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- economic growth and political conservatism
- businessmen are kings; Titans of wall street
-speculation (buying on margin) and extension of creditl where people were buying stocks and bonds for quick profit, but they only payed for a small percentage of stock prices as a down payment and borrowed
-Federal reserve didn't interfere (jobs were to regulate commercial banks)
- if bank made bad investments, then life savings and money was gone
- car sales, steel production, and construction declined
- decline in European exports because they depended on loans to receive help from US after WWII

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-income disparity
-construction declined by 20%
-market for US products in Europe declined
-unstable underlying economic foundation
-president hoover believed in minimum government involvement in business
-federal reserve monetary policy decreased money supply; mistaking deflation for inflation
-Fiscal policy protectionist (Hawley-Smoot tariff act of 1930)
-reconstruction finance corporation allowed questionable loans

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-public persona was as important as his programs; fireside chats
-new coalition lasted until 1960's
-WWII pulled US out of Great Depression
-court didnt rule in his favor, so court packing scheme created; named 6 new judges
-court favored federal involvement in the economy

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-emergency banking act (FED additional powers; off the gold standard)
-economy act (balancing act)
-agricultural adjustment agency (raise farm prices; subsidies)
-glass-steagall banking act (prevents banks from underwriting securities and established the FDIC)
-national recovery act of 1933 (established minimum wage, wage hours, prevented child labor; industrial production rose 22%)
-federal emergency relief agency (loans to states for jobs; est. Civil Works Administration; declared unconstitutional by SCOTUS in 1935)
-other agencies created: Tennessee valley authority; SEC; public works administration; civilian conservation corps; FCC; civil aeronautics authority; federal housing authority (success of agencies debated; waste and fraud; expansion of federal government)

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-conservatives opposed new deal initiatives
-townsend, coughlin, and long led the political animosity

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-conscription issue of 1917 fragmented Canada (english vs. french speaking)
-William Lyon Mackenzie King leads
-remarkable surge in non-traditional parties (national progressive party; Manitoba and prairie independence; united farmers of Ontario)
-split between moderate and radical progressives
-innovative party Cooperative commonwealth federation sought reform, not revolution
-social credit increased consumer spending by issuing credits $25/mo to citizens
-union nationale was french conservative party that aimed at any entity promoting communism
-communist party of Canada centralized control by Stalin in Comintern

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-economic growth in US dragged Canada out of powstar slump
-demand for Canada mining resources plus pulp and paper
-auto was stimulus to Canada economy
-imports fell by 25%; exports fell by 55%
-wheat prices decreased by 75%; unemployment 27%; 20% Canadians needed gov. relief
-exacerbated by misguided economic policies worldwide
-praire provinces hid due to ecological issues
-urban workers saw wages slashed and more unemployment
-Bennet increased tariffs 50% and allocated $20MM in relief projects (Canadian Wheat Board, Bank of Canada, Bennett's New Deal)

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-family farm suffered along with rest of economy
-long-term unemployment affected people's self-esteem
-call to moral rebirth
-gave life to Social Gospel Movement
-growing importance of radio and music
-Canadian approach to aesthetic representation- Group of Seven
-significant pieces of literature- W.O. Mitchell and Max Braithwaite
-hockey appreciated
-NHL dominant professional team

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-increased worldwide tariffs decreased trade
-supply of commodities worldwide exceeded demand
-over-dependence on staple goods
-over-dependence on US economy
-heavy debt burden by governments and individuals

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-Military took power in Argentina, Chile, Guatemala, Honduras, and Peru
-Argentina went from a democracy to a dictatorship
-UK dominated Argentina economy (beef exports)
-economy more diversified and domestic
-regimes and dictatorships directed and controlled economies
-traditional agricultural products continued to dominate economies
-new urban elite evolved from ISI
-political systems shifted to authoritarianism

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-slow on manufacturing and had to rely on imports
-cientificos (mexican economic liberals) promoted incentives for overseas investment (mining and railroads)
-supply of good were outstripping demand - leads to depression
-less inflow of capital
-protectionist measures by other countries made LA goods unaffordable
-government set prices and established production levels
-import substitution industrialization (promote home grown industries to replace imported goods)
-bilateral trade agreements with industrialized countries
-all countries increased production
-imports increased by 75%
-Brazilians began to invest in industries they previously imported
-steel, iron, aircraft, truck engine production
-transportation growth area (air ministry)
-ISI successful in Brazil
-economic growth not spread easily
-coffee was very much relied on
- imbalance of trade in Argentina
-Argentina recovered quickly when export industries were protected and ISI
-ISI dominant economic policy until '60s
-depression accelerated industry and decreased its independence on British markets

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-first to be laid off from their jobs
-suffered from unemployment rate 2-3 times that of whites
-they received substantially less aid than whites in public assistance programs
-St. Louis Urban League launched national “jobs for Negroes” movement; boycotted chain stored with black customers but white employees
-efforts to unify organizations and youth groups led to founding of National Negro Congress (1936) and Southern Negro Youth Congress (1937)
-ignored by the Republicans, black voters drifted to the Democratic
-low-cost public housing made available to black families
-National Youth Administration and civilian conservation corps enabled youths to continue education; works progress administration gave jobs; federal writers project supported work of black authors
-congress of industrial organization organized large numbers of black workers into labour unions
-secured more jobs at better wages in a greater range of occupations than before during war
-serious housing shortages and job competition led to increased tension between blacks and whites; race riots broke out
-proportion of black soldiers overseas were in service units
-combat troops remained segregated; in war army introduced integrated officer training
-during Korean war, blacks for first time fought with whites in fully integrated units

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The Great Depression of the 1930s worsened the already bleak economic situation of African Americans. They were the first to be laid off from their jobs, and they suffered from an unemployment rate two to three times that of whites. In early public assistance programs African Americans often received substantially less aid than whites, and some charitable organizations even excluded Blacks from their soup kitchens.

This intensified economic plight sparked major political developments among African Americans. Beginning in 1929, the St. Louis Urban League launched a national "jobs for Negroes" movement by boycotting chain stores that had mostly Black customers but hired only white employees. Efforts to unify African American organizations and youth groups later led to the founding of the National Negro Congress in 1936 and the Southern Negro Youth Congress in 1937.

Virtually ignored by the Republican administrations of the 1920s, Black voters drifted to the Democratic Party, especially in the Northern cities. In the presidential election of 1928 African Americans voted in large numbers for the Democrats for the first time. In 1930 Republican Pres. Herbert Hoover nominated John J. Parker, a man of pronounced anti-Black views, to the U.S. Supreme Court. The NAACP successfully opposed the nomination. In the 1932 presidential race African Americans overwhelmingly supported the successful Democratic candidate, Franklin D. Roosevelt.

The Roosevelt administration's accessibility to African American leaders and the New Deal reforms strengthened Black support for the Democratic Party. A number of African American leaders, members of a so-called "Black cabinet," were advisers to Roosevelt. Among them were the educator Mary McLeod Bethune, who served as the National Youth Administration's director of Negro affairs; William H. Hastie, who in 1937 became the first Black federal judge; Eugene K. Jones, executive secretary of the National Urban League; Robert Vann, editor of the Pittsburgh Courier; and the economist Robert C. Weaver.

African Americans benefited greatly from New Deal programs, though discrimination by local administrators was common. Low-cost public housing was made available to Black families. The National Youth Administration and the Civilian Conservation Corps enabled African American youths to continue their education. The Works Progress Administration gave jobs to many African Americans, and its Federal Writers Project supported the work of many Black authors, among them Zora Neale Hurston, Arna Bontemps, Waters Turpin, and Melvin B. Tolson.

The Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO), established in the mid-1930s, organized large numbers of Black workers into labour unions for the first time. By 1940 there were more than 200,000 African Americans in the CIO, many of them officers of union locals.

The industrial boom that began with the outbreak of World War II in Europe in 1939 ended the Depression. However, unemployed whites were generally the first to be given jobs. Discrimination against African Americans in hiring impelled A. Philip Randolph, head of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, to threaten a mass protest march on Washington. To forestall the march, scheduled for June 25, 1941, President Roosevelt issued Executive Order 8802 banning "discrimination in the employment of workers in defense industries or government" and establishing a Fair Employment Practices Committee (FEPC) to investigate violations. Although discrimination remained widespread, during the war African Americans secured more jobs at better wages in a greater range of occupations than ever before.

In World War II as in World War I, there was a mass migration of Blacks from the rural South; collectively, these population shifts were known as the Great Migration. Some 1.5 million African Americans left the South during the 1940s, mainly for the industrial cities of the North. Once again, serious housing shortages and job competition led to increased tension between Blacks and whites. Race riots broke out; the worst occurred in Detroit in June 1943.

During the war, which the United States had entered in December 1941, a large proportion of African American soldiers overseas were in service units, and combat troops remained segregated. In the course of the war, however, the army introduced integrated officer training, and Benjamin O. Davis, Sr., became its first African American brigadier general. In 1949, four years after the end of World War II, the armed services finally adopted a policy of full integration. During the Korean War of the early 1950s, Blacks for the first time fought side by side with whites in fully integrated units.

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African Americans - Great Depression, New Deal, Struggles

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African Americans - Great Depression, New Deal, Struggles: The Great Depression of the 1930s worsened the already bleak economic situation of African Americans. They were the first to be laid off from their jobs, and they suffered from an unemployment rate two to three times that of whites.

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-employers lowered pay scales for women workers
-approximately 10.5 million women worked outside home; 1940, approximately 13 million women worked for wages outside home
-laws made it illegal for more than one person per family to find employment within federal civil service
-Civilian Conservation Corps formal policy against hiring women
-Federal Emergency Relief Administration for young women taught household skills; work relief projects employed in producing such goods as canned foods, clothes, and mattresses for distribution to needy
-employed as housekeeping aides to families in need of household help
-agencies paid women much less than men or gave preferences to male job seekers
-employers preferred white men, and then white women, over black or Hispanic women
-most African-American women found themselves left out of new laws passed to ensure worker safety
-women in professional careers lost gains made in earlier, more stable periods
-fewer women found positions in business in the Great Depression than in the 1920s
-losing ground in traditional male sphere; men entered jobs heretofore relegated to women
-relations between husbands and wives strained bc of financial insecurity
-groups supported women's rights: radical National Women's Party, educational body, the League of Women Voters
-while men had unemployment, women maintained employment or took new paid labor to support their families

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The Great Depression affected women and men in quite different ways. The economy of the period relied heavily on so-called "sex-typed" work, or work that employers typically assigned to one sex or the other. And the work most directly associated with males, especially manufacturing in heavy industries like steel production, faced the deepest levels of lay-offs during the Great Depression. Women primarily worked in service industries, and these jobs tended to continue during the 1930s. Clerical workers, teachers, nurses, telephone operators, and domestics largely found work. In many instances, employers lowered pay scales for women workers, or even, in the case of teachers, failed to pay their workers on time. But women's wages remained a necessary component in family survival. In many Great Depression families, women were the only breadwinners.

An important corrective to a male-centered vision of the Great Depression is to note that while men's employment rates declined during the period, women's employment rates actually rose. In 1930, approximately 10.5 million women worked outside the home. By 1940, approximately 13 million women worked for wages outside the home. Even so, women's work continued to be less than well regarded by American society. Critics, over-looking the sex-typing of most work opportunities for women, lambasted laboring women for robbing men of much-needed jobs. Even women's colleges formally charged women not to pursue careers after graduation so that their places could be filled by men.

Federal law stood consistently with this conservative position regarding women workers. Laws in effect between 1932 and 1937 made it illegal for more than one person per family to find employment within the federal civil service. Despite the protestations of Eleanor Roosevelt, the New Deal program the Civilian Conservation Corps, developed in 1933, had a formal policy against hiring women. Many New Deal job programs cast women in traditional housekeeping roles. Camps operated by the Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA) specifically for young women taught household skills. FERA work relief projects employed women in producing such goods as canned foods, clothes, and mattresses for distribution to needy families. Women were employed as housekeeping aides to families in need of household help. The housekeeping aides project kept to traditional racial stereotypes as well as gendered ones, as most of its employees were African-American women. Other federal agencies paid women much less than men or gave preferences to male job seekers over female ones.

Women of minority groups faced particular difficulties. Employers preferred white men, and then white women, over black or Hispanic women in most instances. Relegated to domestic work and farm work through centuries of racism and misogyny in the job market, most African-American women found themselves left out of new laws passed to ensure worker safety. The Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938, with its minimum wage and maximum hour provisions, did not apply to domestic or farm workers. Given the pressures of the economy, many women-white and black-were willing to work in domestic positions, but fewer households had the extra income to hire help. Many cities developed specific locations where prospective domestic workers would stand outside and wait for wealthier women to hire them for a day's work. Given that those seeking employment were most often black and given the low wages one would earn in such arrangements, the process and the area of town associated with it became known colloquially as a "slave market." The casual nature of the oral contract between employer and employee in this hiring system meant that many women were inadequately paid for their labors.

Women in professional careers lost gains made in earlier, more stable periods. Fewer women found positions in business in the Great Depression than in the 1920s. Losing ground in the traditional male sphere, some men also entered into jobs heretofore relegated to women. This trend occurred even in the very female bastion of teaching. The teaching profession grew slightly less female during the Great Depression; women had constituted 85 percent of teachers in 1920, but by 1940 they constituted only 78 percent.

The federal law's refusal to champion women workers occurred even with the unprecedented presence of women of considerable power in Washington, D.C. Frances Perkins became the first female member of a presidential cabinet when she assumed the post of Secretary of Labor in 1933. Mary McLeod Bethune, head of the Division of Negro Affairs of the National Youth Administration and acting head of Roosevelt's informal group of black advisors or "black cabinet," became the highest-ranking African-American woman in government. Eleanor Roosevelt, first lady from 1933 to 1945, fought the public policies when it came to women on several fronts and led Franklin D. Roosevelt's presidency more to the political left than it would have otherwise been. The New Deal did not outwardly target women's issues. Eleanor Roosevelt did, however, provide some moral support to American women in the troubled 1930s. Her newspaper column, "My Day," in national periodicals reached an eager audience. Although Eleanor Roosevelt was the mother of five children, the first lady was nonetheless not known for her housewifery skills initially. As a young mother Roosevelt had even once hung her daughter Anna outside her bedroom window in a box with wire sides so that the child could nap in fresh air; the child's cries had significantly scared the neighbors. Yet during the Depression Eleanor Roosevelt inspired less-famous Americans with her earnest example, as when she served Franklin Roosevelt seven-cent meals in the White House.

American women found the task of homemaking increasingly challenging in the face of the sharp cuts in the family budget due to the nation's economic crisis. Women continued to supervise the feeding and clothing of their families during the period but needed increased creativity to complete these tasks. A common saying of the time explained how to stretch one's household dollar: "Use it up, wear it out, make it do, or do without." Although the 1920s had introduced more convenience goods into the mainstream kitchen, housewives in the Great Depression returned to money-saving techniques like canning fruits and vegetables. Women sewed more of the family's clothes. "Outwork," or performing labor for wages at home, became a popular way to add to the family income. For instance, many women opted to take in the laundry of others for a fee. Even with these creative choices, malnutrition and disease became the results of extended poverty for some families.

Relations between husbands and wives grew strained because of financial insecurity. The financial downturn disrupted the husband's traditional role as breadwinner added space for the family, leading to increasingly rancorous marriages. Tight budgets in families led to the end of simple pleasures like leisure-time activities and further added to stress. The rate of husbands deserting their families rose during the period. Couples delayed marriages or even decided not to marry at all given the financial constraints of setting up new households. Childbearing rates decreased, and more couples utilized contraception to limit family size. Extended families, including multiple generations, also decided to share housing to cut costs.

In the face of a collective mood that championed women's domestic ties and disparaged working women, the feminist ideals that had grown during earlier periods lost momentum. Already waning during the 1920s, feminist sentiments faltered further during the Great Depression due to the pressing economic concerns. Groups that had supported women's rights, including the radical National Women's Party and the educational body, the League of Women Voters (formed out of the former National American Woman Suffrage Association in 1920), remained in the political background during the 1930s. The momentum of feminism would not be rediscovered until the late 1960s. Women did, however, take part in labor's struggle to take advantage of the legal changes that made organizing workers more possible. Women become a vital part of the labor movement during the era of the Great Depression. For example, a particularly spirited group of women took part in the Women's Emergency Brigade of the United Autoworkers and helped support the lengthy sit-down strike in Flint, Michigan, that brought the General Motors Company to sign a contract with the union in 1937.

Delving into women's experiences in the Great Depression period leads us to a much broader understanding of the time. While men faced major unemployment, and the disruption of typical bread-winner roles, women maintained employment or even took on new paid labor in order to support their families. While feminism as a concept was not nourished during the economically tumultuous period, women around the nation did become politically and economically active because of the pressures of the time. The societal role of women came under increasing examination during the period, out of the impetus of such factors as the increased numbers of national female leaders, and the absence of substantial places for women in new deal legislation.

See Also: GENDER ROLES AND SEXUAL RELATIONS, IMPACT OF THE GREAT DEPRESSION ON; MEN, IMPACT OF THE GREAT DEPRESSION ON.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Cook, Blanche Wiesen. Eleanor Roosevelt: 1884-1933. 1992.

Cook, Blanche Wiesen. Eleanor Roosevelt: Volume 2, The Defining Years. 1999.

Dubofsky, Melvyn and Stephen Burwood, eds. Women and Minorities during the Great Depression. 1990.

Evans, Sara M. Born for Liberty: A History of Women in America. 1997.

Hapke, Laura. Daughters of the Great Depression: Women, Work, and Fiction in the American 1930s. 1995.

Melosh, Barbara. Engendering Culture: Manhood and Womanhood in New Deal Public Art and Theater. 1991.

Palmer, Phyllis. Dirt and Domesticity: Housewives and Domestic Servants in the United States, 1920-1945. 1989.

Scharf, Lois. To Work and to Wed: Female Employment, Feminism, and the Great Depression. 1980.

Sternsher, Bernard and Judith Sealander, eds. Women of Valor: The Struggle against the Great Depression as Told in Their Own Life Stories. 1990.

Woloch, Nancy. Women and the American Experience: A Concise History. 1996.

Youngs, J. William T. Eleanor Roosevelt: A Personal and Public Life. 1985.

Lisa Krissoff Boehm

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impact of the great depression onthe great depression affected women and men in quite different ways. the economy of the period relied heavily on so-called "sex-typed" work

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or work that employers typically assigned to one sex or the other.

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Women, Impact of the Great Depression on

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WOMEN, IMPACT OF THE GREAT DEPRESSION ONThe Great Depression affected women and men in quite different ways. The economy of the period relied heavily on so-called "sex-typed" work, or work that employers typically assigned to one sex or the other. Source for information on Women, Impact of the Great Depression on: Encyclopedia of the Great Depression dictionary.

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-new forms and methods were explored, transformative cultural institutions were founded, and artists self-consciously sought to reach broader layers of the public
-popularization of the radio, changed how accessible culture was and to whom; international break from formalism and modernism worked to produce a popularized tendency in US art
-Washington State hosted innovative theatre, musical, and performing arts work, with sometimes global resonance
-emblematic cultural institution of Washington State, the Seattle Art Museum, was created; privately funded during darkest days of the economic crisis, when tens of thousands were losing jobs and homes
-UW architect hired to design a museum sited in Volunteer Park and pledged much of their personal art collection to the city; houses Seattle Asian Art Museum
-not everyone suffered or even lost money during Depression
-philanthropy accelerated in 1930s, as those who retained wealth gave to charities to aid the unfortunate; others gave to arts to rescue cultural institutions that struggled amidst the economic decline
-philanthropy was the new role that government funds and government programs would play after 1933
-art was deemed worthy of public support, and New Deal federal dollars enabled explosion of artistic endeavors, from painting, music, theatre, and architecture

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The 1930s were a period of intense artistic experimentation, as new forms and methods were explored, transformative cultural institutions were founded, and artists self-consciously sought to reach broader layers of the public.