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#Design #BrainTargetedTeaching

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TEDxEnola - Dr. Mariale Hardiman - The Brain-Targeted Teaching Model

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#EvidenceBasedPractices #HowLearningOccurs

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The understanding of how one thinks and learns. It involves planning, monitoring, assessing and adapting one's efforts to learn, understand and perform. Metacognition practices increase one's level of awareness of his/her/their strengths and weaknesses.

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#UDL #Design

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#Inclusivity

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Faculty and instructional designers can employ a number of strategies to create courses and learning environments where students feel welcome and conn

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#EvidenceBasedPractices #HowLearningOccurs

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Downloadable Materials - The Learning Scientists

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Please use our materials and pass them along to others for educational purposes! We ask that you attribute us when you use the materials, and that you do not use portions of the materials or remove information from the materials. The materials may not be used commercially.

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How Neuroscience Is Changing What We Know About Learning

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How Neuroscience Is Changing What We Know About Learning

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#HowLearningOccurs

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Barbara Oakley - How Neuroscience Is Changing What We Know about Learning. INTED2019 Keynote Speech

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#HowLearningOccurs #Memory

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Catharine Young: How memories form and how we lose them

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Think back to a really vivid memory. Got it? Now try to remember what you had for lunch three weeks ago. That second memory probably isn't as strong- but why not? Why do we remember some things, and not others? And why do memories eventually fade?

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#Memory

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Disclaimer

The simplified model presented here is just one of many ways to categorize types of memory. There are other models too, and some of them use slightly different definitions for some of the terms used here.

This model highlights just a few of the key brain regions involved in different memory functions. Since no part of the brain exists in isolation, most types of memory include more areas than the ones listed here. The big idea to take away is that different areas of the brain have different functions.

If you wish to delve more deeply into the types of memory or the brain anatomy involved, we encourage you to explore the references linked at the bottom of the page.

When we learn, our brain takes in information about the world that causes us to change our behavior in some way.

For example, a young baby doesn't understand that fire can hurt them. But thanks to learning, if they touch a candle flame even one time, they will probably not do it again. The information that feeds into the brain-candle, flame, hot, pain-is physically recorded in the connections between cells. And those connections influence our future behavior-don't touch!

As the brain takes in any information and stores it, there are physical changes to the connections between brain cells. And those connections influence our behavior.

Neurons that fire together wire together

The brain is an enormous interconnected network of specialized cells called neurons and supporting cells called glia. To transmit information in the brain, neurons pass signals to one another. This passing of signals can cause physical changes to the connections between cells.

When we learn a skill (like riding a bike) or new information (like multiplication tables), we are building brain connections. The more we use those brain connections, the stronger they get. It's the reason "practice makes perfect."

In the activity above, you can read about how injuries to certain brain areas cause certain memory functions to stop working. But just as important are the connections between them. If two brain areas can no longer communicate, then learning and memory can break down.

Like trails through the wilderness, brain connections get stronger the more they're used

Learning is a process that relies on long-term memory systems in the brain. People who study learning typically divide it into 4 steps: attention, storage, consolidation, and retrieval. These steps dovetail with the Types of Memory described above, and they provide a slightly different framework for thinking about what happens when one or more of these steps go wrong.

Attention - Our sensory systems are constantly bombarded with information, yet most of it fades before we are even aware of it. Attention is like a filter that lets important information into the brain while keeping the irrelevant information out. Without attention, we would remember very little.

Encoding - As sensory information comes in, the brain processes it. Strings of sounds become words, flashes of light and color become images. The brain begins connecting this new information with what it already knows about the world. Some information that is encoded will fade, and some will stick around.

Storage - Long-term storage of information requires new brain connections. The brain has its own way of rehearsing experiences (there's evidence that this is what dreaming is all about), which helps strengthen brain connections. But we can also consciously repeat information or skills to help the brain form strong memories.

Retrieval - Retrieval is the process of accessing stored memories. We use it when we recall a fact or reimagine an experience. But we also use it when we take in new information. It's part of what helps us connect new information to old.

Even when memory systems function normally, memory is imperfect. To learn more about the fallibility of memory, visit The Seven Sins of Memory.

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The simplified model presented here is just one of many ways to categorize types of memory. There are other models too, and some of them use slightly different definitions for some of the terms used here. This model highlights just a few of the key brain regions involved in different memory functions.

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#BloomsTaxonomy #Design

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Retrieval-Based Learning: A Powerful Way to Improve Learning and Memory

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Retrieval-Based Learning: A Powerful Way to Improve Learning and Memory

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#HowLearningOccurs #EvidenceBasedPractices

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Jeffrey Karpicke, PhD, is the James V. Bradley associate professor of psychological sciences at Purdue University. He received a BA in psychology from Indiana University and a PhD in psychology from Washington University in St. Louis. Karpicke's research sits at the interface between cognitive science and education, with the goal of identifying effective strategies that promote long-term learning and comprehension. Karpicke's research has been funded by the National Science Foundation and the Institute of Education Sciences at the U.S. Department of Education. Karpicke was the recipient of the Janet Taylor Spence Award for Transformative Early Career Contributions from Association for Psychological Science, a National Science Foundation CAREER award, and the Presidential Early Career Award for Scientists and Engineers. Author website.

The movie "Inside Out" (2015) takes us inside the mind of its young protagonist, an 11-year-old girl named Riley, and depicts memory in a way that is sure to resonate with many people. In Riley's mind, her memories are objects - globes colored with emotions - that are stored in a mental space, just as physical objects are stored in a physical space. When Riley experiences an event and creates a new memory, a new globe is produced in her mind, rolling down a ramp like a ball returning in a bowling alley. When Riley re-experiences a past event, a globe is placed in a projector and events are replayed, projected on a screen in her mind. Cognitive psychologists refer to the mental processes involved in the creation of new memories and the recovery of past memories as encoding and retrieval, respectively.

The depiction of the mind in "Inside Out" follows centuries of thought on how mind and memory work. Throughout history, scholars have used a common metaphor to talk about memory: The mind is a vast storehouse or space; memories are objects stored in that space; and retrieving a memory is akin to searching for and finding an object in a physical space (Roediger, 1980). To learn something new, according to this view, the challenge lies in getting knowledge "in" one's mental space. Getting it back "out" when needed is important, too, but learning is usually identified with the encoding of new knowledge in memory. Retrieval is assumed to be neutral for learning; retrieval is needed to assess what a person has learned, but retrieval processes themselves are not thought to produce learning.

Recent advances in the science of learning and memory have challenged common assumptions about how learning happens. Specifically, recent work has shown that retrieval is critical for robust, durable, long-term learning. Every time a memory is retrieved, that memory becomes more accessible in the future. Retrieval also helps people create coherent and integrated mental representations of complex concepts, the kind of deep learning necessary to solve new problems and draw new inferences. Perhaps most surprisingly, practicing retrieval has been shown to produce more learning than engaging in other effective encoding techniques (Karpicke & Blunt, 2011). This approach, which recognizes the central role of retrieval processes in learning and aims to develop new learning strategies based on retrieval practice, is referred to as retrieval-based learning.

Retrieval Creates Learning

Research dating back a century has shown that retrieval contributes to learning (for a historical review, see Roediger & Karpicke, 2006a), but the past decade has seen a renewed, intense focus on exploring the benefits of retrieval for learning. This recent research has established that repeated retrieval enhances learning with a wide range of materials, in a variety of settings and contexts, and with learners ranging from preschool ages into later adulthood (Balota, Duchek, Sergent-Marshall & Roediger, 2006; Fritz, Morris, Nolan & Singleton, 2007).

A word-learning experiment illustrates some key points about retrieval-based learning. In the experiment (Karpicke & Bauernschmidt, 2011), students learned a list of foreign language words (e.g., Swahili vocabulary words like "mashua - boat") across cycles of study and recall trials. In study trials, the students saw a vocabulary word and its translation on the computer screen, and in recall trials, they saw a vocabulary word and had to recall and type its translation. The students studied a list of vocabulary words, then attempted to retrieve the whole list, studied it again, retrieved it again, and so on across alternating study and retrieval practice blocks.

There were several different conditions in the experiment. In one condition, students simply studied the words once, without trying to recall them at all. In a second condition, students continued studying and recalling the words until they had recalled all of them once. After a word was successfully retrieved once, it was "dropped" from further practice - the students did not see it again in the learning session.

Other conditions in the experiment examined the effects of repeated retrieval practice. Once a word was recalled, the computer program required the students to practice retrieving the items three more times. One repeated retrieval condition had the three recall trials happen immediately, three times in a row. This condition, referred to as massed retrieval practice, is akin to repeating a new piece of information over and over in your head right after you experience it. Finally, in the last condition highlighted here, the students also practiced retrieving the words three times, but the repeated retrievals were spaced throughout the learning session. For instance, once a student correctly recalled the translation for mashua, the program moved on to other vocabulary words, but prompts to practice retrieval of the translation for mashua would pop up later on in the program. In this way, the retrieval opportunities were spaced throughout the learning session.

The key question in this research was, how well would students remember the vocabulary word translations in the long term? Figure 1 shows the proportion of translations that students remembered one week after the initial learning session. Merely studying the words once without ever recalling them produced extremely poor performance (average recall was 1 percent, barely visible on the figure). Practicing until each translation was recalled once was much better. But what about the effects of repeated retrieval practice? Massed retrieval - repeating the translations three times immediately - produced no additional gain in learning. Repeated retrieval enhanced learning only when the repetitions were spaced, and indeed, the effects of repeated spaced retrieval were very large. In a single experiment, simple changes that incorporated spaced retrieval practice took performance from nearly total forgetting to extremely good retention (about 80 percent correct) one week after an initial learning experience (see also Karpicke & Roediger, 2008; Pyc & Rawson, 2010).

Figure 1. Data from Karpicke & Bauernschmidt (2011).

Retrieval Practice is Underappreciated as a Learning Strategy

If retrieval practice is such a potent learning strategy, one would hope that many learners would practice retrieval to learn many different things in many situations. However, as noted earlier, retrieval is not typically considered an important part of the learning process, and unfortunately, many learners do not practice retrieval as often or as effectively as they could.

An emphasis on getting knowledge in memory shows up on surveys of students' learning strategies. In one survey (Karpicke, Butler & Roediger, 2009), college students were asked to list the strategies they use while studying and to rank-order the strategies. The results, shown in Figure 2, indicate that students' most frequent study strategy, by far, is repetitive reading of notes or textbooks. Active retrieval practice lagged far behind repetitive reading and other strategies (for a review of several learning strategies, see Dunlosky, Rawson, Marsh, Nathan & Willingham, 2013). A wealth of research has shown that passive repetitive reading produces little or no benefit for learning (Callender & McDaniel, 2009). Yet not only was repetitive reading the most frequently listed strategy, it was also the strategy most often listed as students' number one choice, by a large margin.

Why don't learners use repeated retrieval practice more frequently? Many students view retrieval as a "knowledge check"; they test themselves to see if they know something, rather than out of the belief that practicing retrieval itself will help them learn. This means that many students will use a "one-and-done" strategy: If they can recall something once, they believe they have learned it, so they remove it from further practice. Many students study this way when they regulate their own learning (Karpicke, 2009), even though their long-term learning will not benefit from repeated retrieval practice. Instead, a one-and-done strategy will produce long-term performance similar to the recall-once condition in Figure 1. There is some evidence that instructing learners about the benefits of retrieval leads students to report using retrieval practice more frequently when they study on their own (Einstein, Mullet & Harrison, 2012), but the best ways to influence students to practice retrieval remain to be discovered.

Practicing Retrieval Promotes Meaningful Learning

Perhaps another reason retrieval practice is not used more widely is because repeated retrieval may seem like "rote learning." Rote learning - simple memorization based on repetition - is short-lived, poorly organized and does not support the ability to transfer knowledge, make inferences or solve new problems. The outcome of rote learning is obviously not what students and educators aim for. Meaningful learning is essentially the opposite of rote learning: It is long-lasting and durable, coherent and well organized, and supports transfer, inferencing and problem solving. In fact, the past decade of research on retrieval-based learning has firmly established that retrieval practice promotes meaningful learning.

Retrieval-based learning may be a more effective means of achieving meaningful learning than other popular active learning strategies. In one example of this (Karpicke & Blunt, 2011), students studied educational texts about science topics using one of two strategies. In a retrieval practice condition, students read a text, then set it aside and spent time recalling and writing down as much as they could remember from it (Roediger & Karpicke, 2006b). They then reread the text and recalled it a second time. In a second condition, students created concept maps while they read the texts. Concept maps are node-and-link diagrams that require learners to think about the relational and organizational structure of materials (Novak, 2013). The students spent the same amount of time studying in the two conditions; the difference was whether they created concept maps or practiced actively retrieving while learning.

Figure 3 shows the results of two different final assessments given one week after the learning session. On one assessment, students answered two types of short-answer questions aimed at measuring meaningful learning: verbatim questions, which assessed concepts stated directly in the texts, and inference questions, which required students to make new connections across concepts. On another assessment, the final assessment involved creating a concept map, because concept mapping is often used as an assessment of the coherence and integration of students' knowledge. On the final verbatim and inference questions and on the final concept map assessment, practicing retrieval during learning produced the best performance, even better than studying the material by making concept maps.

Several additional studies have established that retrieval practice promotes meaningful learning. Retrieval practice enhances the learning of educationally relevant materials, including educational texts, multimedia presentations, material explained in classroom lectures and a variety of other complex concepts (Jensen, McDaniel, Woodard & Kummer, 2014; Johnson & Mayer, 2009; Larsen, Butler, Lawson & Roediger, 2013; Lyle & Crawford, 2011; Roediger, Agarwal, McDaniel & McDermott, 2011). Retrieval practice also supports students in making inferences, solving new problems and transferring knowledge (Butler, 2010; Chan, 2009; Hinze & Wiley, 2011; McDaniel, Howard & Einstein, 2009; Smith & Karpicke, 2014). Retrieval-based learning is an effective method for improving meaningful learning.

Creating Retrieval-based Learning Activities

Perhaps the best aspect of retrieval-based learning is that it is free. Although there are sophisticated tools that can be used to implement retrieval practice, like classroom clicker systems (Roediger et al., 2011) and other computer-based learning systems (Grimaldi & Karpicke, 2014; Lindsey, Shroyer, Pashler, & Mozer, 2014), retrieval practice does not require special equipment or technology. The essence of retrieval-based learning is taking material you are trying to learn, setting it aside, and spending time actively retrieving the information.

Existing educational activities can be converted into retrieval-based learning activities. For instance, answering questions and taking quizzes are effective ways to practice retrieval. In some circumstances, students might answer questions on quizzes or practice worksheets by looking up answers in their notes or books, rather than by attempting to retrieve the answers. One study directly compared this type of open-book questioning to closed-book conditions in which students were required to retrieve the answers to questions rather than looking them up (Agarwal, Karpicke, Kang, Roediger & McDermott, 2008). Answering questions in open-book conditions led to more forgetting over one week than did attempting to retrieve the answers, closed-book and then studying the answers. In other words, closed-book quizzes, which required retrieval practice, were more effective than open-book quizzes, which did not require learners to engage in retrieval.

Another study (Blunt & Karpicke, 2014) examined the effectiveness of using concept mapping as a retrieval practice activity. In the experiment, students read texts about science topics and then created concept maps either with or without viewing the texts. In other words, some students created maps while studying the texts whereas other students had to engage in retrieval to create their maps. On a short-answer assessment one week after the learning session, students did better when they had learned by creating concept maps without viewing the texts, as a retrieval practice activity, than by creating maps while studying the texts. Thus, educational activities can be enhanced when they involve retrieval-based learning.

Take Home Points About Retrieval-based Learning

This article has made the case for four take-home points about retrieval-based learning:

Retrieval is a learning event. Practicing retrieval is a simple and effective way to enhance long-term, meaningful learning.

Some effective learning strategies, like retrieval practice, are underutilized. Conversely, the most popular learning strategy among college students - repetitive reading - leads to very limited levels of learning.

When practicing retrieval, retrieve more than once and space your retrievals, rather than massing them all together. Self-testing as a knowledge check is a good idea, but don't stop at just one successful retrieval (one-and-done). Two or three additional spaced retrievals will bolster long-term learning.

Retrieval can happen in a variety of ways, and many existing activities may be converted into retrieval-based learning activities. The key ingredient is to spend time actively retrieving when trying to learn something new.

References

Agarwal, P.K., Karpicke, J. D., Kang, S.H.K., Roediger, H.L., & McDermott, K.B. (2008). Examining the testing effect with open- and closed-book tests. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 22(7), 861-876. doi:10.1002/acp.1391.

Balota, D.A., Duchek, J.M., Sergent-Marshall, S.D., & Roediger, H.L. (2006). Does expanded retrieval produce benefits over equal-interval spacing? Explorations of spacing effects in healthy aging and early stage Alzheimer's disease. Psychology and Aging, 21(1), 19-31. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.21.1.19.

Blunt, J.R., & Karpicke, J.D. (2014). Learning with retrieval-based concept mapping. Journal of Educational Psychology, 106(3), 849-858. doi:10.1037/a0035934.

Butler, A.C. (2010). Repeated testing produces superior transfer of learning relative to repeated studying. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 36(5), 1118-1133. doi:10.1037/a0019902, 10.1037/a0019902.supp.

Callender, A.A., & McDaniel, M.A. (2009). The limited benefits of rereading educational texts. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 34(1), 30-41. doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2008.07.001.

Chan, J.C.K. (2009). When does retrieval induce forgetting and when does it induce facilitation? Implications for retrieval inhibition, testing effect, and text processing. Journal of Memory and Language, 61(2), 153-170. doi:10.1016/j.jml.2009.04.004.

Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K.A., Marsh, E.J., Nathan, M.J., & Willingham, D.T. (2013). Improving students' learning with effective learning techniques: Promising directions from cognitive and educational psychology. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 14(1), 4-58. doi:10.1177/1529100612453266.

Einstein, G.O., Mullet, H.G., & Harrison, T.L. (2012). The testing effect: Illustrating a fundamental concept and changing study strategies. Teaching of Psychology, 39(3), 190-193. doi:10.1177/0098628312450432.

Fritz, C.O., Morris, P.E., Nolan, D., & Singleton, J. (2007). Expanding retrieval practice: An effective aid to preschool children's learning. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 60(7), 991-1004. doi:10.1080/17470210600823595

Grimaldi, P.J., & Karpicke, J.D. (2014). Guided retrieval practice of educational materials using automated scoring. Journal of Educational Psychology, 106(1), 58-68. doi:10.1037/a0033208.

Hinze, S.R., & Wiley, J. (2011). Testing the limits of testing effects using completion tests. Memory, 19(3), 290-304. doi:10.1080/09658211.2011.560121.

Jensen, J. L., McDaniel, M.A., Woodard, S.M., & Kummer, T.A. (2014). Teaching to the test ... or testing to teach: Exams requiring higher order thinking skills encourage greater conceptual understanding. Educational Psychology Review, 26(2), 307-329. doi:10.1007/s10648-013-9248-9.

Johnson, C.I., & Mayer, R.E. (2009). A testing effect with multimedia learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101(3), 621-629. doi:10.1037/a0015183.

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Karpicke, J.D., & Bauernschmidt, A. (2011). Spaced retrieval: Absolute spacing enhances learning regardless of relative spacing. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 37(5), 1250-1257. doi:10.1037/a0023436.

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Karpicke, J.D., & Roediger, H.L. (2008). The critical importance of retrieval for learning. Science, 319(5865), 966-968. doi:10.1126/science.1152408.

Larsen, D.P., Butler, A.C., Lawson, A.L., & Roediger, H.L., III. (2013). The importance of seeing the patient: Test-enhanced learning with standardized patients and written tests improves clinical application of knowledge. Advances in Health Sciences Education, 18(3), 409-425. doi:10.1007/s10459-012-9379-7.

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Lyle, K.B., & Crawford, N.A. (2011). Retrieving essential material at the end of lectures improves performance on statistics exams. Teaching of Psychology, 38(2), 94-97. doi:10.1177/0098628311401587.

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Smith, M.A., & Karpicke, J.D. (2014). Retrieval practice with short-answer, multiple-choice, and hybrid tests. Memory, 22(7), 784-802. doi:10.1080/09658211.2013.831454.

The views expressed in this article are those of the author and do not reflect the opinions or policies of APA.

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A powerful way to improve learning and memory

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Jeffrey Karpicke, PhD, is the James V. Bradley associate professor of psychological sciences at Purdue University. He received a BA in psychology from Indiana University and a PhD in psychology from Washington University in St. Louis. Karpicke's research sits at the interface between cognitive science and education, with the goal of identifying effective strategies that promote long-term learning and comprehension.

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#Emotions #Culture #HowLearningOccurs

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Ed-Talk: Learning with an Emotional Brain - Mary Helen Immordino-Yang

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MOOC EDSCI1x, Student Learning Strategies. 

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#HowLearningOccurs #Memory #Theory

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MOOC EDSCI1x | Video 1: Cognitive Load | Student Learning Strategies

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#UDL #Assessment #Design

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#CulturallyResponsiveTeaching #UDL #Equity

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At a glance

Culturally responsive teaching is a rich, intentional approach woven into every aspect of student learning.

It focuses on the assets students bring to the classroom rather than what students can't do.

It raises expectations and makes learning relevant for all students.

Culturally responsive teaching is a research-based approach to teaching. It connects students' cultures, languages, and life experiences with what they learn in school. These connections help students access rigorous curriculum and develop higher-level academic skills.

Our brains are wired to make connections. It's easier for our brains to learn and store information when we have a hook to hang it on. That hook is background knowledge. Students bring this knowledge to the classroom every day.

But for students of color, English language learners (ELLs), and other underserved student populations, those assets are often overlooked. When that happens, educators miss the chance to use them to support learning. (See recent work by Zaretta Hammond for the neuroscience behind this.)

Culturally responsive teaching values and reflects the assets of all students. By doing that, it raises academic expectations for all learners. It also sends the message that multiculturalism is an asset.

Dive deeper

The benefits of culturally responsive teaching

How culturally responsive teaching, UDL, and SEL work together

For educators: Culturally responsive teaching in the classroom

For educators: How to partner with families

Lydia Breiseth (director of Colorín Colorado), Shivohn García, PhD (senior director of the Impact team at Understood), and Shaquala Butler (Understood Teacher Fellow) contributed to this article.

About the author

About the author

Educators Team at Understood is made up of passionate writers, editors, educators, and subject matter experts who have worked in classrooms and with students who learn and think differently.

Reviewed by

Reviewed by

Karla Vigil, MAT is the chief executive officer and co-founder of the Equity Institute.

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Culturally responsive teaching helps create learning environments that validate and reflect the diversity, identities, and experiences of all students. Learn more.

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Creating a Culturally Responsive Classroom

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Creating a Culturally Responsive Classroom

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Zaretta Hammond. PBL World 2020 Keynote.

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Sharpening the Equity Lens in Project Based Learning

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Zaretta Hammond | PBL World 2020 Keynote (Day 2)

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With great teaching, students succeed. Decades of scholarship have identified practices that help students engage, persist in their studies, and learn more. ACUE's Effective Practice Framework is a leading statement of the instructional skills that every college educator should possess. It was independently validated and is endorsed by the American Council on Education.

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The Six Principles That Move Mind, Brain, Education, MBE - Patricia Furstenberg, Writer of Historical Fiction, Children’s Books

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The Six Principles That Move Mind, Brain, Education, MBE, ITSI SA. Education, the limits of the human brain. What are the limits of the human brain? How do we learn best? How can we aid and support our children in reaching their full potential as students? Throughout the centuries, great teachers have been guided by

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A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing- A Revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives

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Medha Tare, Sarah Cacicio, & Alison R. Shell.

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The Science of Adult Learning: Understanding the Whole Learner

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#AdultLearning #Theory

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The science of adult learning. Understanding the whole learner

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#AdultLearning #Theory

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Knowles' theory of andragogy is an attempt to develop a theory specifically for adult learning. Knowles emphasizes that adults are self-directed and expect to take responsibility for decisions. Adult learning programs must accommodate this fundamental aspect.

Andragogy makes the following assumptions about the design of learning: (1) Adults need to know why they need to learn something (2) Adults need to learn experientially, (3) Adults approach learning as problem-solving, and (4) Adults learn best when the topic is of immediate value.

In practical terms, andragogy means that instruction for adults needs to focus more on the process and less on the content being taught. Strategies such as case studies, role playing, simulations, and self-evaluation are most useful. Instructors adopt a role of facilitator or resource rather than lecturer or grader.

Application

Andragogy applies to any form of adult learning and has been used extensively in the design of organizational training programs (especially for "soft skill" domains such as management development).

Example

Knowles (1984, Appendix D) provides an example of applying andragogy principles to the design of personal computer training:

1. There is a need to explain why specific things are being taught (e.g., certain commands, functions, operations, etc.)

2. Instruction should be task-oriented instead of memorization - learning activities should be in the context of common tasks to be performed.

3. Instruction should take into account the wide range of different backgrounds of learners; learning materials and activities should allow for different levels/types of previous experience with computers.

4. Since adults are self-directed, instruction should allow learners to discover things for themselves, providing guidance and help when mistakes are made.

(See computers for further discussion of this topic).

Principles

1. Adults need to be involved in the planning and evaluation of their instruction.

2. Experience (including mistakes) provides the basis for learning activities.

3. Adults are most interested in learning subjects that have immediate relevance to their job or personal life.

4. Adult learning is problem-centered rather than content-oriented.

References

Knowles, M. (1975). Self-Directed Learning. Chicago: Follet.

Knowles, M. (1984). The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species (3rd Ed.). Houston: Gulf Publishing.

Knowles, M. (1984). Andragogy in Action. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Related Website

For more about Knowles and his work, see:
http://www.infed.org/thinkers/et-knowl.htm

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Knowles' theory of andragogy is an attempt to develop a theory specifically for adult learning. Knowles emphasizes that adults are self-directed and expect to take responsibility for decisions. Adult learning programs must accommodate this fundamental aspect. Andragogy makes the following assumptions about the design of learning: (1) Adults need to know why they need to ...

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#AdultLearning #Theory

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The Transformational Learning Theory originally developed by Jack Mezirow is described as being “constructivist, an orientation which holds that the way learners interpret and reinterpret their sense experience is, central to making meaning and hence learning” (Mezirow, 1991). The theory has two bas…

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#CriticalPedagogy #Inclusivity

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Transformational educator, pedagogical thinker and radical practitioner

Who was Paulo Freire?

Paulo Freire's work has influenced people working in education, community development, community health and many other fields. Freire developed an approach to education that links the identification of issues to positive action for change and development. While Freire's original work was in adult literacy, his approach leads us to think about how we can 'read' the society around us.

For Freire, the educational process is never neutral. People can be passive recipients of knowledge - whatever the content - or they can engage in a 'problem-posing' approach in which they become active participants. As part of this approach, it is essential that people link knowledge to action so that they actively work to change their societies at a local level and beyond.

In the video above, Freire talks about the importance of curiosity, of critical thinking and ultimately of hope. It is a profound reflection on learning.

Many of Freire's writings are available in English. The most well known of these, Pedagogy of the Oppressed (1972) has been very influential but new readers of Freire may find The Politics of Education (1985) a more accessible text. Key concepts associated with Freire include the contrast between "banking" education (in which facts are deposited into the minds of passive students) and problem-posing education; the notion of conscientization (which is much more than simply awareness-raising); and the idea of the "culture of silence", in which people are unable to reflect critically upon their world - they become fatalistic and dominated.

A typical feature of Freire-type education is that people bring their own knowledge and experience into the process. Training is typically undertaken in small groups with lively interaction and can embrace not only the written word but art, music and other forms of expression.

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Transformational educator, pedagogical thinker and radical practitioner Paulo Freire's work has influenced people working in education, community development, community health and many other fields. Freire developed an approach to education that links the identification of issues to positive action for change and development.

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#Assessment #Design

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"The brain processes visuals 60,000 times faster than it processes text."

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#ConceptMaps #MindMaps

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15 minute read

A concept map is a diagram or graphical tool that visually represents relationships between concepts and ideas. Most concept maps depict ideas as boxes or circles (also called nodes), which are structured hierarchically and connected with lines or arrows (also called arcs). These lines are labeled with linking words and phrases to help explain the connections between concepts.

Concept maps are also referred to as conceptual diagrams. While other types of diagrams may look similar, concept maps have specific characteristics differentiating them from other visual tools.

Concepts

Concepts are defined as "perceived regularities or patterns in events or objects, or records of events or objects, designated by a label" and are depicted as shapes in the diagram.

Linking words/phrases

Linking words or phrases are located on the lines connecting objects in a concept map, and these words describe the relationship between two concepts. They are as concise as possible and typically contain a verb. Examples include "causes," "includes" and "requires."

Propositional structure

Propositions are meaningful statements made up of two or more concepts connected with linking words. These statements are also known as semantic units or units of meaning. Concepts and propositions are the foundation for the creation of new knowledge in a domain. Essentially, a concept map visually conveys a set of propositions about a certain topic.

Hierarchical structure

A key element of the concept map is its hierarchical structure. The most general and inclusive concepts are positioned at the top of a concept map with the more specific and exclusive concepts arranged hierarchically below. As such, a concept map is designed to read from top to bottom.

Focus question

A focus question defines the issue or problem the concept map needs to solve. Developing a focus question allows you to design with a context in mind and thus helps guide and maintain the direction of your concept map. Within the hierarchical structure, the focus question should be at the very top of the concept map and serve as a reference point.

Parking lot

Before beginning your concept map, it can be helpful to come up with a list identifying the key concepts that need to be included. Establish a rank ordered list from the most general concept to the most specific. This list is referred to as a parking lot, as you will move the items into the map as you figure out where they fit in.

Cross-links

Cross-links are relationships between concepts in different domains of the concept map, allowing you to visualize how ideas within these different domains are connected. Both the cross-links and the hierarchical structure facilitate creative thinking, and these cross-links often indicate moments of creativity.

The brain processes visuals 60,000 times faster than it processes text. Designed as a tool to organize and represent knowledge, concept mapping can help you visualize relationships between various concepts and test your understanding of complex subjects. Thinking through and visually representing relationships between ideas forms mental connections that allow for better retention of knowledge. This diagram is a popular way to capture understanding of a topic for work, school, or personal study. It's used most frequently in academia, but the process can be easily applied to other fields.

Concept mapping offers benefits for any learning process:

Facilitates comprehension with its visual format

Synthesizes information by integrating new and old concepts to better grasp the big picture

Encourages brainstorming and high-level thinking

Fosters discovery of new concepts and their connections

Provides clear communication of complex ideas

Promotes collaborative learning

Sparks creativity

Snapshots your current knowledge to assess understanding

Identifies areas that need further knowledge or review

Concept maps are an optimal learning tool for students and educators, whether the contributors are enrolled in school, teaching or tutoring a subject, or developing new skills on their own. The process of connecting ideas in a tangible space can solidify your topical knowledge, as well as clarify which areas need a little work.

Making a concept map can be helpful when:

Presenting concise overviews of a field

Absorbing information while studying for an exam

Assessing a student's grasp of a particular topic

Consolidating knowledge during the learning process

Demonstrating an acceptable level of understanding on a subject

Defining knowledge that exists in your head but hasn't been formally documented

Concept maps are similar to other node-linking mapping methods such as topic maps or UML diagrams. However, concept maps differ due to their philosophical basis, which holds that concepts and propositions are the foundation of new knowledge and meaning.

Keep in mind that concept maps are not the same as mind maps, though they're frequently confused (see below for more details). Concept maps aren't the best tool for visualizing new ideas, organizing meetings, or managing tasks and projects. You may want to try mind maps or another type of diagram in these scenarios.

Many people have trouble telling concept maps and mind maps apart. Here's how to determine if you're dealing with a concept map or a mind map:

Concept maps

Are used to represent tacit knowledge, like an existing theory or concept. The ideas are usually generated externally.

Tend to represent academic knowledge, so their application is more formal.

Contain general knowledge near the top of the map, with related concepts arranged hierarchically below.

Show topics with cross-linking and multiple relationships.

Mind maps

Are used to flesh out a set of ideas, which are often generated internally.

Tend to represent a greater variety of tasks and concepts, so their application is more flexible.

Contain a single word, phrase, or image in the center of the map, with related ideas radiating outward in all directions.

Show topics with a single parent and several children.

Create a Concept Map

Concept mapping can be a powerful tool in the world of education, helping students to perform at higher cognitive levels and helping teachers to explain complicated subjects and assess student understanding.

Students can use concept mapping to:

Organize and structure new material

Increase learning by relating new and old knowledge

Map out relationships between things such as vocab words, characters in a story, events in history, etc.

Plan/outline writing projects

Design their own representations of knowledge

Brainstorm new ideas

Take notes

Create study guides

Design complex structures

Teachers can use concept mapping to:

Plan curriculum

Assess understanding or diagnose misunderstanding of students

Explain complex ideas

Assist struggling readers

As educators incorporate concept maps into their teaching methodology, they can provide aids to help facilitate the process for students:

Give a focus question to get the wheels turning.

Create a parking lot (list of key concepts) to help students determine what to include in their map.

Provide expert skeleton maps so students have a structure to follow. These are small concept maps started by an expert on the topic which students can then expand upon.

Concept maps are especially useful as evaluation tools. For example, instructors can have students create a concept map at the beginning of the semester to assess existing knowledge. Students can then repeat this activity throughout the semester so both students and teachers can evaluate what is being learned. It helps to assess cognitive ability, as deciding what cross-links are most important to include requires high cognitive performance. This activity can also be used to identify and remedy misconceptions students might have.

Research indicates that students working in small groups and cooperating while learning results in positive cognitive and affective outcomes. Concept mapping allows for this productive small group work among students and teachers in any subject matter.

While widely used in education, concept maps have expanded to the business world as well. Concept maps communicate ideas well and prompt intuitive visual thinking that aid business analysis. Concept mapping is a group process, making it an ideal activity for teams or groups of stakeholders, and it is especially when solving problems, whether they be in marketing, new product design or administration. They allow all organization members to evaluate where they are currently and where they would like to go, and they can be easily made and maintained by anyone, even the non-technical users.

Concept maps bring a creative and results-oriented approach known as design thinking to business. Within this approach, concept maps can be used for inspiration, ideation and implementation. These diagrams are excellent storytellers, helping in the ideation and inspiration phases. When it comes time for implementation, concept maps help with instruction, documentation and communication.

Experts within a company have a wealth of knowledge that has been compiled over the years, some of which they might not be able to communicate well to others. Nonaka and Takeuchi highlight the importance of documenting a corporate expert's knowledge in order to become "the knowledge creating company". The use of concept maps to record this valuable information is increasing in practice.

Concept mapping can serve a variety of purposes in a business organization:

Promoting company-wide understanding of business requirements

Spotting gaps and contradictions

Identifying complex relationships among ideas

Learning the "language" of a client

Establishing a consistent language for a project

Identifying potential requirements dependencies

Modeling inventory flows, cash flows, relationship flows, etc

Product development

Market analysis

Decision-making

Formulating research projects

Mapping team knowledge

Archiving expert knowledge

Creating a shared vision within a team or organization

Generating advance organizers

Training new employees

Software design

Ontology-building

Within the healthcare industry, concept mapping allows for prioritizing ideas, evaluating consensus, identifying gaps and creating improved action plans. It allows the various stakeholders of an organization to come together and formulate effective plans, as faculty are able to create a shared representation of the patient's condition and situation and determine the proper next steps.

Applications of concept mapping within healthcare include:

Organizing workloads

Prioritizing patient assignments

Critically thinking through abnormal assessments

Mapping out plans of care

Identifying relationships between symptoms

Revealing diagnosis

Training medical staff

Concept mapping as a method was developed by Joseph Novak and a team of researchers at Cornell University in the 1970's. Dr. Novak was searching for a new tool to describe explicit changes in children's conceptual understanding.

Both he and his colleagues at Cornell had studied psychologist Jean Piaget's theories on cognitive operational stages. Piaget and other experts assumed that children weren't capable of comprehending abstract concepts, like the nature of matter, before the age of 11. Dr. Novak decided to launch a research project that would observe minute changes in the way children learned new ideas. He was inspired by a theory from David Ausubel, a proponent of Piaget's theories. Ausubel wrote,

"If I had to reduce all of educational psychology to just one principle, I would say this: the most important single factor influencing learning is what the learner already knows. Ascertain this and teach him accordingly" (Ausubel, 1968, p. vi)

With this idea as their guiding light, the Cornell team developed a new tool during their longitudinal study: the concept map. These maps were simple-just one or two words to represent the main idea, and lines showing linking words that created a meaningful statement. The most general concepts were grouped at the top of the map and the most specific ones at the bottom. Novak taught students to build concept maps to demonstrate their knowledge on focus questions such as "What is water".

The research team explained,

"We found that a 15- or 20-page interview transcript could be converted into a one-page concept map without losing essential concept and propositional meanings expressed by the interviewee. We soon realized this was a very powerful and concise knowledge representation tool, a tool that changed our research program from this point on."

Since 1972, concept mapping has become extremely popular, as specialists in fields from education to healthcare realize the unique benefits of this type of diagram.

Concept maps are based on Ausubel's Assimilation Theory and Novak's Theory of Learning, which discuss how people learn new information by incorporating new knowledge with knowledge they already posses. Novak stated,

"Meaningful learning involves the assimilation of new concepts and propositions into existing cognitive structures."

Through meaningful learning, discussed more below, the integration of new concepts into our cognitive knowledge structure occurs through linking the new knowledge to concepts already understood. A concept map provides a visual demonstration of these relationships between concepts in our cognitive structure. The origin of concept maps stems is based in constructivism, which discusses how learners actively construct knowledge.

Physiological foundation

Children acquire concepts during the age of birth to three years as they start identifying labels or symbols for regularities they observe in the world around them. This early and autonomous learning is known as the discovery learning process. After age three, the reception learning process begins, where new meanings are formed by asking questions and understanding the relationships between old and new concepts-concepts are no longer defined by the learner but described by others and transferred to the learner.

In addition to exploring these two learning processes, Ausubel also differentiates between rote and meaningful learning. Rote learning occurs when there is little or no relevant knowledge to the new information being presented and no internal commitment to incorporate new and existing knowledge. As a result, information is easily forgotten. The cognitive structure is not enhanced to clear up faulty ideas.

Meaningful learning can only occur under the following three circumstances:

1. The new material being presented must be clear and relatable to the learner's prior knowledge. Concept maps are helpful here, as they identify general concepts held by the learner which can then be built upon.

2. The learner needs to possess relevant prior knowledge, especially when trying to comprehend detailed and specific knowledge in an area.

3. The first two conditions can be controlled directly by the instructor. However, the third cannot, as it requires that the learner choose to learn meaningfully. In other words, they make an effort to assimilate new and old information rather than just memorizing.

The distinction between rote and meaningful learning is a continuum, as individuals possess different amounts of relevant knowledge and different motivation levels for knowledge assimilation. Creativity is a a very high level of meaningful learning on this continuum.

Working and short-term memory are the most important for getting knowledge into long-term memory. Information is processed in the working memory through interaction with knowledge in long-term memory; however, the working memory can only process a small number of units at a time. However, if these units can be grouped together, it is much easily recalled. Organizing large amounts of information requires repetition between working memory and long-term memory. Concept mapping is powerful for meaningful learning because it acts as a template to help organize and structure knowledge, even though the structure must be built piece by piece with small units of interacting concepts and propositions. This process allows for the use of knowledge in new contexts and for increased retention. In addition, research shows that our brain prefers to organize information in the hierarchical structure characteristic of concept mapping.

Epistemological foundation

Epistemology is the branch of philosophy dealing with knowledge and new knowledge creation. There exists a growing consensus that new knowledge creation is a constructive process that involves our knowledge and our emotions. Novak believes that new knowledge creation is high meaningful learning by those with an organized knowledge structure on a certain topic and a strong motivation to find new meaning.

Concept maps are associated with constructivist theories of learning in which learners are active participants rather than passive recipients of knowledge. Learners must make an effort to bring new meaning to information they already know. Building concept maps is a creative process, as concepts and propositions are the foundation for knowledge in any domain.

Here are the basic steps in constructing a concept map. We have a much more detailed article with instructions on how to make a concept map step by step, if you're ready to learn more.

1. Identify the focus question or main topic-think about the problem or issue you want the concept map to resolve. This idea should connect to all others on your map and will guide the hierarchical structure.

2. Identify all the key concepts that relate to the main idea you identified. Order them with the most general concepts first and the more specific concepts last. This list is referred to as the parking lot.

3. Create a preliminary concept map linking the concepts together. Remember to add linking words or phrases on the lines to demonstrate how the concepts are related.

4. Add cross-links to connect concepts in different domains.

5. Continually revise your concept map as needed.

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Our concept mapping tutorial covers everything you need to know from definitions and key features to use cases and history. Learn about concept maps here.

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#Feedback

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UQx Deep Learning through Transformative Pedagogy

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#Feedback

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Abstract

Abstract: Feedback to students is most effective when it is timely, relevant and meaningful. English teachers spend many hours providing feedback on student writing and are disheartened as students disregard it. An English teacher and a technology specialist, while using available technology, set out to find a way to make the feedback process more streamlined, efficient, and something students would actually employ in the writing process. We discovered that utilizing technology tools available to provide on demand and archivable audio and visual feedback transforms the writing process and student responses are favorable.

Recommended Citation

Campbell, Breanne S. and Feldmann, Ann (2017) "The Power of Multimodal Feedback," Journal of Curriculum, Teaching, Learning and Leadership in Education: Vol. 2 : Iss. 2 , Article 1.
Available at: https://digitalcommons.unomaha.edu/ctlle/vol2/iss2/1

DOWNLOADS

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Abstract: Feedback to students is most effective when it is timely, relevant and meaningful. English teachers spend many hours providing feedback on student writing and are disheartened as students disregard it. An English teacher and a technology specialist, while using available technology, set out to find a way to make the feedback process more streamlined, efficient, and something students would actually employ in the writing process.