities in frogs at levels lower than are found in most North American water sources. Infectious diseases may also pose a significant threat to leopard frogs. Susceptibility to infectious diseases may be exacerbated by water acidification, lowering leopard frog immune responses. Introduced species, including bullfrogs ( ( Lithobates catesbeianus) and common carp ( Cyprinus carpio), may be contributing to declining numbers of leopard frogs as well, as they prey extensively on young and adults. Leopard frogs are extensively collected in some areas for use in classrooms, laboratories, and as bait, devastating local populations. Finally, leopard frogs, and other freshwater aquatic species, are at risk because of extensive freshwater habitat loss in North America, estimated at 53% of wetlands lost in the 1980's since 1780. Fryer and Tunstall, 2001; Harding, 1997)

"Burnsi" morph leopard frogs are rare color variants that are uniformly brownish green on their back and legs, lacking the spots found on most individuals.

Contributors

Tanya Dewey (author), Animal Diversity Web.

References

Fryer, B., T. Tunstall. 2001. "Rana pipiens" (On-line). Amphibiaweb. Accessed July 28, 2005 at http://elib.cs.berkeley.edu/cgi-bin/amphib_query?query_src=aw_search_index&where-genus=Rana&where-species=pipiens&rel-genus=equals&rel-species=equals.

Harding, J. 1997. Amphibians and Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region. Ann Arbor, Michigan: The University of Michigan Press.

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BioKIDS - Kids' Inquiry of Diverse Species, Lithobates pipiens, Northern Leopard Frog: INFORMATION

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Lithobates pipiens Leopard frogs are from 5 to 11.1 cm long. They are green or greenish-brown dorsally, with round, brown spots arranged on their back, sides, and legs. These spots usually have a whitish or yellow border. There is a distinct, white dorso-lateral fold along the length of the back extending from each eye.

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It grows under conifers and hardwoods usually during summer or fall. It releases spores that are carried by the wind to places to grow new mushrooms.

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This mushroom is incredibly helpful to other plants and trees in improving root colonization and macronutrient uptake. Humans Occasionally eat these mushrooms.

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It is found all over the world in Africa, Europe, and Asia. It is also very common in the United States and Mexico.

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[ Basidiomycetes > Phallales > Ramariaceae > Ramaria . . . ]

by Michael Kuo

One of the few relatively easily recognized species of Ramaria, this coral mushroom has a stout, whitish base and densely packed, short branches with pink tips. The overall impression, at least when Ramaria botrytis is young, is reminiscent of cauliflower. Older specimens can develop elongated branches more typical of the genus, and can be harder to identify.
Description:
Ecology: Mycorrhizal; growing alone, scattered, or in groups under hardwoods or conifers; summer and fall (also winter and spring in warm climates); widely distributed in North America.

Fruiting Body: 7-20 cm high; 6-30 cm wide; stocky; repeatedly short-branched.

Branches: Densely packed; basal branches thick, smooth, and whitish; terminal branches crowded, short, and pink to purplish or red; tips cauliflower-like, especially when young.

Base: 3-4 cm long; to 6 cm wide; whitish, developing yellowish or brownish colors.

Flesh: Whitish; firm.

Odor and Taste: Odor not distinctive; taste mild or bitter.

Spore Print: Yellowish.

Chemical Reactions: Iron salts green on branch tips.

Microscopic Features: Spores 11-20 x 4-6 µ (usually about 14-16 x 5 µ); subfusoid to stretched-elliptical; finely stippled; by maturity the ornamentation aggregated into very faint lines, creating a twisted-striate effect (best observed in a Melzer's mount). Basidia 4-sterigmate; clavate; 60-70 x 8-10 µ. Cystidia absent. Clamp connections present.

REFERENCES: (Persoon, 1797) Ricken, 1918. (Fries, 1821; Saccardo, 1888; Corner, 1950; Smith, Smith & Weber, 1981; Barnhart & Beug, 1981/2004; Arora, 1986; Lincoff, 1992; Metzler & Metzler, 1992; Barron, 1999; Roody, 2003; Exeter, 2006; Miller & Miller, 2006.) Herb. Kuo 09230601, 09150703.

This site contains no information about the edibility or toxicity of mushrooms.

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Basidiomycetes > Phallales > Ramariaceae > Ramaria . . . ] by Michael Kuo One of the few relatively easily recognized species of Ramaria, this coral mushroom has a stout, whitish base and densely packed, short branches with pink tips. The overall impression, at least when Ramaria botrytis is young, is reminiscent of cauliflower.

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Generally found in the woods on fallen logs or tree stumps year-round, although they can also be found on living trees. They produce spores that are carried by the wind to produce new mushrooms.

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They are commonly consumed by humans for their medicinal values.

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These mushrooms are found in the North American and Canadian woods. They can also live all over the world in similar habitats that are wet, shady, and in temperate forests. Most commonly besides North America, in Asia and Europe.

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Biotic Inventory:
Documenting Diversity at the Katharine Ordway Natural History Study Area
Trametes versicolor, the Turkey Tail fungus

Kingdom Fungi
Division Basidomycota
Class Hymenomycetes
Order Aphyllophorales
Family Polyporaceae
Genus Trametes
Species versicolor

Common names: the Turkey Tail fungus or the Turkey Tail, Cloud mushroom, PSK, PSP, yun zhi,
Former names: Coriolus versicolor, and Polyporus versicolor

Diagnostic Characteristics
Fungi can generally be identified based on the length or presence of a stalk, the shape, size and color of their cup, and the traits of their gills or pores. In the case of the Turkey Tail fungus, there is no stalk present, only a cup that attaches directly to the tree or log on which it lives. The cup is concave in shape and up to 4 inches wide. In the case of my specimen the conk (the visible fanned part, it would be called a mushroom in a fungus with gills) was approximately 2 inches in diameter. It has a series of multicolored stripes across the conk ranging from white, to brown, to red to purple, although the specimens that I found were primarily brown and white. The darker stripes on a Turkey Tail are covered in very small hairs that can be seen clearly with a dissecting microscope, these hairy sections can help separate the Turkey Tail from similar fungi. Its texture is also very tough and leathery compared with many other fungi which have more delicate skins. The Turkey Tail fungus does not have gills, but rather pores, which sets it apart from many other common fungi. The pores can be seen very clearly through a dissecting microscope.
The family that the Turkey Tail belongs to, the polypores, all have these tiny structures on the underside of their . Each of these pores holds spores that the fungus uses for reproduction much like the gills that are found in most other mushrooms. These pores are an excellent way to tell the difference between Trametes versicolor and Stereum ostrea, the False Turkey Tail fungus.

In this picture taken with a camera mounted to a dissecting microscope the many tiny pores found on the underside of the Turkey Tail's conk can be seen.

The Turkey Tail fungus is a very common mushroom in North American woods, generally found on fallen logs or tree stumps year round, although they can also be found on living trees. They can live on over 70 different genera of hardwood trees and several conifers in the United States. Organisms that obtain nutrients from decomposing matter, like the Trametes versicolor are called saprotrophic organisms. More precisely, the Turkey Tail fungus breaks down the dead wood of a tree, using it as nutrients for itself while helping clear the forest for new growth. Because Turkey Tails consume the lignin in wood faster than the cellulose, they are said to create white rot, which tends to be white and stringy. An organism that degrades cellulose more quickly creates red rot.

The Turkey Tail specimen that I collected came off of a fallen birch tree lying on the forest floor in Macalester College's Katharine Ordway Natural History Study Area.

Life History
The life cycle of a polypore fungus, like Trametes versicolor, begins when the haploid spores are blown by the wind away from the pores. These spores hopefully land in an area with favorable conditions and begin to grow. This haploid spore grows in to a germling, hopefully in close proximity to another germling. The two young fungi fuse their hyphae and mix their cell contents in a stage of the life cycle that is called plasmogamy. Each of the cells within each of the original germlings should now contain two different nuclei that are unfused, the fungus stays in this dikaryotic state for most of its life. As the fungus develops, it will eventually produce a fruitbody, which is the conk of the polypore fungus. The underside of the conk holds the pore surface, which is covered in tiny tubes (There are 2 to 5 tubes per millimeter on a Turkey Tail fungus) lined with basidia. Basidia are cells that carry out karyogamy or the fusion of the nuclei in the fungus' dikaryotic cells, meiosis, which is the splitting of these diploid cells in to four haploid cells, and finally the production of spores. Spores are simply haploid cells produced through meiosis that have a coating that will allow them to germinate when they land on an appropriate surface. Spores that are produced by basidia are called basidiospores. After they are produced they are pushed out of the basidia and carried by the wind to begin the cycle again.

Distribution
The Turkey Tail fungus is often listed as being one of the most common fungi in North American woods. One website even says, "If you cannot find these you may need to consider visiting an eye doctor or giving up mushroom collecting." (Spahr) These fungi grow in wet, shady areas in temperate forests in Asia, North America and Europe and are quite common across all three continents.

Voucher Information
The specimen was collected off of a birch branch on the floor of an oak woodland at the Katharine Ordway Natural History Study Area in Inver Grove Heights Minnesota. The branch was surrounded by leaf litter and many of the small purple flowers that can be seen in the photograph. The ground was wet due to recent rain, and the log was soaked through with water and almost spongy in texture.

References
Kuo, Michael. MushroomExpert.Com. "Trametes versicolor: The Turkey Tail." <http://www.mushroomexpert.com/trametes_versicolor.html>

Lincoff, Gary H. National Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Mushrooms. National Audubon Society. Alfred A. Knopf. 1981.

Spahr, David. Mushroom-Collecting.com. 2009 <http://mushroom- collecting.com/mushroomturkey.html>

Volk, Thomas J. TomVolkFungi.net. "Tom Volk's Fungus of the Month for August 1997." 1997 <http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/toms_fungi/aug97.html>

Compiled by Anna Hardin.
Biodiversity & Evolution (BIOL 270) Professr Sarah Boyer. Spring 2010
Specimen collected at Macalester College's Katharine Ordway Natural History Study Area on April 15, 2010.

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Biotic Inventory: Documenting Diversity at the Katharine Ordway Natural History Study Area Trametes versicolor, the Turkey Tail fungus Kingdom FungiDivision BasidomycotaClass HymenomycetesOrder AphyllophoralesFamily PolyporaceaeGenus TrametesSpecies versicolor Common names: the Turkey Tail fungus or the Turkey Tail, Cloud mushroom, PSK, PSP, yun zhi,Former names: Coriolus versicolor, and Polyporus versicolor Diagnostic Characteristics Fungi can generally be identified based on the length or presence of a stalk, the shape, size and color of their cup, and the traits of their gills or pores.

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Typically occurs in moist habitats, including stream and lakesides and drainage ditches. They are a hybrid so their usually sterile, producing no seeds and reproducing only vegetatively, spreading by its runners. Runners are plants formed by a mother plant and are produced from stolons from a single genetic individual through root connections.

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Humans consume Peppermint in many things like tea, candy, or plain. Some insects eat the leaves of peppermint as well.

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It is indigenous to Europe and the Middle East, however, the plant is now grown in many regions of the world.

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Peppermint (, also known as Mentha balsamea Wild) is a hybrid mint, a cross between watermint and spearmint. Indigenous to Europe and the Middle East, the plant is now widely spread and cultivated in many regions of the world. It is occasionally found in the wild with its parent species.

Although the genus Mentha comprises more than 25 species, the one in most common use is peppermint. While Western peppermint is derived from Mentha piperita, Chinese peppermint, or "Bohe", is derived from the fresh leaves of Mentha haplocalyx. Mentha piperita and Mentha haplocalyx are both recognized as plant sources of menthol and menthone and are among the oldest herbs used for both culinary and medicinal products.

Peppermint was first described in 1753 by Carl Linnaeus from specimens that had been collected in England; he treated it as a species, but it is now universally agreed to be a hybrid. It is a herbaceous rhizomatous perennial plant that grows to be 30-90 cm (12-35 in) tall, with smooth stems, square in cross section. The rhizomes are wide-spreading, fleshy, and bear fibrous roots. The leaves can be 4-9 cm (- in) long and 1.5-4 cm (- in) broad. They are dark green with reddish veins, and they have an acute apex and coarsely toothed margins. The leaves and stems are usually slightly fuzzy. The flowers are purple, 6-8 mm (- in) long, with a four-lobed corolla about 5 mm ( in) diameter; they are produced in whorls (verticillasters) around the stem, forming thick, blunt spikes. Flowering season lasts from mid- to late summer. The chromosome number is variable, with 2n counts of 66, 72, 84, and 120 recorded. Peppermint is a fast-growing plant; once it sprouts, it spreads very quickly.

Peppermint typically occurs in moist habitats, including stream sides and drainage ditches. Being a hybrid, it is usually sterile, producing no seeds and reproducing only vegetatively, spreading by its runners. If placed, it can grow almost anywhere.

Outside of its native range, areas where peppermint was formerly grown for oil often have an abundance of feral plants, and it is considered invasive in Australia, the Galápagos Islands, New Zealand, and the United States in the Great Lakes region, noted since 1843.

Peppermint generally grows best in moist, shaded locations, and expands by underground rhizomes. Young shoots are taken from old stocks and dibbled into the ground about 1.5 feet apart. They grow quickly and cover the ground with runners if it is permanently moist. For the home gardener, it is often grown in containers to restrict rapid spreading. It grows best with a good supply of water, without being water-logged, and planted in areas with part-sun to shade.

The leaves and flowering tops are used; they are collected as soon as the flowers begin to open and can be dried. The wild form of the plant is less suitable for this purpose, with cultivated plants having been selected for more and better oil content. They may be allowed to lie and wilt a little before distillation, or they may be taken directly to the still.

A number of cultivars have been selected for garden use:

Mentha × piperita 'Candymint' has reddish stems.

Mentha × piperita 'Chocolate Mint'. Its flowers open from the bottom up; its flavour is reminiscent of the flavour in Andes Chocolate Mints, a popular confection.

Mentha × piperita 'Citrata'. This classification includes a number of varieties including eau de Cologne mint, grapefruit mint, lemon mint, and orange mint. Its leaves are aromatic and hairless.

Mentha × piperita 'Crispa' has wrinkled leaves.

Mentha × piperita 'Variegata' has mottled green and pale yellow leaves.

Commercial cultivars may include

In 2014, world production of peppermint was 92,296 tonnes, led by Morocco with 92% of the world total reported by FAOSTAT of the United Nations. Argentina accounted for 8% of the world total.

In the United States, Oregon and Washington produce most of the country's peppermint, the leaves of which are processed for the essential oil to produce flavorings mainly for chewing gum and toothpaste.

Peppermint has a high menthol content. The essential oil also contains menthone and carboxyl esters, particularly menthyl acetate. Dried peppermint typically has 0.3-0.4% of volatile oil containing menthol (7-48%), menthone (20-46%), menthyl acetate (3-10%), menthofuran (1-17%) and 1,8- cineol (3-6%). Peppermint oil also contains small amounts of many additional compounds including limonene, pulegone, caryophyllene and pinene.

Peppermint contains terpenoids and flavonoids such as eriocitrin, hesperidin, and kaempferol 7-O-rutinoside.

Peppermint oil has a high concentration of natural pesticides, mainly pulegone (found mainly in Mentha arvensis var. piperascens cornmint, field mint, Japanese mint, and to a lesser extent (6,530 ppm) in Mentha × piperita subsp. notho) and menthone. It is known to repel some pest insects, including mosquitos, and has uses in organic gardening. It is also widely used to repel rodents.

The chemical composition of the essential oil from peppermint ( Mentha × piperita L.) was analyzed by GC/FID and GC-MS. The main constituents were menthol (40.7%) and menthone (23.4%). Further components were (±)- menthyl acetate, 1,8- cineole, limonene, beta-pinene, and beta-caryophyllene.

Peppermint oil is under preliminary research for its potential as a short-term treatment for irritable bowel syndrome, and has supposed uses in traditional medicine for minor ailments. Peppermint oil and leaves have a cooling effect when used topically for muscle pain, nerve pain, relief from itching, or as a fragrance. High oral doses of peppermint oil (500 mg) can cause mucosal irritation and mimic heartburn.

Peppermint roots bioaccumulate radium and so the plant may be effective for phytoremediation of radioactively contaminated soil.

Fresh or dried peppermint leaves are often used alone in peppermint tea or with other herbs in herbal teas (tisanes, infusions). Peppermint is used for flavouring ice cream, candy, fruit preserves, alcoholic beverages, chewing gum, toothpaste, and some shampoos, soaps and skin care products.

Menthol activates cold-sensitive TRPM8 receptors in the skin and mucosal tissues, and is the primary source of the cooling sensation that follows the topical application of peppermint oil.

Candy canes are one of the most common peppermint-flavored candies

Mentha × piperita hybrid known as "chocolate mint"

Peppermint oil is also used in construction and plumbing to test for the tightness of pipes and disclose leaks by its odor.

Medicinal uses of peppermint have not been approved as effective or safe by the US Food and Drug Administration. With caution that the concentration of the peppermint constituent pulegone should not exceed more than 1% (140 mg), peppermint preparations are considered safe by the European Medicines Agency when used in topical formulations for adult subjects. Diluted peppermint essential oil is safe for oral intake when only a few drops are used.

Although peppermint is commonly available as a herbal supplement, there are no established, consistent manufacturing standards for it, and some peppermint products may be contaminated with toxic metals or other substituted compounds. Skin rashes, irritation, or an allergic reaction may result from applying peppermint oil to the skin, and its use on the face or chest of young children may cause side effects if the oil menthol is inhaled. A common side effect from oral intake of peppermint oil or capsules is heartburn. Oral use of peppermint products may have adverse effects when used with iron supplements, cyclosporine, medicines for heart conditions or high blood pressure, or medicines to decrease stomach acid.

ISO 676:1995-contains the information about the nomenclature of the variety and cultivars

ISO 5563:1984-a specification for its dried leaves of Mentha piperita Linnaeus

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5. ^ Dong, Wenjiang; Ni, Yongnian; Kokot, Serge (February 2015). "Differentiation of mint (Mentha haplocalyx Briq.) from different regions in China using gas and liquid chromatography". Journal of Separation Science. 38 (3): 402-9. doi:10.1002/jssc.201401130. ISSN 1615-9314. PMID 25431171.

6. ^ Zhang, Feng; Lu, Yin; Qian, Wenhui; Pei, Zifan (2015), "Mentha haplocalyx Briq. 薄荷 (Bohe, Mint)", Dietary Chinese Herbs, Vienna: Springer, pp. 631-6, doi:10.1007/978-3-211-99448-1_72, ISBN 978-321199447-4

7. ^ Bone, Kerry; Mills, Simon Y. (2013). Principles and practice of phytotherapy : modern herbal medicine (2nd ed.). Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone. ISBN 978-0-44306992-5. OCLC 830314789.

8. Harley, R. M. (1975). ^ Mentha L. In: Stace, C. A., ed. Hybridization and the flora of the British Isles page 387.

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10. ^ "Mentha x piperita 'Variegata' : variegated mint". Hortiplex.gardenweb.com. 2007-09-12. Archived from the original on 2014-10-06.

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12. ^ Jullien, Frédéric; Diemer, Florence; Colson, Monique; Faure, Olivier (1998). "An optimising protocol for protoplast regeneration of three peppermint cultivars ( Mentha x piperita)". Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture. 54 (3): 153-9. doi:10.1023/A:1006185103897. S2CID 26626639.

13. ^ Dolzhenko, Yuliya; Bertea, Cinzia M.; Occhipinti, Andrea; Bossi, Simone; Maffei, Massimo E. (2010). "UV-B modulates the interplay between terpenoids and flavonoids in peppermint (Mentha × piperita L.)". Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology B: Biology. 100 (2): 67-75. doi:10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2010.05.003. PMID 20627615.

14. ^ Kumar, Sarita; Wahab, Naim; Warikoo, Radhika (April 2011). "Bioefficacy of Mentha piperita essential oil against dengue fever mosquito Aedes aegypti L". Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine. 1 (2): 85-8. doi:10.1016/S2221-1691(11)60001-4. PMC . PMID 23569733.

15. ^ Garrett, Howard (2003). Dear Dirt Doctor: Questions Answered the Natural Way. University of Texas Press. p. 54. ISBN 9781477304143.

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17. ^ Schmidt, E.; Bail, S.; Buchbauer, G.; Stoilova, I.; Atanasova, T.; Stoyanova, A.; Krastanov, A.; Jirovetz, L. (2009). "Chemical composition, olfactory evaluation and antioxidant effects of essential oil from Mentha x piperita". Natural Product Communications. 4 (8): 1107-1112. doi:10.1177/1934578X0900400819. PMID 19768994. S2CID 22823187.

18. ^ Khanna R, MacDonald JK, Levesque BG (July 2014). "Peppermint oil for the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Journal of Clinical Gastroenterology. 48 (6): 505-12. doi:10.1097/MCG.0b013e3182a88357. PMID 24100754. S2CID 22520810.

19. ^ Ruepert L, Quartero AO, de Wit NJ, van der Heijden GJ, Rubin G, Muris JW (August 2011). "Bulking agents, antispasmodics and antidepressants for the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 8 (8): CD003460. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003460.pub3. PMID 21833945.

20. Keifer, D.; Ulbricht, C.; Abrams, T.; Basch, E.; Giese, N.; Giles, M.; DeFranco Kirkwood, C.; Miranda, M.; Woods, J. (2007). "Peppermint (Mentha xpiperita): An evidence-based systematic review by the Natural Standard Research Collaboration". Journal of Herbal Pharmacotherapy. 7 (2): 91-143. doi:10.1080/j157v07n02_07. PMID 18285310. S2CID 72889915.

21. ^ Popa, K.; Tykva, R.; Podracká, E.; Humelnicu, D. (3 June 2008). "226Ra translocation from soil to selected vegetation in the Crucea (Romania) uranium mining area". Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry. 278 (1): 211. doi:10.1007/s10967-007-7171-6. S2CID 95563388.

22. ^ M. G. Kains (1912). American Agriculturist (ed.). Culinary Herbs: Their Cultivation Harvesting Curing and Uses. Orange Judd Company. Archived from the original (English) on April 8, 2018.

23. ^ "Community Herbal Monograph on Mentha x piperita L., aetheroleum" (PDF). Committee on Herbal Medicinal Products, European Medicines Agency. 31 October 2007.

24. ^ Nair, B (2001). "Final report on the safety assessment of Mentha piperita (Peppermint) Oil, Mentha piperita (Peppermint) Leaf Extract, Mentha piperita (Peppermint) Leaf, and Mentha piperita (Peppermint) Leaf Water". International Journal of Toxicology. 20 Suppl 3 (4): 61-73. doi:10.1080/10915810152630747. PMID 11766133.

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Peppermint (, also known as Mentha balsamea Wild) is a hybrid mint, a cross between watermint and spearmint. Indigenous to Europe and the Middle East, the plant is now widely spread and cultivated in many regions of the world. It is occasionally found in the wild with its parent species.

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It is frequently found in fence rows, on roadsides, in fields, and in prairies and pastures. It can essentially grow almost anywhere if given the opportunity. This includes gardens and even thin lawns. It is tolerant of light shade, but generally is a full sun species.

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Common Milkweed is the food source of the monarch butterfly caterpillar and where the adults lay their eggs. Others that consume milkweed are the red milkweed beetle , the milkweed tussock caterpillar and red and black milkweed bugs.

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It is a widespread species found in the eastern United States and southern Canada.

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Celebrating Wildflowers is events, wildflower viewing areas, wildflower photos, native plant information, pollinators, just for kids, coloring pages, teacher resources, ferns, rare plants, plant of the week, pollinator of the month, invasive plants, and wildflower links.

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These asters grow in numerous places including moist open ground like shores, riverbanks, edges of forests and swamps, meadows, ditches, wet prairies, marshes, fields, along old railroads, and roadsides. They mostly occur in sunny settings, where they can form large colonies.

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They are a popular pollen and nectar source for many insects like honeybees, bumblebees, moths, and butterflies. Caterpillars and several other bugs also feed on these plants. Their seeds and foliage can be a minor food source of Wild Turkeys.

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These flowers are found in North America in the United States and Canada. It also is found in Europe where it is invasive.

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R. W. Smith

Aster lanceolatus of Michigan Flora.

One of our commonest asters, especially in moist open ground including shores, river banks, edges of forests and swamps, meadows, ditches and swales, interdunal flats; wet prairies, marshes, fens; fields, along old railroads, roadsides. Plants mostly occur in sunny settings, where they may form large colonies from long-creeping rhizomes; plants in more shade are sometimes depauperate and atypical.

The species seems quite variable. Plants with larger, blue-rayed heads superficially resemble S. robynsianum, but differ in less clasping leaf bases, more imbricate phyllaries, and tendency to shorter leaves and more heads. Such plants represent S. lanceolatum var. hesperium (A. Gray) G. L. Nesom and are known from Benzie, Delta, Manistee, Osceola, and Schoolcraft Cos. Plants with pubescence uniform (rather than in lines, or absent) on the middle and lower internodes have been named var. hirsuticaule Semple & Chmiel. Plants with quite small heads (involucre under 5 mm long), very numerous and crowded on branches of the inflorescence, have been called var. interior (Wiegand) Semple & Chmiel. Plants with stems glabrous or pubescent only in lines and with heads not crowded include plants with broadly oblanceolate leaves (var. latifolium (Semple & Chmiel.) G. L. Nesom) and plants with narrow, linear to oblanceolate leaves (var. lanceolatum). These last four varieties appear to be widespread, but we have no abundance data.

Sometimes this species is confused with S. pilosum, and indeed these two species appear to hybridize, but besides its unique phyllaries, involucre shape, and cespitose habit, Symphyotrichum pilosum tends to have the pappus of the disk florets shorter than the corollas, while in S. lanceolatum and its allies, the pappus equals or exceeds the disk corollas. Plants intermediate with S. puniceum and especially S. firmum seem to be more frequent than some supposed hybrids. And a number of plants resembling S. lanceolatum but with deeply lobed disk corollas presumably have resulted from hybridization with S. lateriflorum.

Locations

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Symphyotrichum lanceolatum - Michigan Flora

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R. W. Smith Aster lanceolatus of Michigan Flora. One of our commonest asters, especially in moist open ground including shores, river banks, edges of forests and swamps, meadows, ditches and swales, interdunal flats; wet prairies, marshes, fens; fields, along old railroads, roadsides.

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They grow in sun, part shade with moist soil. They a very hardy plant and can grow in most gardens. In the wild they are found mostly in wetland areas.

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Blue Flag Iris' are less prone to pests and other creatures feeding on it however, snails may eat foliage while water rodents (muskrats) may eat the rhizomes, an underground part of the plant.

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This plant grows all over the United States and Canada. It can also be found in France.

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Search for native plants by scientific name, common name or family. If you are not sure what you are looking for, try the Combination Search or our Recommended Species lists.

Bengston, Bennie

Iris versicolor

Iris versicolor L.

Harlequin Blueflag, Northern Blue Flag, Large Blue Iris

USDA Symbol: irve2

A graceful, sword-leaved plant similar to the garden iris, with showy, down-curved, violet, boldly veined sepals. Several violet-blue flowers with attractively veined and yellow-based sepals are on a sturdy stalk among tall sword-like leaves that rise from a basal cluster. Flowers may be any shade of purple, but are always decorated with yellow on the falls. Grows 2-3 ft. tall.

This is a showy native iris of northeastern wetlands. Insects attracted to the sepals must crawl under the tip of a style and brush past a stigma and stamen, thus facilitating pollination. A similar southern wetland species, occurring from Virginia to Florida and Texas, is Southern Blueflag (I. virginica). It is a smaller plant, to 2 (60 cm) tall, with bright green leaves that often lie on the ground or water. A coastal, brackish-water species, Slender Blueflag (I. prismatica) has extremely narrow, grass-like leaves that are less than 1/4 (6 mm) wide; it occurs from Maine to Georgia and Tennessee. The name flag is from the middle English flagge, meaning rush or reed.

Plant Characteristics

Bloom Information

Bloom Color: Blue , Purple
Bloom Time: May , Jun , Jul , Aug
Bloom Notes: Rarely white.

Distribution

Growing Conditions

Light Requirement: Sun , Part Shade
Soil Moisture: Moist , Wet
Soil pH: Acidic (pH<6.8)
Soil Description: Moist, rich soils.
Conditions Comments: Even though it can tolerate complete submergence, this iris can be easily grown in most gardens. It is not a demanding plant. Once established, it will spread by self-seeding and extension of its rhizomes.

Benefit

Use Wildlife: Hummingbirds
Warning: Poisonous to livestock.
POISONOUS PARTS: Rhizomes (thickened roots) and rootstocks, fresh or dry. Minor skin irritation when touched, low toxicity if ingested. Symptoms include nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhea, elevated temperature following ingestion; skin irritation upon contact with seeds, rootstock, or cell sap. Toxic Principle: Irisin, iridin, or irisine.
The rhizome of the Blue Flag is poisonous, but was used by colonists, with guidance from Indian people, for various healing purposes. (Poisonous Plants of N.C.)

Through the years, iris flowers have symbolized power, with the three parts representing wisdom, faith and courage. (Kershaw)

Irises have been used medicinally in the past, but their rootstocks are dangerously poisonous. Some tribes used the two outermost fibres of the leaves to spin strong, very fine, highly esteemed twine. Powdered iris root, called orris, smells like violets and has been added to perfume and potpourri. (Kershaw)
Conspicuous Flowers: yes
Attracts: Birds , Hummingbirds

Mr. Smarty Plants says

Native plants to stop pond bank erosion
June 04, 2008
I recently purchased a home with a small pond in which a nearby stream daylights. The former owner placed large field stone around the pond and the small stream; however, the area around the pond and...
view the full question and answer

National Wetland Indicator Status

This information is derived from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers National Wetland Plant List, Version 3.1 (Lichvar, R.W. 2013. The National Wetland Plant List: 2013 wetland ratings. Phytoneuron 2013-49: 1-241). Click here for map of regions.

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Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center - The University of Texas at Austin

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Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center focused on protecting and preserving North America's native plants through native plant lists and image galleries, conservation, education, natural landscapes, seed collection - Millennium Seed Bank (MSB) Project, preserving and restoring native communities, spreading awareness on invasive species and gardening to attract wildlife.

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Bumblebees are interesting creatures, not to mention important. They live in nests usually underground where the queen lays eggs and the workers forage and nurse. It's not uncommon to wonder what bumblebees eat and that's exactly what we'll focus on today.

The Bumblebee's Diet

As social insects, bumblebees live in a colony, ruled by a queen. Although bumblebees are always busy pollinating, tending to their offspring and queen, they still need food to survive, as all living beings do.

Pollen is what the bumblebees collect when out foraging on flowers. It's not a liquid substance, rather it's a very fine, smooth powder that male flowers produce.

The bumblebee collects a small amount of pollen and then carries it to another plant, usually female. She then disperses some of the pollen and thereby fertilizes the female plant. What the bumblebee didn't leave on the flower, she will bring back to the nest.

Pollen is essential, especially for queen bumblebees. It's rich in the proteins needed for her egg production. More on that further below.

Nectar is a type of liquid, rich in sugar. Plants produce nectar inside glands known as nectaries. These sit either inside the flowers, where they attract pollinating animals and insects, or on the leaves or stem of the plant.

Nectar is very rich in sugar, and it's also what the bees need to produce honey. The bumblebee inserts her long tongue into the flower to reach the liquid.

We're all well aware that honeybees produce honey. Bumblebees, on the other hand, also produce honey, or at least, a close lookalike. Bumblebees don't make honey as we know it, instead, they store the gathered nectar in nectar cups.

Honeybees make their honey by mixing nectar with an enzyme in their stomach. They then place it in the hexagonal cells where the other bees flap their wings to evaporate the water. Bumblebees skip some of those steps and just place the mixture in the nectar cups.

Honeybees produce and store massive amounts of honey so they have enough to survive the winter. Bumblebees, however, only produce and store what they need for now. They never store up as much "honey" as honeybees do, because most of them don't live through the winter.

Diet of the Bumblebee Queen

The bumblebee queen is the most important member of the nest-she's the founder and mother of all the colony. A bumblebee colony only survives until early to late autumn, where the queen will produce new queens and drones.

Before winter comes around, the new virgin queens emerge from their nest, ready to mate with a nearby drone. After she's impregnated, the new queen needs to fill up her body with pollen and nectar so she's ready for hibernation.

The bumblebee queen will snooze for as long as nine months. She finds a place underground and gets comfortable. As you can imagine, going such a long time without food has a significant impact on her energy stores.

When spring warms up the earth, the queen wakes up. She is completely drained of energy and her body temperature needs to be at 86 degrees Fahrenheit before she can fly. So she sets out on foot to find nectar. Because of the high sugar content in nectar, it won't take long for the queen to have enough energy to finally take off.

To get her ovaries working, she'll also need pollen, which is an essential source of protein. Pollen contains specific chemical compounds, that help activate the queen's ovaries. Without pollen, she can't lay her eggs.

Once she's fed, found a nesting spot, and lays her first batch of eggs, she'll make a small wax pot. This is where she'll store nectar, which she will eat while incubating her eggs.

Over the course of her lifetime, the queen will mostly feed on pollen. She may also mix in some nectar occasionally, to keep her energy levels up.

Diet of Bumblebee Workers

Bumblebee workers have quite the opposite diet to their queen. While the queen focuses her diet on protein, the workers, especially foragers, need more energy. These will feed primarily on nectar to fuel their heavy bodies for the long foraging trips.

The larvae, still in their cells, will feed on pollen provided by the queen. As they develop, they'll eat more nectar and pollen, now fed by the other grown workers.

No, this is not a silly test they have to pass in order to be accepted in the nest. The feces will actually protect their stomachs from deadly parasites. Inside their sisters' feces are helpful bacteria that strengthen the newly evolved bee's immune system. We may know them as "gut bacteria" and it's something nearly all creatures have.

Humans have over 100 trillion microbes that help us digest food, filtering out the bad by outnumbering potential disease-carrying bacteria. It's the same for the bees-so although it may sound repulsive, it's crucial for bumblebees.

Diet of Drones

Male bumblebees, or drones, usually emerge right before the new queens. Drones will only stay in the nest a couple of days at the most, before they venture out to mate.

The drones that didn't manage to find a queen may feed on either pollen or nectar on flowers. They rarely return to the nest, even at night. Instead, males may sleep under flowers or other hidden places.

Bumblebees are very interesting and quite different to honeybees or other species of bee, but their diet is not so dissimilar to that of other bees. They feed mostly on nectar, pollen, and homemade honey-but the new adults also feed on fecal matter, to strengthen their immune system.

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Bumblebees are interesting creatures, not to mention important. They live in nests usually underground where the queen lays eggs and the workers forage and nurse. It's not uncommon to wonder what bumblebees eat and that's exactly what we'll focus on today. As social insects, bumblebees live in a colony, ruled by a queen.

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Quick facts

Rusty crayfish is a regulated invasive species. Regulated Invasive Species (MN DNR) are legal to buy, sell, transport, and possess, but may not be introduced into a free-living state, such as released into public waters.

Rusty crayfish feeding habits threaten native plant beds and native fish eggs and young fish.

They can drive native crayfish out, making them susceptible to predators.

Rusty crayfish should be reported. Learn how to report invasive species in Minnesota.

How to identify rusty crayfish

Rusty crayfish (Orconectes rusticus (syn. Faxonius rusticus)) has a light to dark brown body. Rusty, red-colored spots are present on either side of carapace.

Spot size and darkness is highly variable across individuals.

Has larger, more robust claws than native crayfish species.

Claws have dark black bands on the tips.

When closed, the claws have an oval gap in the middle.

Rusty crayfish oval gap in the middle of closed claw

Life cycle

Mature rusty crayfish mate in late summer, early fall, or early spring.

Rusty crayfish females can lay between 80 and 575 eggs.

Females carry sperm transferred from male crayfish until eggs are ready for fertilization. It is possible for a single crayfish to start a new population if transferred to a new water body.

Eggs hatch in three to six weeks depending on water temperature.

Juveniles stay with the female for several weeks after hatching and reach full maturity the following year upon completion of about 8 to 10 molt cycles.

Rusty crayfish typically live 3-4 years.

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Rusty crayfish is a regulated invasive species. Regulated Invasive Species (MN DNR) are legal to buy, sell, transport, and possess, but may not be introduced into a free-living state, such as released into public waters. Rusty crayfish feeding habits threaten native plant beds and native fish eggs and young fish.

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What role does your pollinator play in its food web?

All organisms (living things) need energy to grow and survive. But where does that energy come from? Most of us get our energy by eating food we buy at a store or grow in our gardens. In a natural ecosystem, the plants get their energy from the sun, and animals get theirs from eating plants or other animals. These who-eats-who relationships among plants, animals, and other organisms can be shown in a diagram called a food web. This spiderweb-like model helps us understand how energy flows though a group of organisms in the ecosystem.

The energy for all animals can be traced back to plants, or producers. Plants produce their own food through photosynthesis, a chemical process that changes the sun's energy into a form that can be stored in plants and eaten by other organisms. Consumers are organisms that get their energy by eating, or consuming, other organisms. Some consumers eat plants, and some eat other animals. Herbivores eat plants for energy, carnivores eat other animals for their energy, and omnivores eat both plants and animals. Finally, decomposers are organisms that eat any dead plant or animal. Yum! Their job of breaking down the dead bodies of these producers and consumers is an essential part of the cycle of energy in food webs. Without decomposers, dead plants and animals would never "disappear" back into the soil and decomposer bodies.

On this page we'll EXPLORE the food webs of each pollinator group. Understanding how your pollinator gets food energy and what other animals eat your pollinator for food energy can help you help your pollinator. Find your species' pollinator group, read about its unique food web, and respond to the Questions to Consider.

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What role does your pollinator play in its food web? All organisms (living things) need energy to grow and survive. But where does that energy come from? Most of us get our energy by eating food we buy at a store or grow in our gardens.

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Rusty Crayfish (
Orconectes rusticus )

DESCRIPTION: Rusty crayfish live in lakes, ponds and streams, preferring areas with rocks, logs and other debris in water bodies with clay, silt, sand or rocky bottoms. They typically inhabit permanent pools and fast moving streams of fresh, nutrient-rich water. Adults reach a maximum length of 4 inches. Males are larger than females upon maturity and both sexes have larger, heartier, claws than most native crayfish. Dark "rusty" spots are usually apparent on either side of the carapace, but are not always present in all populations. Claws are generally smooth, with grayish-green to reddish-brown coloration. Adults are opportunistic feeders, feeding upon aquatic plants, benthic invertebrates, detritus, juvenile fish and fish eggs.

PATHWAYS/HISTORY: The native range of the rusty crayfish includes Ohio, Tennessee, Kentucky, Indiana, Illinois and the entire Ohio river basin. However, this species may now be found in Michigan, Massachusetts, Missouri, Iowa, Minnesota, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, New Mexico and the entire New England state area (except Rhoda Island). The Rusty crayfish has been a reported invader since at least the 1930's. Its further spread is of great concern since the prior areas of invasion have led to severe impacts on native flora and fauna. It is thought to have spread by means of released game fish bait and/or from aquarium release. Rusty crayfish are also raised for commercial and biological harvest.

RISKS/IMPACTS: Rusty crayfish reduce the amount and types of aquatic plants, invertebrate populations, and some fish populations--especially bluegill, smallmouth and largemouth bass, lake trout and walleye. They deprive native fish of their prey and cover and out-compete native crayfish. Rusty crayfish will also attack the feet of swimmers. On the positive side, rusty crayfish can be a food source for larger game fish and are commercially harvested for human consumption.

MANAGEMENT: Rusty crayfish may be controlled by restoring predators like bass and sunfish populations. Preventing further introduction is important and may be accomplished by educating anglers, trappers, bait dealers and science teachers of their hazards. Use of chemical pesticides is an option, but does not target this species and will kill other aquatic organisms.

WHAT YOU CAN DO: Do not use rusty crayfish as bait in areas where it is not native. Never transport bait from one water body to another. Discard your bait in the trash before leaving. Never release pet crayfish (or any other organisms) into the wild.

PROFILE CREDIT: Dian Smith/Barry Payne, USACE - IMAGE CREDIT: USACE

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Rusty Crayfish ( Orconectes rusticus ) DESCRIPTION: Rusty crayfish live in lakes, ponds and streams, preferring areas with rocks, logs and other debris in water bodies with clay, silt, sand or rocky bottoms. They typically inhabit permanent pools and fast moving streams of fresh, nutrient-rich water. Adults reach a maximum length of 4 inches.

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Ramaria botrytis. These are the best coral mushroom for the table I've eaten in the Midwest, and, most importantly, by far the easiest species to identify (they're pink!). There isn't a lack of coral mushrooms in my area, but really good ones can be tough to pin down. With the exception of another yellow variety that's really chunky and looks like golden cauliflower, and is even more rare, the botrytis is my favorite Ramaria, and I know more than one mushroom professional that shares my opinion.
"Young, stubby pink-or purple-tipped branches are the most readily recognized of all the Ramaria" -David Arora
I've eaten a few others in the genus, but I haven't bothered to really get to know those like I have this one, which should tell you something-they're worth it. I first ate these about 5 years ago, and I've waited to share them until now, as it was difficult to keep them pink, and I kept finding them without having my tripod with me in the woods.

More importantly than the color, was that I wanted to repeatedly eat, and serve them to others, just to make sure none of us got loose bowels, which is the common danger I see listed regarding mushrooms in the genus. Personally, I have never had any stomach issues from eating any Ramaria, but I also usually only consume 2-3 ounces (raw weight) of cooked mushrooms in a sitting when I eat, unless it's hen of the woods season.

Habitat

The only trick with the Ramaria botrytis is finding them, and it's a trick. I searched for years and found nothing. Now, I have a couple spots and, like other mycorrhizal (perennial) mushrooms, I can count on them to come up at roughly the same time and place each year, give or take a week or two. My botrytis are hardwood lovers, and they grow with oaks in each place I pick them, generally in mid to late August, although in other places I've read they can grow with conifers.

Color

These two characteristics are the biggest ID tells I can share with you. First, the color-they're pink, not red, purple, tan, orange or bright yellow like other Ramaria I see. The botrytis is absolutely, positively pink, pink, pink. But, Botany being a slightly malleable science, it's unfortunately not that simple. The pink color of the botrytis, from my experience, can be very pronounced when young, but, as they mushrooms grow, the color, in the majority of specimens I've harvested, will be muted, or only visible on the tips.

To make things a little trickier, I have even had the color of mushrooms I've harvested fade while they sit under refrigeration (see above and below). I remember bringing my first pink coral in to impress my line cooks, and, after sitting in the fridge for a night, it was tan. There was only a faint pink was left on the tips-not nearly as impressive as when I plucked it from the ground. So, know that the tell-tale pink can wane in age, or be relegated to the young, meristematic growing tips. To clarify a bit, I assume the color fading to tan-ish is due to the ochre spore print, as you can see above.

Above is the cluster in this post immediately after I brought it home, below is after 24 hours under refrigeration. After a night in the fridge the pink color was barely noticeable, and it's taken me years to find another batch of specimens for me to prove to you that, they're actually pink, until a few weeks ago.

Shape (Think Cauliflower)

After a few good rains the Ramaria can be all over in hardwood forests where I hunt, but, most of the others have straight branching tips that connect loosely at a base, in a sense, they can look more like under sea corals than Ramaria botrytis. Below is Ramaria botrytis, followed by another, unidentified coral I've eaten and enjoyed that fruits at the same time, both have very tight branches when young, and a "cauliflower-y" look.

The botrytis (and other corals I prefer) are chunky, and by that, I think it's helpful to think of them more like cauliflower than like corals. It may not be a scientific explanation, but the intuition of searching for the cauliflower shape hasn't failed me yet.

Funny enough, there's also a cauliflower mushroom (Sparassis) and the Ramaria I eat look more like cauliflower than the mushroom that bears the common name. Either way, here's a couple bullets I find helpful, as Ramaria botrytis, generally speaking

Can be visibly rounded at the base or chunky, and almost bulbous in some cases (this is also a characteristic I look for in other corals, specifically yellow ones).

In prime stage they'll look like they could be easily sliced, without the tips breaking apart, as they're composed of a higher proportion of base than branching tips.

The tips, especially when young, are very crowded, not tall and erect like other Ramaria, from what I've seen, until they're pretty mature.

In maturity, the tips can be pink, with the rest of the mushroom getting tan.

The cauliflowery base, and flesh of the mushroom is white, inside and out.

I taste and spit a small piece before I pick, these should taste mild and pleasant, like a good mushroom, some bitter look-alikes are reputed to exist.

Repeat after me: cauliflower, cauliflower, cauliflower, pink, pink, pink.

Ramaria vs Crown Corals

Bear with me for a moment, some of you may be thinking:

"I like coral mushrooms, I pick the crown tipped ones from wood all the time"

In a sense, crown corals (Artomyces pyxidatus) are coral mushrooms, as they look like corals, with their branch-y, under the sea look, and they share a closer relationship to Ramaria than something like, say, a hen of the woods. The relation ends there though, and, if you've been studying your mushrooms you'll have noticed that Artomyces is a completely different genus than Ramaria. Another difference, and am easy way to instantly tell the two apart is to remember that crown tipped corals grow directly from wood-they're decomposers, t rue Ramaria grow terrestrially (directly from the ground), and are mycorrhizal, living in harmony with the trees, and helping them absorb nutrients.

Most importantly to me, these two mushrooms don't cook the same. Ramaria are firm, sliceable, say like a hen of the woods when young, and they're heavy. Crown corals are always brittle, generally small, light weight, and cook down to a floppy pile, Ramaria can be cooked in a pan and browned, fried, roasted, boiled, pickled, grilled, (you get the idea) and will hold their shape any way you cook them.

Cooking

These are a breeze to work with. The tight branching means they often don't get debris stuck in them, I trim the dirt off the base in the field, as much to remove dirt as to inspect for larvae (yes the bugs like these, but it's not horrible) Compared to other mushrooms, they usually don't require much more work, I may swish a cluster in cold water here and there as needed, and dry on a towel.

For cooking, I never just chop them up. Their shape is part of what makes them special, so I try to keep that in mind. My advice is to break them into clusters, or slice them thick to retain their character. Below are a few recipes I've made specifically using Ramaria, but they're transferable to plenty of other preparations too.

Recipes

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Ramaria botrytis. These are the best coral mushroom for the table I've eaten in the Midwest, and, most importantly, by far the easiest species to identify (they're pink!). There isn't a lack of coral mushrooms in my area, but really good ones can be tough to pin down.

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Ramaria botrytis, commonly known as the clustered coral, the pink-tipped coral mushroom, or the cauliflower coral, is an edible species of coral fungus in the family Gomphaceae. Its robust fruit body can grow up to 15 cm (6 in) in diameter and 20 cm (8 in) tall, and resembles some marine coral. Its dense branches, which originate from a stout, massive base, are swollen at the tips and divided into several small branchlets. The branches are initially whitish but age to buff or tan, with tips that are pink to reddish. The flesh is thick and white. The spores, yellowish in deposit, are ellipsoid, feature longitudinal striations, and measure about 13.8 by 4.7 micrometers.

The type species of the genus , R. botrytis was first described scientifically in 1797 by mycologist Christiaan Hendrik Persoon. A widely distributed species, it is found in North America, North Africa, central and eastern Europe, Australia, and Asia. The fungus is mycorrhizal with broadleaf trees, and fruits on the ground in wooded areas. There are several species of coral fungi that are superficially similar in appearance to R. botrytis, and although comparison of habitat or characteristics like color or branching morphology is often sufficient for identification, sometimes microscopy is required to definitively distinguish between them. Fruit bodies of Ramaria botrytis are edible, and young specimens have a mild, fruity taste. Some authors warn of laxative effects in susceptible individuals. The fungus contains several chemical compounds with biological activity, and fruit bodies have antimicrobial activity against several species and strains of drug-resistant bacteria that cause disease in humans.

The species was first named as Clavaria botrytis in 1797 by Christian Hendrik Persoon. In 1821, Elias Magnus Fries sanctioned the genus name , and treated as a section of Clavaria. It was given its current name in 1918 by Adalbert Ricken. Obsolete historical synonyms include Gotthold Hahn's 1883 Corallium botrytis and Arthur Anselm Pearson's variety Clavaria botrytis var. alba, which is no longer recognized as an independent taxon. Currie Marr and Daniel Stuntz described the variety R. botrytis var. aurantiiramosa in their 1973 monograph of western Washington Ramaria; Edwin Schild and G. Ricci described variety compactospora from Italy in 1998. In 1950, E.J.H. Corner published George F. Atkinson's 1908 Clavaria holorubella as R. botrytis var. holorubella, but this taxon is now known as the independent species Ramaria holorubella.

The specific epithet botrytis is derived from the Greek word βότρυς ( botrus) meaning "bunch of grapes". The species is commonly known as the "cauliflower coral", the "pink-tipped coral mushroom", or the "rosso coral". In the Cofre de Perote region of Veracruz, Mexico, R. botrytis is known by the local names escobea, meaning "little broom", or pechuga, meaning "breast meat of chicken".

Ramaria botrytis was designated the type species of Ramaria in 1933 by Marinus Anton Donk. Modern molecular analysis indicates that Ramaria is a polyphyletic assemblage of species with clavarioid fruit bodies. According to the infrageneric classification scheme proposed by Marr and Stuntz, R. botrytis is included in the subgenus Ramaria, which includes species that have grooved spores, clamps present in the hyphae, and fruit bodies with a large, profusely branched cauliflower-like appearance. Phylogenetic analysis of nuclear large subunit ribosomal DNA suggests that R. botrytis is closely related to R. rubripermanens and R. rubrievanescens, and that these species form a clade that is sister (sharing a recent common ancestor) to the false truffle genus , the most derived group within the studied taxa.

The fruit bodies produced by the fungus are 6 to 20 cm (2.4 to 7.9 in) tall and 6 to 30 cm (2.4 to 11.8 in) wide. They are fleshy cauliflower-like masses with a stout central stem that splits into a few lower primary branches before branching densely above. The stem is short and thick-between 1.5 and 6 cm (0.6 and 2.4 in) in diameter-and tapers downward. Initially white, in age both the stem and branches turn pale yellow to buff to tan. Old fruit bodies can fade to become almost white, or may be ochre due to fallen spores. The branching pattern is irregular, with the primary branches few and thick-typically 2-3 cm (0.8-1.2 in)-and the final branches slender (2-3 mm), and usually terminated with five to seven branchlets. The branchlet tips are pink to purplish-red. The flesh is solid and white, and has an odor described variously as indistinct or pleasant. A drop of Melzer's reagent applied to the stem tissue reveals a weak amyloid staining reaction that often requires more than 30 minutes to develop. This reaction can be used to help distinguish R. botrytis from other similar fungi.

Spores are produced by basidia on the outer surface of the branches. Viewed in deposit, the spores are pale yellow. Microscopically, they have fine longitudinal or oblique striations that often fuse together in a vein-like network. They range in shape from roughly cylindrical to sigmoid (curved like the letter "S"), and their dimensions are 12-16 by 4-5 µm. Basidia are four-spored (occasionally two-spored), and measure 59-82 by 8-11 µm. The sterigmata (slender projections of the basidia that attach to the spores) are 4-8 µm long. The hymenium and subhymenium (the tissue layer immediately under the hymenium) combined are about 80 µm thick. Hyphae comprising the subhymenium are interwoven, 2.5-4.5 µm in diameter, thin-walled, and clamped.

The variety R. botrytis var. aurantiiramosa is distinguished from the more common variety by the orange color of the upper branches. Variety compactospora tends to show a more pronounced wine-red, purple, or reddish color in the branch tips, and has smaller spores measuring 9.2-12.8 by 4-5.4 µm.

Similar species

Distinctive features of Ramaria botrytis include its large size, the orange, reddish, or purplish branchlets, striate spores with dimensions averaging 13.8 by 4.7 µm, and a weak amyloid staining reaction of the stem tissue. R. rubripermanens has reddish terminal branches, a stout form, and striate spores, but may be distinguished from R. botrytis by its much shorter spores. Other species with which R. botrytis may be confused include: , which has branches that are pinker than R. botrytis, and yellow-tipped; R. caulifloriformis, found in the Great Lakes region of the United States, whose branch tips darken with age; R. strasseri, which has yellow to brown branch tips; R. rubrievanescens, which has branches in which the pink color fades after picking or in mature fruit bodies; and R. botrytoides, which is most reliably distinguished from R. botrytis by its smooth spores. The European species , often confused with R. botrytis and sometimes considered synonymous, can be distinguished by microscopic characteristics: R. reilii lacks the clamped hyphae of R. botrytis, its spores are longer and wider, and they have warts instead of striations. The North American species R. araiospora, though superficially similar to R. botrytis, has several distinguishing characteristics: it grows under hemlock; it has reddish to magenta branches with orange to yellowish tips; it lacks any discernible odor; it has warted, somewhat cylindrical spores averaging 9.9 by 3.7 µm; and it has non-amyloid stem tissue. Uniformly colored bright pink to reddish, R. subbotrytis has spores measuring 7-9 by 3-3.5 µm.

R. araiospora

R. formosa

R. subbotrytis

An ectomycorrhizal species, Ramaria botrytis forms mutualistic associations with broadleaf trees, particularly beech. In a study to determine the effectiveness of several edible ectomycorrhizal fungi in promoting growth and nutrient accumulation of large-fruited red mahogany ( Eucalyptus pellita), R. botrytis was the best at improving root colonization and macronutrient uptake. Records of associations with conifers probably represent similar species. Fruit bodies grow on the ground singly, scattered, or in small groups among leaves in woods. They can also grow in fairy rings. Ramaria botrytis is a " snowbank fungus", meaning it commonly fruits near the edges of melting snowbanks in the spring. In Korea, it is prevalent at sites that also produce the choice edible species Tricholoma matsutake.

Ramaria botrytis is found in Africa ( Tunisia), Australia, Chile, Asia (including the eastern Himalayas of India, Nepal, Japan, Korea, Pakistan, China, the Far East of Russia, and Turkey) and Europe (including the Netherlands, France, Portugal, Italy, Bulgaria, and Spain). It is also present in Mexico and in Guatemala. Widely distributed in North America, it is most common in the southeast and along the Pacific Coast. The variety R. botrytis var. aurantiiramosa, limited in distribution to Lewis County, Washington, associates with Douglas fir ( Pseudotsuga menziesii) and western hemlock ( Tsuga heterophylla). Variety compactospora is known from Sardinia, Italy, where it has been found growing in sandy soil in forests comprising strawberry tree ( Arbutus unedo), tree heath ( Erica arborea), and holm oak ( Quercus ilex).

Ramaria botrytis is an edible species, and some rate it as choice. Its taste is "slight", or "fruity", and has been likened to sauerkraut, green peanuts (fresh harvested peanuts that have not been dehydrated), or pea pods. Older fruit bodies develop an acidic flavor. It is sold in food markets in Japan as Nedzumi-take, and harvested from the wild in Korea and Nepal. The thick base and main branches require longer cooking than the smaller branchlets. In the Garfagnana region of central Italy, the mushroom is stewed, or pickled in oil. Fruit bodies can be preserved by slicing thinly and drying. One field guide rates the edibility as "questionable", warning of the possible danger of confusing specimens with the poisonous Ramaria formosa. Other authors warn that some individuals may experience laxative effects from consuming the mushroom. Caution is advised when collecting fruit bodies near polluted areas, as the species is known to bioaccumulate toxic arsenic.

Chemical analysis shows R. botrytis to have a food energy value of 154 kilojoules per 100 grams of fresh fruit bodies, which is comparable to the 120-150 kJ range reported for commercially grown edible mushrooms. As a percentage of dry matter, the fruit bodies contain 39.0% crude protein, 1.4% lipids, 50.8% carbohydrates, and 8.8% ash. The majority of the lipid content comprises oleic (43.9%), linoleic (38.3%), and palmitic (9.9%) fatty acids.

Extracts of the fruit body of Ramaria botrytis have been shown to favorably influence the growth and development of HeLa cells grown in tissue culture. The mushroom contains nicotianamine, an ACE inhibitor ( angiotensin-converting enzyme). Nicotianamine is a metal-chelating compound essential in iron metabolism and utilization in plants. Several sterols have been isolated from the fruit bodies, 5α,6α-epoxy-3β-hydroxy-(22 E)-ergosta-8(14),22-dien-7-one, ergosterol peroxide, cerevisterol, and 9α-hydroxycerevisterol, in addition to the previously unknown ceramide (2 S,2' R,3 R,4 E,8 E)- N-2'-hydroxyoctadecanoyl-2-amino-9-methyl-4,8-heptade-cadiene-1,3-diol.

Laboratory tests show that fruit bodies have antimicrobial activity against several strains of drug-resistant bacteria that are pathogenic in humans. Extracts inhibit the growth of the Gram-positive bacteria Enterococcus faecalis and Listeria monocytogenes, and kill the Gram-positive species Pasteurella multocida, Streptococcus agalactiae and S. pyogenes.

In a 2009 study of 16 Portuguese edible wild mushroom species, R. botrytis was shown to have the highest concentration of phenolic acids (356.7 mg per kg of fresh fruit body), made up largely of protocatechuic acid; it also had the highest antioxidant capacity. Phenolic compounds-common in fruits and vegetables-are being scientifically investigated for their potential health benefits associated with reduced risk of chronic and degenerative diseases.

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Cited literature

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Ramaria botrytis , commonly known as the clustered coral, the pink-tipped coral mushroom, or the cauliflower coral, is an edible species of coral fungus in the family Gomphaceae. Its robust fruit body can grow up to 15 cm (6 in) in diameter and 20 cm (8 in) tall, and resembles some marine coral.

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Home & Garden Information Center | Clemson University, South Carolina

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A rain garden is a shallow (6 - 12 inch deep) vegetated depression designed to capture stormwater runoff and allow the water to soak into the soil. These gardens can function as natural filters that improve water quality, provide wildlife habitat and feature beautiful native, perennial plants. Iris versicolor and Iris virginica, from the iris (Iridaceae) family, are two native plant species suited for use in rain gardens. Their common names, as they are virtually indistinguishable, include: blue flag, great blue flag, harlequin blue flag, water flag, poison flag, northern blue flag, southern blue flag, and dagger flower.

Telling the species apart

It is difficult to differentiate between Iris versicolor and Iris virginica as both have similar growth habits, floral colors, and bloom times. In fact, they are often sold interchangeably in the trade as blue flag iris. One major trait differentiating the two may be their native ranges, but because these ranges overlap, this distinction cannot be used as the primary distinguishing factor. The signal (the colorful patch on the sepal) of each may be used to distinguish the two species. The signal of Iris versicolor is greenish-yellow, rather flat, with few to no hairs and surrounded by a background of dark purple veins against a more or less white background. The signal of Iris virginica tends to be bright yellow, usually with a lot of obvious soft hairs with veining not as prominent as in Iris versicolor. Another method for differentiating between the two species is that of the height of leaves along the flower-stem (cauline leaves) (1). The cauline leaves of I. virginica typically extend above the flowers while the cauline leaves of I. versicolor are usually shorter or similar in height to the flowers.

History and Traditions

Harlequin blue flag is the provincial flower of Québec (Canada). It is also thought that the fleur-de-lis resembles the iris flower with 3 petals tied with a band. The fleur-de-lis is a heraldic device for the French royal family and is an official state symbol in Louisiana.

The dried roots of I. versicolor and I. virginica were harvested in late summer or early fall by multiple Native American tribes and used as de-toxicants (liver and kidney), dermatological aids, and pain-relievers (2, 3, 4). Iris roots are toxic if not prepared properly. Iris virginica may have been one of the iris species used by Seminole Indians to treat shock induced by an alligator-bite. The Potawatomi tribe used Iris versicolor leaves to weave mats and baskets (4).

Herbal medicine uses iris rhizomes to generate medicinally active treatments. Many compounds are contained within the roots of blue flag iris including starch, tannins, volatile oils, resins, organic acids, and alkaloids (1). The compounds considered to be medicinally active are the oleoresinous compounds. When extracted, this compound, often referred to as iridin (irisin or irisine), can induce low to moderate toxicity in humans or livestock if ingested. Compounds exuded from the rhizome can also serve as a skin irritant, so gloves should be worn when dividing clumps.

Use and Benefits

Showy, masses (3 to 5 per flower stalk) of blue, violet-blue, to purple flowers compliment many plants within the landscape. Blue flag irises provide splashes of color that add interest to any garden, while the root system works to stabilize soil and reduce erosion. Blue flag iris "fit" the look of cottage gardens, rain gardens, or riparian buffers around ponds; however, they perform best in conditions where consistent moisture is available. They prefer moderate-to-wet landscape situations and will go into early dormancy in prolonged drought conditions, yet will not be negatively impacted long-term..

Blue flag irises are less prone to the pests and diseases traditionally associated with bearded irises in the landscape. However, snails may eat foliage while water rodents (muskrats) may eat the rhizomes (2). Blue flag iris flowers attract hummingbirds, butterflies, beneficial insects, and native bees; they are rarely browsed by deer or rabbits, and can serve as a "deer-tolerant" plant species in the landscape.

Planting and Care

Plant in swaths or drifts to provide natural looking effect in garden. Blue flag iris typically grow near or within bogs, fens, marshes, wet meadows, forested wetlands, or along the riparian zone of water bodies. Therefore, they are best suited for rain garden sites that maintain consistent and/or persistent moisture. They should not be used in rain garden settings that will mainly be dry because plant growth, floral display, and sometimes survival will be diminished.
Table 1. Plant preferred site conditions
In the southeast, it is best to divide and transplant blue flag iris in the fall after flowering, but divisions can also be made in early- to mid-spring if necessary. Blue flag irises prefer moist soils; thus adequate irrigation is necessary to aid in establishment of new plantings. Blue flag irises tolerate a range of soil types and pH, but prefer a soil with pH between 6.5 and 7.0 that is rich with organic matter. Garden Design

Blue flag irises adapt well to any style of garden whether formal or informal. In the rain garden, use it in clusters of three, five, seven, or greater or in swaths to yield a consistent vegetative backbone through the garden. The medium-to silvery-green or blue-green foliage provides an excellent backdrop to show off other plant species. Because blue flag iris are moderately tall herbaceous perennials, they should be used near the middle of the border or nearer to the edge of the pond so as not to block visibility of other plants in the garden.

Blue flag irises pair well with other perennials by providing a touch of deep blue or purple that helps provide contrast for other warm-toned, flashy herbaceous perennials and annuals. Consider pairing blue flag iris in front of tall, showy perennials such as Joe-Pye weed (Eutrochium purpureum), blue mistflower (Conoclinium coelestinum), and scarlet rosemallow (Hibiscus coccineus), or behind smaller herbaceous perennials such as black-eyed susan (Rudbeckia fulgida), cardinal flower (Lobelia cardinalis), soft-rush (Juncus effusus), redhot poker (Kniphofia uvaria), columbine (Aquilegia canadensis), and many other rain garden friendly species.
Table 2. Design considerations - growth habit and plant interest
References

1. Rook, E.J.S. 2002. Iris versicolor: Blue Flag. Accessed: 15 February 2012.

2. Plants for a Future Database. Iris versicolor- L. Accessed: 15 February 2012. http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Iris+versicolor

3. Immel, D.L. 2001. Plant Guide for Virginia Iris (Iris virginica L.) USDA-Natural Resources Conservation Service, National Plant Data Center, c/o Environmental Horticulture Department, University of California-Davis.

4. Smith, H. H. 1933. Ethnobotany of the Forest Potawatomi Indians. Bulletin of the Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee. 7: 1-230

If this document didn't answer your questions, please contact HGIC at hgic@clemson.edu or 1-888-656-9988.

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Rain Garden Plants: Iris versicolor and Iris virginica

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A rain garden is a shallow (6 - 12 inch deep) vegetated depression designed to capture stormwater runoff and allow the water to soak into the soil. These gardens can function as natural filters that improve water quality, provide wildlife habitat and feature beautiful native, perennial plants.

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Ecological Importance

Chara ( commonly known as Stonewort; Skunkweed; Sandgrass) is an advanced form of algae often mistaken for a plant. Chara stabilizes bottom sediments; provides food for waterfowl and cover for fish. Chara also supports insects and other small aquatic animals, which are important foods for trout, bluegills, small mouth bass, and largemouth bass.

Submerged portions of all aquatic plants provide habitats for many micro and macro invertebrates. Chara is consumed by many species of ducks. Identified by a strong musky odor when crushed and a gritty feeling texture due to calcium deposits on the surface.

Problems

Chara can benefit water quality and clarity. It is a good stabilizer and considered valuable fish habitat. However, due to its ability to grow rapidly, Chara can take over a small pond if left untreated. This can become a problem in that is reduces available fish habitat, clogs intakes on golf course irrigation lakes, makes swimming or boating difficult or reduces the overall aesthetics of a lake or pond when it becomes overgrown.

Plant Description

Chara is often called muskgrass or skunkweed because of its foul, musty almost garlic-like odor. Chara is a gray-green branched multicellular alga that is often confused with submerged flowering plants. However, Chara has no flower, will not extend above the water surface, and often has a "grainy" or "crunchy" texture. Chara has cylindrical, whorled branches with 6 to 16 branchlets around each node.

When removed from water chara will dry out within just a few hours of sunlight exposure appearing ashen to white once dry. Dense growths, attached but not rooted may cover entire bottom of shoreline areas or ponds.

Hints to Identify

Gritty, bristly feel due to mineral deposits on leaf surfaces; emits a strong musky odor when crushed; is sometimes mistaken for coontail or milfoil, but chara has a lighter green color than most other aquatic plants.

*Aquatic Biologists recommends implementing preventative management techniques and physical removal prior to, or in conjunction with treatment.

Common Application Questions

Q. When is the best time to treat?

A. Small areas can be hand raked. Chara is a heavy algae type. Treat only if causing nuisance conditions.

Q. How do I actually apply the product(s)?

A. Cutrine Plus granules can be spread by a small hand-held spreader or can be tossed by a hand scoop. A hand held pump up sprayer or Solo backpack sprayer can apply liquids such as Cutrine Plus liquid.

Q. How often do I need to treat?

A. If you catch it early one treatment can last the season. Two or more treatments may be required when chara is mature.

Q. How long before I see results?

A. Generally within six to fifteen days depending upon water hardness and growth cycle things will be cleared up.

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Chara ( commonly known as Stonewort; Skunkweed; Sandgrass) is an advanced form of algae often mistaken for a plant. Chara stabilizes bottom sediments; provides food for waterfowl and cover for fish. Chara also supports insects and other small aquatic animals, which are important foods for trout, bluegills, small mouth bass, and largemouth bass.

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Chara is a genus of charophyte green algae in the family Characeae. They are multicellular and superficially resemble land plants because of stem-like and leaf-like structures. They are found in freshwater, particularly in limestone areas throughout the northern temperate zone, where they grow submerged, attached to the muddy bottom. They prefer less oxygenated and hard water and are not found in waters where mosquito larvae are present. They are covered with calcium carbonate deposits and are commonly known as stoneworts. Cyanobacteria have been found growing as epiphytes on the surfaces of Chara, where they may be involved in fixing nitrogen, which is important to plant nutrition.

The branching system of Chara species is complex with branches derived from apical cells which cut off segments at the base to form nodal and internodal cells alternately. The main axes bear whorls of branches in a superficial resemblance to (a vascular plant). They are typically anchored to the littoral substrate by means of branching underground rhizoids. Chara plants are rough to the touch because of deposited calcium salts on the cell wall. The metabolic processes associated with this deposition often give Chara plants a distinctive and unpleasant smell of hydrogen sulfide.

The plant body is a gametophyte. It consists of the main axis (differentiated into nodes and internodes), dimorphic branches (long branch of unlimited growth and short branches of limited growth), rhizoids (multicellular with oblique septa) and stipulodes (needle-shaped structures at the base of secondary laterals).

Chara reproduces vegetatively and sexually. Vegetative reproduction takes place by tubers, amylum stars and secondary protonemata. The sex organs are a multicellular and jacketed globule or antheridium (male) and nucule or archegonium (female). The antheridia and archegonia may occur on separate plants ( dioicy), together on the same plant (conjoined monoicy) or separately on the same plant (sejoined monoicy). After fertilization, the zygote develops into an oospore.

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Chara has a cosmopolitan distribution, from 69 degrees north in northern Norway to about 49 degrees south in Kerguelen Islands (Pal et al., 1962). About 27 species are found in India. There are about 40 species of Chara in Europe, where they are commonly found in the specific habitat-type designated as H3140 (hard oligo-mesotrophic waters with benthic vegetation of Chara spp h1) in the Natura 2000 plans of the European Union. Although this habitat is found all across Europe, it is threatened and to be protected and preserved.

The Netherlands are home to 20 species of Chara, growing in lakes and ponds of the habitat-type H3140. The H3140 habitats in the Netherlands, are considered important in the overall preservation efforts and therefore also for the Chara species in general.

Denmark. Here, many former Chara habitats (H3140) have been polluted by either toxins or excessive amounts of nutrients (in particular phosphates and nitrogen), but a few large lakes and ponds remain. Chara is found growing in the very clean hard water lakes of Thy National Park like Nors Sø for example. Tissø lake (fourth-largest lake in Denmark) is also a H3140 habitat and contains Chara species.

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Chara is a genus of charophyte green algae in the family Characeae. They are multicellular and superficially resemble land plants because of stem-like and leaf-like structures. They are found in freshwater, particularly in limestone areas throughout the northern temperate zone, where they grow submerged, attached to the muddy bottom.