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This powerpoint gives valuable insight over a topic not highly thought about over the Cold War. The Congo Crisis was important in decisions that were made during the Cold War.

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World History Lesson Plan- Chinese Cultural Revolution

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World History Lesson Plan- Chinese Cultural Revolution

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This World History Lesson plan was created by Gerae Haverkamp and Alexis Carraway, and is concerning the Chinese Cultural Revolution. Mainly focusing on Mao Zedong's ideas and influence on Chinese Culture during the Cold War era.

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History.com provides factual information over multiple events, including World History, U.S. History, Geography, etc... This website provides awesome factual videos over events and of actual historical events.

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Newspapers.com provides primary source newspaper articles from around the world. This includes multiple countries and allows users to breakdown and specify exactly what they are looking for in an article.

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"Ignite the Cultural Revolution" is a great way for students to work through and learn how to read a primary source. This primary source was used in a world history lesson plan concerning the Chinese Cultural Revolution.

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On May 25th 1966 Nie Yuanzi, a female academic at Beijing University, put this 'big character poster' titled "Ignite the Cultural Revolution in the universities":

"At present, the people of the whole nation, in a soaring revolutionary spirit that manifests boundless love for the Party and Chairman Mao, and their inveterate hatred for the sinister anti-Party anti-socialist gang, are making a vigorous and great Cultural Revolution. They are struggling thoroughly to smash the attacks of the reactionary sinister gang, in defence of the Party's Central Committee and Chairman Mao.

But here in Beida [Beijing University] the masses are being kept immobilised. The atmosphere is one of indifference and deadness, whereas the strong revolutionary desire of the vast number of the faculty members and students has been suppressed. What is the matter? What is the reason? Something fishy is going on...

The revolutionary people must be fully aroused to vigorously and angrily denounce [enemies of the party]. To hold big meetings and put up big-character posters is one of the best ways for the masses to do battle. By 'guiding' the masses not to hold big meetings, not to put up big-character posters, and by creating all kinds of taboos, aren't you suppressing the masses' revolution, not allowing them to make revolution and opposing their revolution? We will never permit you to do this!...

All revolutionary intellectuals, now is the time to go into battle! Let us unite, holding high the great red banner of Mao Zedong Thought. Unite round the Party's Central Committee and Chairman Mao, and break down all the various controls and plots of the revisionists. Resolutely, thoroughly, totally and completely wipe out all ghosts and monsters and all Khrushchevian counter-revolutionary revisionists - and carry the socialist revolution through to the end. Defend the Party's Central Committee! Defend Mao Zedong's Thought! Defend the dictatorship of the proletariat!"

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"Ignite the Cultural Revolution!" (1966)

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On May 25th 1966 Nie Yuanzi, a female academic at Beijing University, put this 'big character poster' titled "Ignite the Cultural Revolution in the universities": "At present, the people of the whole nation, in a soaring revolutionary spirit that manifests boundless love for the Party and Chairman Mao, and their inveterate hatred for the sinister anti-Party anti-socialist gang, are making a vigorous and great Cultural Revolution.

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This website has multiple PowerPoints for a variety of subjects. This can help save time and energy creating PowerPoints and gives quick updates on knowledge.

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Pete's Power Point Station - A Collection of FREE Presentations in PowerPoint format for K-12 Teachers and Students

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Pete's PowerPoint Station is your destination for free PowerPoint presentations for kids and teachers about Pete's Power Point Station, and so much more.

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This website provides simulations, videos, and stories using animated characters. This listed different time frames and allows the use of games, videos, and quizzes.

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KS2 History learning resources for adults, children, parents and teachers.

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This is an engaging website that allows you to explore their historical collection. It provides videos, images, and texts.

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history; timeline; accessible; maps; manuscripts; british history; historical sources

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From medieval times to the present day, explore collection items chronologically in this beautiful interactive timeline.

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This text shows the history of the world through maps. Dating from ancient until modern times.

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This text tells tales of history through the use of objects. This texts shows have civilizations were shaped through invention and innovation.

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This Powerpoint gives valuable insight over the "big ideas" of political science. It also breaks down the complicated process of a bill becoming a law.

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This Political Science Powerpoint was created by Alexis Carraway and Gerae Haverkamp. This discusses the Western and Eastern Power Blocs and simplifies the beginning of the Cold War with the "Kitchen Debate".

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This website has details about U.S.and foreign politics. This includes journal articles from educated perspectives.

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This website gives perspectives on poverty around us and different social situations creating this poverty. This includes journal articles and real-life people's stories.

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Spotlight has partnered with Microsoft News to produce the "Poverty Next Door" series. In these stories, we explore the journeys of those around us, examining events, life situations, and cultural realities that challenge economic equality for so many.

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Spotlight on Poverty and Opportunity|Bi-Partisan Poverty Research, News, and Action

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Spotlight has partnered with Microsoft News to produce the "Poverty Next Door" series. In these stories, we explore the journeys of those around us, examining events, life situations, and cultural realities that challenge economic equality for so many.

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This website provides multiple ideas for political science simulation games. There are links on each description of the game that details how to play the simulations. There are also links leading to "teachers paying teachers".

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A relatively up-to-date index of posts about simulations and games as well as class exercises and activities; some items appear in more than one category:
Theory General Economics

Agrarian Society Card Game: poverty, development; 8 August 2011

Ayiti - The Cost of Life: poverty, development; 25 February 2013

Free Rice: making a difference, world hunger, World Food Programme; 8 March 2013

Global Inequality Game; 29 May 2014

Inequality Monopoly: socioeconomic class, poverty, development; 9 October 2013

Papers, Please: immigration, poverty; 18 October 2013

Spent: poverty in the USA; 18 March 2013

Stars and Triangles: comparative advantage; 25 August 2013

Statelessness Game; 11 April 2013

Third World Farmer: poverty, development; 27 February 2013

Wealth Inequality Game: inequality, voting rules in international financial institutions; 6 May 2014

Where Did Your Stuff Come From and variation: scavenger hunt that teaches international trade and globalization; 27 January and 10 February 2017

World Without Oil: simulation of a global energy crisis; 21 January 2013

American Government

20 Minute Legislature and Magic Genie: distributive implications of politics, September 14, 2011 and 30 March 2012

20 Minute Interest Groups; 28 September 2011

Agenda board game; 20 September 2015

Citizenship Test: first day of class lesson on citizenship; 17 August 2011 and 12 October 2012

Do I Have a Right?: civil liberties; 5 October 2011

Framing Exercise: media framing of news; 27 February 2014

Government in Our Lives: first day of class exercise for American government; 29 August 2013

I-Civics: balancing the budget, separation of powers, and other simulations; 21 September 2011

Mission U.S.: US history through games about the Boston Massacre, slavery, and westward expansion; 22 January 2014

Papers, Please: immigration, public policy, poverty; 18 October 2013

Parliament Game with the Gray-Tufted Banderwot: legislative behavior, coalitions; 24 April 2017

Redistricting Game: congressional redistricting, 11 September 2013

Spent: poverty, state and local government, public policy; 18 March 2013

Comparative / International / Global

Against All Odds: refugees; 29 January 2015

Attack of Dr. X: collective security; 30 January 2014

Climate Challenge, first and second posts: climate change, environment, public policy; 3 April 2013 and 26 July 2013

Distribution, decision, and death: resource allocation, meaning of politics, terrorism; 30 March 2012

Failing Fisheries: sustainable fishing & Tragedy of the Commons; 2 February 2015

Gerkhania: ethnic politics, democratization, constitutions; 28 April 2014

ICONS Crisis in North Korea: IR, international security, negotiation, East Asia; 10 April 2015

Identity politics activity: ethnic politics, cleavages; 3 July 2014

IR Cards Against Humanity; 27 August 2013

Model Diplomacy: simulations by the Council on Foreign Relations; 24 April 2017

Parliament Game with the Gray-Tufted Banderwot: legislative behavior, coalitions; 24 April 2017

Statecraft, first and most recent posts: online simulation for teaching international relations; 24 November 2011 and 21 January 2015

Stop Disasters: natural disaster preparation and response; 2 August 2012

Syrian Journey: Choose your own escape route: refugees, war and conflict; 1 April 2015

Tragedy of the Bunnies: tragedy of the commons; 2 February 2015

Walking Dead: ethics of war; 11 March 2013

Game Design, Typology, and Mechanics Methods Online Games

20 Minute Interest Groups; 28 September 2011

Against All Odds: refugees; 29 January 2015

Ayiti - The Cost of Life: poverty, development; 25 February 2013

Climate Challenge, first and second posts: climate change, environment, public policy; 3 April 2013 and 26 July 2013

Do I Have a Right?: civil liberties; 5 October 2011

Failing Fisheries: sustainable fishing & Tragedy of the Commons; 2 February 2015

Framing Exercise: media framing of news, 27 February 2014

Free Rice: making a difference, world hunger, World Food Programme; 8 March 2013

I-Civics: balancing the budget, separation of powers, and other simulations; 21 September 2011

Mission U.S.: US history through games about the Boston Massacre, slavery, and westward expansion; 22 January 2014

Papers, Please: immigration, public policy, poverty; 18 October 2013

Redistricting Game: congressional redistricting; 11 September 2013

Spent: poverty, state and local government, public policy; 18 March 2013

Statecraft, first and most recent posts: online simulation for teaching international relations; 24 November 2011 and 21 January 2015

Stop Disasters: natural disaster preparation and response; 2 August 2012

Third World Farmer: poverty, development; 27 February 2013

Tragedy of the Bunnies: tragedy of the commons; 2 February 2015

World Without Oil: simulation of a global energy crisis; 21 January 2013

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A relatively up-to-date index of posts about simulations and games as well as class exercises and activities; some items appear in more than one category: Theory General Economics Agrarian Society Card Game: poverty, development; 8 August 2011 Ayiti - The Cost of Life: poverty, development; 25 February 2013 Free Rice:

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This podcast is hosted by a professor from the University of Cambridge. It discusses the current Political Science endeavors in society.

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Corbyn! Trump! Brexit! Politics has never been more unpredictable, more alarming or more interesting. TALKING POLITICS is the podcast that will try to make sense of it all. Each Thursday, in Cambridge, David Runciman will talk to the most interesting people around: novelists, comedians, historians, philosophers - and even a few politicians - and ask them what they think is going on... Democracy is feeling the strain everywhere. What might happen next? How bad could it get? As the crazy stuff happens, TALKING POLITICS will be on it. It's the political conversation everyone is having: please join us.

Corbyn! Trump! Brexit! Politics has never been more unpredictable, more alarming or more interesting. TALKING POLITICS is the podcast that will try to make sense of it all. Each Thursday, in Cambridge, David Runciman will talk to the most interesting people around: novelists, comedians, historians, philosophers - and even a few politicians - and ask them what they think is going on... Democracy is feeling the strain everywhere. What might happen next? How bad could it get? As the crazy stuff happens, TALKING POLITICS will be on it. It's the political conversation everyone is having: please join us.

The best political podcast

Great analysis, great guests. Not too much name-calling of politicians by the hosts - example, "buffoon", "emetic" etc. as on other similar podcasts.

Very Educational

I started following few weeks ago and the quality of the guests and discussion are enriching.
So far, I've got to say Rory Stewart is a refreshing character. 👌🏾
Come to think of it, contrary to what Britons think and when seen from the outside, I don't think British Politics is crazy. I think the country is facing a debate over a complex question and these processes can get messy in any society. Added to the the strain Globalization puts on contemporary societies already characterized by inequalities and the anxieties coming with that . . . You got an interesting cocktail there. But I don't think things are as bad as presented by some commentators make it appear.

Just awful

Partisan garbage

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‎Corbyn! Trump! Brexit! Politics has never been more unpredictable, more alarming or more interesting. TALKING POLITICS is the podcast that will try to make sense of it all. Each Thursday, in Cambridge, David Runciman will talk to the most interesting people around: novelists, comedians, historians,...

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This podcast not only discusses historical events, but also current events. Dan Carlin pushes the limits of traditional thinking and puts his own spin on historical and current events.

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Listen to Dan Carlin's Hardcore History on Spotify. In "Hardcore History" the very unconventional Dan Carlin takes his "Martian", outside-the-box way of thinking and applies it to the past. Was Alexander the Great as bad a person as Adolf Hitler? What would Apaches with modern weapons be like?

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This is a short video explaining the main ideas of Machiavelli's "The Prince". While the book can be hard to decipher by reading by itself, this video is a quick, simplified summary for students to view.

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BE PRESENT | The Prince by Niccolo Machiavelli

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This book is highly considered in any upper-level- political science course. The book is written by an Italian diplomat, Machiavelli, with the main ideas of establishing how a prince/ruler should act.

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This book discusses work versus wealth of a nation. Written by Adam Smith and published in 1776, it discusses the economics right before and around the Industrial Revolution and is referenced back to in today's economics.

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Immigration and Nationality Act Lesson Plan

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Immigration and Nationality Act Lesson Plan

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This lesson plan was made by Alexis Carraway and Gerae Haverkamp. This discusses the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 for a beginning level class.

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This podcast is pretty simplified, but a fun way to learn some interesting facts! Would probably use at the beginning or end of class to keep students' attention and maybe have fun "extra-credit" questions at the end of the week correlating to the podcast.

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Weekly Geography Fun Facts for Kids and Parents to enjoy together!

Weekly Geography Fun Facts for Kids and Parents to enjoy together!

Very Interesting Info

The information is interesting, however the background music overpowers the speaker. Overall this podcast is great for family learning.

Very little research if any at all!

I listed to the Mexico City episode and could not believe how poor the information was. The host could at least try to find out how to pronounce the one place in the city he mentions. Just for his reference, the letter X has at least 3 different sounds in Mexican Spanish. Hope the producers of this podcast put more effort into it. Disappointing.

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kid friendly geography fun facts podcast

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‎Kid Friendly Geography Fun Facts Podcast on Apple Podcasts

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Weekly Geography Fun Facts for Kids and Parents to enjoy together! Weekly Geography Fun Facts for Kids and Parents to enjoy together! The information is interesting, however the background music overpowers the speaker. Overall this podcast is great for family learning. I listed to the Mexico City episode and could not believe how poor the information was.

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This podcast is great because it doesn't just cover major geographical areas. It goes in-depth on "unknown" places and discusses their history, geography, and culture.

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S04E02 Pitcairn Island Audio
In this episode of 80 Days: an exploration podcast, we'll be talking about Pitcairn Island, a tiny volcanic island in the South Pacific, most famous for its mutineer inhabitants, who fled there after the famous Mutiny on the Bounty in 1789.

https://content.blubrry.com/80_days_an_exploration/80_Days_S04E02_Pitcairn.mp3

Pitcairn forms part of a four-island group known as the Pitcairn Islands, but is the only island in the group to be inhabited. Its nearest inhabited neighbours are Easter Island to the East and French Polynesia to the West. Pitcairn is the least populous national jurisdiction in the world, and by far the smallest place we've ever talked about in terms of population, boasting only around 50 residents as of 2018, all descended from the 9 Bounty mutineers and the few Tahitians they brought with them to the island. The island itself is rocky, and experiences warm weather year-round thanks to its location just south of the Tropic of Capricorn. Today, Pitcairn is the only remaining British Overseas Territory in the South Pacific. Its economy relies heavily on tourism, as well as the highly-prized honey produced by the bees on the island. While all islanders speak English, their first language is Pitkern, a creole language that has derived from 18-century English dialects and Tahitian.

This episode, just like all of our recent ones, is supported by our Patreon backers. If you want to help out the show, you can help out by joining us over on www.patreon.com/80dayspodcast to give us whatever you can in terms of financial support and avail of all the lovely awards and extras that entitles you to. If you're unable to support us financially, you can always leave us a review on Apple Podcasts or wherever you get your podcasts from.

Some further reading:

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S04E02 Pitcairn Island Audio In this episode of 80 Days: an exploration podcast, we'll be talking about Pitcairn Island, a tiny volcanic island in the South Pacific, most famous for its mutineer inhabitants, who fled there after the famous Mutiny on the Bounty in 1789.

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As an avid lover of all things National Geographic I plan to have a book shelf with all my National Geographic magazines. These are great for research purposes along with addressing current issues and for image use.

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A great geography tool for students who may not typically enjoy geography. Having students search the geographical area that is being discussed provides them with the understanding of where on the globe that country or region is found and gives a better sense of understanding for the lesson.

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Aw snap! Google Earth isn't supported on your browser. You may need to update your browser or use a different browser. Please see our system requirements for more information. Chrome is a great choice and you can download it here. Or if you're feeling adventurous, you can try Earth anyway by choosing an option below.

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This is a good way to have students learn their political geography. It is a review of the world geography instead of just the United States and helps students learn areas along with capitals. There is also geography quizzes.

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Drag the countries onto the map (no regions).

Drag the countries onto the map. (with regions)

Capitals of Europe

Click on the correct country (no outlines)

Click on the correct state (no outlines).

Click on the correct country. (no outlines)

Learn the names and locations of the capitals
of Europe!

Enter the first 3 letters of the name of the country

Drag each country onto the map (countries disappear.)

Drag each state onto the map (states disappear)

Drag each country onto the map (countries disappear.)

Pick the correct capital for the highlighted country.

Type the first three letters of the country's name (no outlines given).

Type the first three letters of the state's name (no outlines given.)

Type the first three letters of the country's name (no outlines given.)

Type the first 3 letters of the capital's name

Learn the oceans + bodies of water around the US

Click on the countries to learn the capitals

Click on the correct geographic region.

Click on the correct country for each capital. With regions..

Click the correct country with each capital.

Type in the first 3 letters
of the capital.

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Drag the countries onto the map (no regions). Drag the countries onto the map. (with regions) Capitals of Europe Click on the correct country (no outlines) Click on the correct state (no outlines). Click on the correct country. (no outlines) Learn the names and locations of the capitals of Europe!

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This site simply lists several different games concerning geography that can be used in the classroom. Would be a great resource for days that you need to "waste" some time or your lesson isn't able to go as planned.

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Educators can help boost the numbers by ensuring that geography is exciting and fun to learn, this feat is made easier with the right tools.

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This powerpoint was made by Seth Licktieg and includes multiple geography resources. It also includes great movie video references and fun interactive games for students to use.

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Beginners World Atlas- National Geographic

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Beginners World Atlas- National Geographic

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As said before, I am an avid believer and fan of anything National Geographic. This beginner's World Atlas is an up-to-date look at the world and is student-friendly. Could be used in almost any geography lesson for quick-fun facts.

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This is a great book for geography lover and haters alike. It provides that mystery to geography and is fun to think that there are virtually "unknown" places that your phone may not be able to educated you about.

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This lesson plan was created by Alexis Carraway and Gerae Haverkamp. This lesson plan discusses the 1970's gas shortage and the toll it took on not only American, but world economics. Can be brought to students personal lives if they consider how a current gas shortage would influence their lives.

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This website gives definition of economics terms ranging from A-Z. This includes explanations and would be a quick and easy way to bring up answers to vocabulary related questions.

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Absolute advantage

A concept that helps to explain international trade. If country A is better at making toasters than country B, and B is better at making kettles than A, it makes sense for each country to focus on the area where they have this advantage, and then trade toasters for kettles. But see, more importantly, comparative advantage.

Active management

A branch of investment management that attempts to outperform other investors by selecting a limited number of assets, and trading them regularly. See also passive management.

Activist investing

Fund managers who take a stake in a company and then agitate for a change of management, or strategy, in the belief that this will increase profits, and thus the share price.

Adverse selection

Agency costs

The expense involved in using a third party to carry out a task. Examples include hiring a fund manager to look after an individual's investment portfolio, or the cost to shareholders of having professional managers run a business. See also principal-agent problem.

Aggregate demand

The flow of spending, across the economy, on goods and services. Demand can fall, even if people's income and wealth are unchanged, if they decide to save, rather than spend.

Agriculture

The cultivation of crops and the tending of animals for the purpose of supplying food. For millennia, this was mankind's primary economic activity.

Alpha

That part of an investment return that is due to the skill of the fund manager. This can be very hard to measure.

Amortisation

The gradual reduction in the value of an asset (or a debt) over time. A debt (such as a mortgage) is amortised via regular repayments. Companies use amortisation to steadily reduce the value of intangible assets on their balance-sheets.

Animal spirits

Antitrust

Term used to describe laws or regulations designed to stop firms from exploiting their monopoly positions in markets at the expense of consumers or rival businesses. To learn more, see our Schools Brief.

Appreciation

The rise in the value of an asset. In particular, currencies are often described as appreciating when they go up and depreciating when they go down.

Arbitrage

The practice of exploiting price differentials in different markets; for example, buying an asset cheaply in London and selling it for a higher price in New York. Thanks to the speed of modern information flows, risk-free arbitrage opportunities are rare. See also regulatory arbitrage.

Asset

Something that can be used to create economic value. An asset can be tangible, such as a building or machinery or intangible, such as a patent or a brand name. Assets make up one side of a company's balance-sheet; the other is liabilities.

Asset stripping

The practice of buying a company and rapidly selling off the component parts with the aim of making a profit. This often leads to great disruption in the business and a loss of jobs.

Asset value

One measure used by investors to calculate the worth of a company. Normally, a company's debts are deducted to calculate a net asset value. Also known as book value.

Asymmetric information

Auctions

These are usually associated with the sale of livestock, antiques and works of art. But in recent decades, they have been favoured by economists as a means of ensuring that sellers get the best price for a wider range of assets. For example, governments have used auctions to sell off parts of the electromagnetic spectrum to mobile telecoms companies. See this article for more detail.

Austerity

A term used to describe efforts to reduce the share of public spending in GDP, particularly in the 2010s. When the economy is already weak, Keynesian economists view austerity programmes as a mistake, because they reduce demand. But free-market economists worry that, without austerity, the government's role in the economy inexorably expands over time.

Austrian school

A group of libertarian economists, notably Friedrich Hayek and Ludwig von Mises, focused on the individual and deeply suspicious of state planning. The school developed in opposition to communism and social democracy, and believes in low taxes and a minimal state.

Autarky

Self-sufficiency. Authoritarian regimes sometimes pursue a policy of autarky in order to reduce their dependence on other countries. Economists generally regard this approach as inefficient since trade in goods and services allows a country to specialise in those activities which it is best at producing, exploiting comparative advantage.

Authoritarian capitalism

Usually applied especially to China and Russia, this describes economies in which big business co-exists with an authoritarian government. Businesses are allowed to make money but if they dare to criticise the government, or appear too independent, they may face criminal or financial sanctions.

Backwardation

A term used in the commodity market for when the price for delivering a product today (the spot price) is higher than for delivery in future. Normally, the future price is higher, a situation known as contango. Backwardation is normally the sign of a supply shortage, causing traders to compete to get the product immediately.

Balance of payments

Balance-sheet

In accounting, a statement of the assets and liabilities of a business. It must balance in the sense that assets equal liabilities. The assets such as cash or equipment or inventory are being used in the business; the liabilities show how those assets were funded whether in the form of debt (owed to creditors) or equity (owed to shareholders).

Bank rate

Term used in Britain to describe the official rate set by the Bank of England when it pays interest to commercial banks. By manipulating this rate, the Bank of England affects the level of rates that businesses and consumers pay to borrow money.

Bank run

In a crisis, bank depositors may start to doubt they will get their money back. So they may demand to withdraw it. Since banks have lent out this money, it is impossible for them to repay all depositors instantly. The bank may fail. To avoid this, most countries have schemes of deposit insurance.

Banks

Institutions at the heart of the financial system. Commercial banks take in deposits and make loans, thereby creating money. In a crisis, banks may cease lending (or insist on the repayment of past loans) causing immense economic damage. Investment banks advise on transactions such as acquisitions and make markets in financial assets such as bonds and shares. Many institutions act as both commercial and investment banks.

Barter

The direct swap of goods and services for other goods and services, without the use of money. This is normally a less efficient form of trade, since the wants and needs of buyers and sellers rarely match exactly.

Basis point

One hundredth of a percentage point. The term is often used to describe interest rate changes. A quarter-percentage-point rise or fall in rates is described as 25 basis points.

Baumol's cost disease

In theory, workers should get higher pay because they get more productive. But an economist called William Baumol noticed this isn't always true; musicians take the same time to play a string quartet as they did in Mozart's day, but are paid more nevertheless. The reason is competition for labour; musicians can take other jobs. So rising wages in productive parts of the economy (eg, manufacturing) lead to higher wages in less productive sectors. For more on the disease, read this article; for more on Baumol, read this one.

Bear

Investor who expects the price of an asset or assets in general to fall.

Behavioural economics

School of thought that believes that the economic decisions of individuals are often driven by psychological biases rather than the rational analysis of expected returns. One example is the endowment effect. Individuals value the goods they own more highly than they would pay for the same item in an open market. For more, see this article.

Beta

This ratio measures the sensitivity of an individual asset's price to that of the overall market. A stock that tends to go up even more rapidly than the market when it is rising, and drop more precipitously when it is falling, is described as "high beta"; one that moves less violently than the market is "low beta".

Big Mac index

A light-hearted guide to whether currencies are over- or undervalued, invented by The Economist in 1986. The index is based on the theory of purchasing-power parity-the notion that in the long run exchange rates should tend to equalise the prices of goods in different currencies. Fresh helpings of burgernomics are served up regularly. You can tuck into the latest-with a side of more details about the index-here.

Bill of exchange

A short-term financial instrument, originally used to finance international trade. The buyer of goods would give the seller a signed bill, equal to the value of the purchase, which the seller could then cash with a banker. In modern finance, bills are a catch-all term for short-term debt such as Treasury bills and commercial bills.

Blockchain

A distributed ledger used to make a digital record of the ownership of assets, in particular cryptocurrencies.

Bonds

IOUs issued by a borrower which normally promise repayment of the money on a set date (the maturity) with regular interest payments during the life of the bond. The more risky the issue, the higher the interest rate (or yield) on the bond. Governments issue bonds to cover the gap between the amount they receive in taxes and the amount they spend. Companies issue bonds to finance investment programmes.

Book value

Another term for asset value.

Boom

A state of rapid economic expansion, as opposed to bust.

Bounded rationality

A theory which assumes that, while individuals try to act rationally, there is a limit to the amount of information they may have, or can absorb. This may make their decisions look irrational (see also behavioural economics).

Bretton Woods

Location in New Hampshire of a conference in 1944 which decided the post-war economic order. It led to the establishment of the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. And it agreed on a currency system that linked all currencies at fixed exchange rates to the dollar, which was convertible into gold at $35 an ounce.

Bubble

The concept that asset prices can rise far higher than can be justified by their fundamentals, such as the expected cashflows that will derive from them. A famous example is the South Sea bubble of the early 18th century. Economists who believe in efficient markets are dubious that bubbles ever occur. Identifying bubbles at the time isn't always easy: see this article.

Budget

The annual process through which a government sets out its spending plans and tax measures. A balanced budget is when revenues are expected to match expenditure. More usually, spending outstrips revenues and the government runs a budget deficit. Creating or expanding a deficit can be a deliberate act to boost an economy (see Keynesian economics).

Bull

Investor who expects the price of an asset or assets in general to rise.

Business cluster

When companies in an industrial sector gather in a specific area, such as technology companies in Silicon Valley. When a cluster forms, companies will find it easier to attract high-skilled staff, workers have a wider choice of employers, innovations can circulate more quickly and start-up companies may find it easier to get finance.

Business cycle

Another term to describe the way that economies tend to expand and contract over time. Various economists have tried to calculate the length of a typical cycle but these have varied widely over history. Booms tend to be much longer than busts, particularly in recent decades. As this article explains, economists still lack a proper understanding of business cycles.

Bust

A sudden economic contraction, also known as a recession.

Capital

Capital account

Capital asset pricing model

A financial model that relates the return of an asset class to its riskiness. It is based on the idea of a risk-free asset (usually defined as government bonds). Investors in riskier assets (like equities) should demand a higher return than they get from government bonds to reflect the greater risk of loss. This risk relates to the beta of the asset concerned.

Capital controls

Capital flight

What happens when investors try to avoid high taxes, or the prospect of currency devaluation, by sending their money abroad. Governments try to prevent such flight by imposing capital controls but they need to act quickly. Investors will anticipate the introduction of capital controls by indulging in capital flight.

Capital gains tax

A tax levied when investors sell assets for more than the purchase price. Some economists argue that such taxes discourage risk-taking. But if capital gains are tax-free, and income is taxable, that creates a potential incentive; ingenious accountants will find ways to transform income into capital gains.

Capital goods

Physical assets that companies use in the manufacturing process.

Capital markets

Capitalism

Carbon tax

A tax levied on carbon emissions. The aim is to penalise heavy emitters and encourage alternative approaches that do not contribute to global warming. For more on their design-and unpopularity-see this article.

Cartel

Agreement where a group of producers collaborate to fix the price, or restrict the supply, of a good or service. Perhaps the best known example is the Organisation of the Petroleum Exporting Countries, or OPEC. Cartels among companies are often outlawed by government antitrust regulations because they restrict competition.

Central bank

Chicago school

Classical economics

Coase theorem

Coase's theory of the firm (theory of the firm)

Collateral

An item pledged as security against a loan. An obvious example is a house or flat, which homeowners used as collateral when taking out a mortgage. In financial markets, safe securities such as Treasury bonds are often used as collateral by traders and investors.

Commercial banks

Banks that focus on taking in money in the form of deposits and lending it out to individuals and businesses. Such banks have a weakness in that most deposits can be withdrawn instantly whereas it can take time to recall loans. This can lead to a bank run.

Commodity

A raw material, such as oil or copper, that is usually traded in bulk. Changes in commodity prices can have significant economic effects by, for example, feeding through into consumer prices. A sharp rise in energy prices can adversely affect consumer demand; because consumers have to spend more on energy, they have less to spend elsewhere. For more, read this Explainer.

Commodity cycle

A pattern of rising and falling commodity prices and production. Rising commodity prices cause consumers to cut back their use and producers to expand output. In the ensuing glut, prices fall and output falls until commodities are so cheap that their use rises again.

Communism

A system, devised by Karl Marx, in which the state controls virtually all economic activity. Private property is outlawed and income inequality is reduced. The theory is idealistic; in practice, communist regimes have been highly authoritarian.

Comparative advantage

This idea has been called one of the most profound insights in economics. If country A can make cars more cheaply than country B, and B can produce shirts more cheaply than A, it clearly makes sense to trade. Each has an absolute advantage in one area. But what if A is more efficient at producing everything than B? It still makes sense for them to trade, with B producing the goods where it is more competitive; if for example it is 90% as efficient as A in making shirts, and only 60% in car manufacturing, then it should specialise in making shirts and trade them for cars. Both countries will gain.

Competition

A concept at the heart of economics. Firms compete to sell the best goods and services to consumers, and to attract the best workers. The aim is to allocate resources in the most efficient manner.

Conglomerate

A large company that has diversified across a range of countries and business areas, normally through making acquisitions.

Consumer confidence

A measure, taken from a survey, of the public's attitude towards the economic outlook. If people are worried about their jobs, or political unrest, or a pandemic, they will be less likely to spend money.

Consumer prices index

A measure of the cost of a "typical" assortment of goods and services, used to calculate the rate of inflation. Statisticians first calculate the composition of the basket of goods and services bought by the average consumer: eg, bread, petrol and electrical goods. They then compare the cost of those goods in one period with that in another, weighting the goods and services to reflect the amount the average consumer spends. The change in this consumer prices index over the period (eg, a year) is the inflation rate. For more detail, read our explainer.

Consumption

Contango

When the futures price of a commodity is higher than the spot price. See also backwardation.

Cost-benefit analysis

A process of assessing the feasibility and profitability of a public-sector project or business decision. As the name suggests, all the potential costs are compared with the potential revenues and other benefits. Although the idea is sound, the estimates are subject to a lot of uncertainty. Building projects are notorious for running over time and over budget. Quantifying non-monetary factors (eg, the value of life or the environment) is difficult-and controversial: see this Explainer and this article.

Coupon

Crawling peg

Creative destruction

A concept, developed by Joseph Schumpeter, to explain economic innovation. Old inefficient companies must go out of business to release capital and workers so they can be used in new, more innovative ways.

Credit

A catch-all term for the extension of loans to individuals, companies or organisations. The term is also used more generally to refer to the total amount of debt in an economy, as in credit crunch and credit expansion. More narrowly, a credit is a sum added to a bank account, as opposed to a debit.

Credit crunch

A sudden reduction in the willingness of banks and others to lend money. This usually has adverse economic consequences.

Credit default swap

A derivative contract between two parties in which one insures the other against the default of a bond or loan. One of the products at the heart of the 2007-09 financial crisis. See also swaps.

Credit expansion

An increase in the willingness of banks and others to lend money. This normally happens in the course of an economic boom. If credit expands too fast, this can be a sign of excessive speculation, often in the property market.

Credit ratings

See ratings

Creditor

A person or institution that is owed money.

Crony capitalism

An economic system in which businesses thrive because of their connections with political leaders rather than prowess in a competitive market. The Economist devised a crony-capitalism index, ranking several big economies, in 2014 (see article). See also rent-seeking.

Crowding out

The notion that actions by the state might restrict the options of the private sector. It usually applies to credit. If the government borrows a lot, and pushes up interest rates, then investors may not have enough capital to supply the investment needs of businesses.

Cryptocurrency

Currency

The monetary unit of a nation state, or group of states. Examples are the American dollar, the euro and the Japanese yen. In the modern era, most currencies are allowed to rise and fall in value against each other and are traded in the foreign exchange market.

Currency peg

A system in which a national currency is fixed in relation to another currency (usually the US dollar). In the modern era, this tends to be done by a developing country with a history of inflation and currency depreciation; the peg is supposedly a way of imposing some discipline. Often, however, maintaining the peg leads to pain in the form of high interest rates and recession, so the link is abandoned. (See also: fixed exchange rate.)

Current account

This measures all the non-financial transactions between a country and the rest of the world-chiefly its imports and exports of goods and services-and transfers such as remittances and financial aid. Since the balance of payments must balance, a current account deficit necessitates a capital account surplus (an inflow of money) to balance it.

Debt

Money borrowed from someone else, whether a bank, a company or a person.

Default

When a borrower fails to repay a debt. Widespread defaults are problematic since they can lead to a collapse in the banking system.

Deflation

Demand

See aggregate demand.

Demographics

Characteristics of a population, such as size or composition by age. Demographics and demographic change can have an effect on economic growth; if there are more people of working age, growth is likely to be stronger.

Dependency ratio

The proportion of the population that is not of working age, compared with that which could work, if it chose to. Conventionally, dependants are defined as those aged up to 14 or over 65. Sometimes the figures are separated into youth dependency and old-age dependency. The higher the ratio, the greater the tax burden that is likely to fall on the working population; this is a problem for many developed economies, given the numbers now surviving into old age. See also economically inactive.

Deposit insurance

A scheme whereby a government agrees to compensate depositors if a bank goes bust. This can help prevent bank runs, when depositors panic.

Depreciation

In the foreign exchange markets, this means a decline in the value of a currency; eg, "the pound depreciated by 10% against the dollar". (See also devaluation.) In accounting, this relates to the gradual decline in the value of an asset, due to wear and tear. Companies depreciate their assets over their lifetime; this will show up as a deduction on the income account and a reduction in the value of assets on the balance-sheet.

Depression

A prolonged and sharp fall in economic output, associated with a high level of unemployment. The Great Depression of the 1930s is the most notable example.

Deregulation

It is a staple of conservative thought that there are too many regulations which hold back economic growth. So every few years, governments announce a policy of deregulation to cut back the red tape. It turns out, however, that public opinion often demands that governments act to ban things that are bad, or that are disliked. And so more regulations are introduced.

Derivatives

Devaluation

A formal reduction in the value of a currency. This occurs when a country has a fixed exchange rate and decides to alter the rate; for example, sterling was devalued in 1949 and 1967. Depreciation, in contrast, is a day-to-day currency decline.

Developed countries

A term used for nations where incomes per person are high, relative to the global average. These countries tended to industrialise early and are mainly based in Europe, and in former European settler colonies in North America and Australasia. Many Asian nations such as Japan and South Korea are also classified as developed. For more, see this article.

Developing countries

A term used to describe countries where income per person is lower than in "developed nations". These countries will usually have industrialised later than those in Europe or America. There is no official designation of developing countries and the World Bank uses the terms "lower-middle" and "low-income".

Diminishing returns

Production involves certain inputs; labour, machinery, raw materials. At first, adding more inputs will improve productivity substantially; using fertilisers on crops for example or adding waiters in a restaurant to serve more diners. But eventually the marginal gains from adding more inputs will reduce; the waiters will have fewer people to serve. This is the law of diminishing returns,

Direct taxes

Taxes collected directly by the government. Examples include income tax and corporate profits tax. See also indirect taxation.

Discount rate

Discouraged workers

See economically inactive.

Disinflation

A situation where prices across the economy are rising, but more slowly than before-eg, a fall in the annual inflation rate from 10% to 5%. Not to be confused with deflation.

Disintermediation

Cutting out the middleman, or connecting customers directly with producers. In theory, this should reduce costs. In practice, middlemen emerge in a new form; high-street travel agents may have declined in importance but many people use online versions such as Expedia or Booking.com

Diversification

Dividend

A regular payment made by a company to its shareholders. The payment comes from a company's profits. Normally companies try to increase dividends over time; when they cut the dividend, this is a sign of trouble.

Dividend discount model

A way of valuing shares, based on the future stream of dividends that an investor will receive, discounted to allow for the time value of money.

Division of labour

One of the fundamental principles of economics, described by Adam Smith in "The Wealth of Nations". Work can be undertaken more efficiently if broken up into discrete tasks. It is also more efficient for individuals to focus on their own jobs and use their wages to purchase goods and services, rather than attempt to grow their own food or make their own electrical devices. See also specialisation.

Dumping

Selling something for less than the cost of producing it. This practice may be adopted by a dominant supplier in an industry in the hope of driving competitors out of business. More commonly, countries argue that producers in other nations are "dumping" goods and gaining market share; this can be used as an excuse to adopt protectionist measures such as tariffs.

Duopoly

ESG investing

The initials stand for "environmental", "social" and "corporate governance". The amount of money devoted to ESG investing increased substantially in the second decade of the 21st century, and is linked more broadly to belief in stakeholder capitalism. Supporters said that companies which neglected these issues would eventually come a cropper in the face of regulation, consumer backlash or scandal; opponents argued that the criteria for ESG investing were often woolly and that companies simply paid lip service to the issues involved. For (much) more detail, read our Special Report.

Econometrics

The use of statistical analysis to quantify economic relationships.

Economic rent

The extra income that accrues to the owner of a limited asset or resource. So a skilled worker may be able to earn far more than the lowest wage he or she would be willing to accept; a landlord may earn higher rent on a property if the local authority builds a railway station nearby.

Economically inactive

A term generally used to cover people of working age (generally 15 to 64 years old) who are not seeking a job, nor in full-time education. This includes people who are caring for relatives, those who are too sick to work, those who have retired before the state pension age and "discouraged workers" who have given up trying for a job. See also voluntary unemployment.

Economies of scale

The owner of a firm needs to buy machinery, rent property, and so on. Some of these costs are fixed. As the firm produces more, these costs are spread over more units; the average cost of production falls. These economies of scale mean that mass production tends to result in cheaper goods.

Efficient market hypothesis

The theory that market prices reflect all public information. Trading, or investing, on the basis of that information will thus not offer any advantage. The hypothesis explains why so many fund managers fail to beat the market, after costs, and has led to the popularity of low-cost index funds, which simply buy all the securities in the index. For more, see this article.

Elasticity

A measure of the responsiveness of one variable to changes in another. For example, if a good rises in price by 10%, then demand could fall by less than 10% (price inelasticity) or more than 10% (price elasticity). Essential goods like food and fuel tend to be price inelastic.

Emerging markets

A term, largely used in investment circles, for developing countries. Investors might put their capital into emerging markets because they believe the growth prospects for such countries (and thus the returns on equities) will be higher. But emerging markets tend to be risky, and can suffer from capital flight when investors become risk-averse.

Endogenous growth theory

Endowment effect

A psychological bias that causes people to be more willing to retain an object than acquire the same object if they don't own it. Put another way, they value an object they won more highly than the market value. This may explain behaviour that is not "rational" in economic terms. See behavioural economics.

Entrepreneur

Individual who puts together the factors of production (labour, machinery, business) to found a new business. Entrepreneurs tend to be much praised as risk-takers who boost economic growth.

Equilibrium

Equity

Euro zone

Those countries within the European Union (20 at the time of writing) that have adopted the euro as their currency. In addition, six non-EU countries (Andorra, Kosovo, Monaco, Montenegro, San Marino and the Vatican City) use the currency. Monetary policy in the euro zone is set by the European Central Bank.

Eurobond

A bond issued by a government or company in a foreign currency. The first eurobond raised $15m for Autostrade, operator of Italy's motorway network, in 1963.

European Central Bank

The monetary authority for the euro zone. The bank is based in Frankfurt and describes its main task as to "maintain price stability". It also supervises banks in the euro area. Its governing council comprises six members of the executive board plus the governors of the 19 central banks of euro zone countries.

Exchange rate

The rate at which one currency is exchanged for another. Generally, this is either a fixed exchange rate or a floating exchange rate although halfway houses (such as a crawling peg) have been attempted.

Exports

Goods and services sold to foreign buyers. When a foreign tourist buys a meal in Spain, that counts as a Spanish export.

Externality

Factors of production

Fair trade

An approach which argues that consumers should not simply focus on the cost of the goods they buy but on the working conditions and wages of the workers that supply them. Various schemes offer to certify that a product (such as coffee) has been made in a fair-trade fashion.

Fat tails

A situation when more extreme events occur more frequently than in a normal distribution. In 2007, during the financial crisis, David Viniar, the chief financial officer of Goldman Sachs, said the firm had experienced "25 standard deviation events, several days in a row". This was a sign that the firm's models were wrong, as they had not anticipated fat tails.

Federal Reserve System

The most powerful actor in the global financial system. Set up in 1913, America's central bank actually divides the country into 12 Reserve districts, each with its own regional Federal Reserve bank. These are overseen by the Federal Reserve Board, consisting of seven governors based in Washington, DC. The key decisions on monetary policy are made by the Federal Open Market Committee or FOMC. For more detail, see this Explainer.

Fiat currency

A currency declared to be legal tender in a country by a government. Such a currency is not backed by gold or another asset; the government simply issues an order (or fiat) that it is legal tender, and can insist it be used to pay taxes. Most countries have fiat currencies and they achieve widespread acceptance as a medium of exchange because of their convenience.

Financial markets

First mover advantage

The benefit that can, but does not always, accrue to the first company to introduce a product, or an innovation. Consumers may come to associate the product with the company name and other firms may be discouraged from entering the market. More broadly, first mover advantage can apply in any adversarial game: see game theory.

Fiscal drag

A way in which inflation can boost tax revenues. In most tax systems, workers must earn a certain amount before they pay income tax, or pay it a higher rate. If those allowances are not uprated every year in line with inflation, workers end up paying more in tax in real terms when their wages rise.

Fiscal policy

Decisions relating to the amount a government raises in taxes and spends on public services. Fiscal tightening means the government is raising taxes, or cutting spending (or both) and thus taking demand out of the economy. Fiscal easing means the government is lowering taxes, or raising spending (or both) and thus adding demand. A fiscally neutral budget would neither add nor subtract demand by, say, raising taxes and spending by the same amount.

Fixed costs

Costs of production that do not change when output changes, for example the rent paid on a factory. See also variable costs.

Fixed exchange rate

Fixed rate

When the interest rate on a bond, or other financial instrument, is invariable.

Floating exchange rate

When a currency's value moves freely against that of other countries. Floating rates have been widespread since the 1970s after the weakening of capital controls. In theory, the exchange rate bears the burden of economic adjustment; a currency with a trade deficit can let its currency decline in order to make its goods more competitive, rather than slash workers' wages.

Floating rate note

Financial instrument where the interest rate varies over time according to a set formula.

Flotation

The term used when a company lists its shares on a stock market for the first time. This is also known as an initial public offering, or IPO.

Foreign direct investment (FDI)

When a foreign investor sets up a new operation in a country, or buys an existing business. FDI is distinct from portfolio investment, the purchase of a small stake in a business by a pension fund or sovereign wealth fund. FDI can boost productivity, by bringing new technology and upgrading the skills of domestic workers. It expanded rapidly at the end of the 20th century. But governments can be suspicious if a foreign company takes over an industry in an area (like technology or defence) which is perceived to be strategically important.

Foreign exchange market

The forum where currencies are traded. Often abbreviated to FX or forex.

Foreign exchange reserves

Assets, normally held by a central bank, that can be used in a financial crisis or to influence the country's exchange rate. Central banks tend to hold their reserves in major currencies like the dollar or euro, as well as gold. Reserves were vital under the gold standard and other fixed exchange rate systems, since the central bank could sell the reserves and buy the domestic currency to support its price. In the modern era, the scale of daily currency trading is so great that it is hard for any country to hold enough reserves to combat the markets.

Forward exchange rate

A rate agreed between two parties for trading currencies in a few months' or a year's time. The difference between the forward rate and the spot rate is driven by the interest rate differentials between the two countries concerned.

Forward rate agreement

Contract between two parties that determines the rate of interest to be paid in the future. May be used by borrowers to fix their interest costs in advance.

Framing

In behavioural economics, the idea that how a proposition is framed can affect the reaction of individuals. So expressing the cost of an annual subscription at $72 a year will attract fewer customers than describing it as $6 a month.

Free rider

Free trade

The cause that led to the founding of The Economist in 1843. Free-trade enthusiasts believe that the unfettered international exchange of goods and services leads to more efficient economies (see comparative advantage) and thus, in the long run, greater prosperity for all: see this Explainer. Opponents argue that workers in domestic industries lose their jobs when exposed to international trade, and this leads many governments to adopt tariffs and protectionist policies.

Free trade area

Free-market economists

Frictional unemployment

The joblessness that results from people quitting their jobs in search of better opportunities or that occurs as struggling firms shed labour and rising firms hunt for new workers. For more detail, read this Explainer.

Full employment

Future

A contract, traded on an exchange, to trade a commodity, or a financial instrument, at a future date. Futures can be used to hedge against a price change (for example, a farmer might sell his crop in advance) or to speculate on a future price change.

GDP

See Gross Domestic Product.

Game theory

Gearing

See leverage.

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade

The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade or GATT was signed in 1947 and aimed to eliminate the protectionism that had dogged the global economy in the 1930s. It was followed by several rounds of negotiations which gradually reduced trade barriers and was eventually superseded in the 1990s by the World Trade Organisation or WTO.

Giffen goods

Gig economy

A term given to workers whose jobs are part-time or temporary, and who thus lack job security. Many work for the new wave of platform companies that have emerged in the 21st century such as Uber, a ride-sharing company, or Deliveroo, a food-delivery group. As contractors, gig-economy workers have few rights such as holiday pay or pensions, although courts have ruled that some must be treated as conventional employees. See also precariat.

Gilts

Bonds issued by the British government. At one stage, the debt certificates had a gilt edge but the term "gilt-edged" came to refer to the quality of the government's credit: investors could be assured of repayment.

Gini coefficient

Globalisation

The tendency for national economies to become integrated with each other, through the movement of goods and services, capital and people. The first modern wave of globalisation in the late 19th century was brought to an end by the first world war. A second stage emerged during the late 20th century as China, and the ex-communist countries of eastern Europe, joined the global trading system.

Gold

Precious metal that was once a central part of the global monetary system (see gold standard). Central banks still hold gold as part of their reserves. Some see the metal, which is limited in supply, as a hedge against inflation, although its record in that respect is patchy.

Gold standard

Government bonds

Gravity model of trade

The theory that the intensity of trade between two countries is dependent on two factors; their economic size and their distance from one another. In 2021 America's top three trading partners were Canada and Mexico (its nearest neighbours) and China (the world's second-largest economy).

Great Compression

A period from in the mid-20th century when income differentials narrowed in the face of the growth of the welfare state and high rates of marginal taxation.

Great Depression

The era in the 1930s when economic output and volumes of international trade collapsed. The depression was a challenge to classical economics which held that market forces would eventually bring the economy back to growth and eventually led to the adoption of Keynesian economics after the second world war.

Great Moderation

Gresham's Law

The idea that bad money drives out good. Suppose that some coins in circulation are pure gold, and others are only 90% metal but both have the same par value (eg, a dollar or a pound). Traders will keep the pure coins for themselves and hand over the debased coinage. Eventually only the debased coins will be in circulation.

Gross domestic product (GDP)

The main measure of an economy's size. GDP is calculated from the market value of all the finished goods and services within a country's borders over a set period of time. It has its critics; if a vandal breaks a window, the cost of its repair is an addition to GDP even though human welfare has hardly improved. (For more detail, see this Explainer.) It is also hard to calculate and initial GDP figures are often revised later.

Gross national product (GNP)

An alternative to GDP, GNP is the value of all goods and services produced by citizens of a country, both domestically and internationally. Income earned by foreign residents is deducted. The difference can sometimes be dramatic. Thanks to Ireland's low corporate-tax rate, so many multinationals are based in the country that its GDP is much higher than its GNP.

Haircut

When financial institutions like banks borrow money, creditors often ask for collateral to protect themselves against default (just as homeowners use their houses as security for a mortgage). Often this collateral will be in the form of financial securities, such as bonds. The creditors face the risk that the collateral might fall in value at the very time the borrower defaults. So they will not accept the collateral at its value, but will apply a discount, or haircut (for example, securities with a market value of $100m would only count as collateral of $90m). The more risky the securities, the greater the haircut.

Hedge funds

Hedging

This occurs when individuals, companies and institutions try to protect themselves against adverse market movements, such as changes in commodity prices, currencies or interest rates. See also insurance.

Hedonic adjustment

The change made to recorded inflation rates to reflect improvements in the quality of goods, such as personal computers.

Hot money

Human capital

Hybrid working

A term that emerged during the pandemic to describe employees who work part of the time in the office and part of the time at home. This appeals to many workers, as it reduces commuting time, while also being acceptable to companies, since employees still come in to attend meetings and interact with their managers and colleagues. For more, see this article.

Hyperinflation

Hypothecated taxes

The earmarking of tax revenues for a specific purpose, such as road-building or the health service. Hypothecation can be a way of making tax rises more politically acceptable but governments often find a way of diverting the revenues to other departments.

Hysteresis

A term borrowed from physics, where it refers to a lagged effect. In economics, it is used to describe persistent phenomena, such as the continuation of high levels of unemployment, even when an economy has recovered; workers may have lost enthusiasm or seen their skills decline. For more, read this Explainer.

Illiquid assets

Assets that cannot readily be tuned into cash or can only be sold quickly at a substantial discount. Illiquid assets are often the cause of financial crises when entities like banks have a mismatch between their liabilities (customers' deposits, which can be instantly withdrawn) and their assets (long-term loans, which are illiquid). Illiquid assets will often offer a higher return because of their greater risk.

Imports

Goods and services acquired from outside the country. When a German tourist buys a meal in Spain, that counts as a German import.

Income

The (fairly regular) flow of money to the factors of production. Labour receives wages; land receives rent; capital receives profits, interest and dividends.

Income tax

One of the most reliable ways of raising revenue for governments. In many systems, income tax is deducted by the employer before workers receive their pay. Most governments don't levy tax until individual incomes have reached a minimum level and tax higher incomes at higher rates. See also: progressive taxation.

Indexation

This term is most commonly used to describe the linking of a variable to the inflation rate. Some governments link benefits to inflation, and others link prices such as rail fares to the same measure. Several governments have issued government bonds of which the coupon and repayment value rise in line with inflation; these are known as index-linked bonds. Indexation also refers to a field of fund management that attempts to replicate the performance of a stock-market index; see passive management.

Indirect taxation

Tax collected by an entity other than the government. Examples include sales tax (collected by retailers), levies on alcohol and tobacco, and taxes on tourism (collected by hotels and airlines). Governments can favour these as a way of increasing revenues without changing the headline rate of direct taxes like income tax.

Industrial policy

Inequality

Infant industry

Inflation

Inflation targeting

Informal economy

Activities that have economic value but are not registered with the country's authorities; this may include teenagers who babysit for neighbours, hawkers who sell tourist souvenirs in big cities and ticket touts. The International Labour Organisation has estimated that 2bn people may have occasional involvement in the informal economy.

Infrastructure

Inheritance taxes

Levies on the assets of those who die. In theory, this can help to ensure that societies stay meritocratic. But they tend to be unpopular with middle-class voters who hope to pass on their assets (usually in the form of houses) to their children. Governments also create exemptions to prevent small business and farms from being broken up on the owner's death. Accordingly, the OECD calculated in 2021 that only 0.5% of all government tax revenues came from this source, on average. See also wealth tax.

Initial public offering (IPO)

Or IPO. See flotation.

Innovation

Insider trading

The use of non-public information to gain an advantage in financial markets. It is illegal in many countries because it discriminates against other investors and can cause confidence in the probity of financial markets to fall.

Institutional investors

Insurance

Intangible asset

Something without physical form that can create value. Examples include patents and brand names. See also intellectual property. You can read more about intangible assets in this article.

Intellectual property

An asset created solely by human intelligence and creativity. Examples include copyrights, patents and trademarks.

Interest on reserves

The return paid by central banks on reserves held by commercial banks. These interest payments help to keep market interest rates at the desired level.

Interest rates

Internal rate of return

A measure used by businesses to calculate the profitability of a potential investment. Broadly speaking, the higher the internal rate of return the better. Businesses will usually set a minimum rate before commencing a project. See also rate of return.

International Monetary Fund (IMF)

Internet

The internet, a system which connects electronic devices such as personal computers, has clearly transformed the global economy, changing the way many people work, communicate and shop. However, its rise has coincided with a slowdown in productivity growth in the developed world. Economists debate whether this is related to measurement issues or whether the internet is a less transforming technology than previous breakthroughs such as electrification and the internal combustion engine.

Investment

Investment banks

Institutions that make their money from advising corporate clients, and from trading assets, rather than from taking in deposits and making loans (like a commercial bank). America's Glass-Steagall act of 1933, a response to the Great Depression, drew a rigid distinction between commercial and investment banks, but now the two are often combined.

Investment management

Invisible hand

A metaphor used by Adam Smith to describe how an individual may be "led by an invisible hand to promote an end which was no part of his intention". This has been interpreted in the modern era to suggest that individuals who act in their own self-interest may end up promoting the good of society as a whole.

Invisible trade

Trade in non-physical things, particularly services such as banking and insurance.

Involuntary unemployment

J-curve

Job vacancies

A measure of slack in the labour market. In an expansionary phase, job vacancies will increase, and this may lead to upward pressure on wages. In a contractionary phase, vacancies will contract. See also quit rate.

Joint supply

When the process of producing one product leads to the production of another. For example, the distillation of crude oil yields gasoline, kerosene, asphalt and more.

Junk bonds

Bonds that are deemed to be highly risky where the borrower might stop paying interest or default on repayment altogether. They offer a high yield as compensation for that risk. See ratings.

Just-in-time manufacturing

A process that aims to keep down costs and reduce waste by producing items only when ordered (rather than in advance) and by keeping inventory levels down. The risk of the approach is that companies can be caught out by disruptions in their supply chain, caused for example by natural disasters or the covid-19 pandemic. See also lean manufacturing.

Keynesian economics

Knightian uncertainty

A concept, developed by Frank Knight, an American economist and a founder of the Chicago School of economics-to describe the problem faced by economic actors who are unable to quantify risk, because there is not enough information to assess the probability of the various potential outcomes. The probability distribution is only clear in a very limited set of circumstances; betting on a number in the game of roulette, for example.

Labour

A term used for both a factor for production and for the organised representatives of the working classes (trade unions and some political parties). The supply of labour is an important determinant of economic growth, and the shrinking of the working-age population in developed countries-and China-may be a limiting factor on growth in coming decades. Improving the skills of the workforce and enticing reluctant workers back into jobs may be vital.

Labour market flexibility

Making it easier to hire and fire workers. Those in favour of flexibility argue that giving workers too much job security discourages employers from taking on new labour, and results in a "two tier" market, comprising secure workers and a large number of long-term unemployed. Flexibility also helps with the process of creative destruction, allowing workers to move from old, unproductive industries to new, innovative ones. Opponents argue flexibility leads to a precariat of insecure, low-paid employees.

Labour theory of value

The idea, mentioned by Adam Smith and championed by Karl Marx, that the value of a good depends on the labour put into it. The problem is that the value of a good is also dependent on demand; someone might put an enormous amount of effort into assembling a model of the Eiffel Tower from old pencils, but it will have little market value if no one wants to buy it.

Laffer curve

Named after Arthur Laffer, an American economist, this curve shows tax revenues increasing as tax rates rise from zero but starting to fall when tax rates reach a certain level, because high taxes discourage work and enterprise. The argument is often cited by conservative politicians in America and Britain, and is probably true in principle. But it is not clear where the bend in the curve occurs (see this article), and it may be at tax rates much higher than current levels.

Lagged effect

The time taken for economic policy changes to affect the economy. Changes in interest rates, for example, can take as much as 18 months to have their full impact, as rates may only change when loan terms are renegotiated. The danger is that, by the time the policy starts to work, economic circumstances have changed.

Lagging indicators

Laissez-faire

This French term refers to the idea that governments should leave the economy alone as much as possible, and should allow free trade. Associated with the classical school of economics.

Land

One of the factors of production. Land is in fairly fixed supply (a little can be reclaimed from the sea, and some is lost to coastal erosion and desertification). Before the industrial revolution, expansion in land use and changes in the productivity of agricultural land were among the most important drivers of growth. Today, planning restrictions may be an important restraint on productivity improvements. Taxes on land values are popular with economists but not politicians: this article explains why.

Leading indicators

Lean manufacturing

A concept, associated with the Toyota motor company, associated with the elimination of waste and the continuous improvement (kaizen in Japanese) of the production process. See also just-in-time manufacturing.

Lemons

Lender of last resort

A crucial role played by central banks during financial crises. There can be moments when depositors and creditors lose faith in the banking system, with the risk that the banks will collapse. By acting as lender of last resort to banks that would be solvent in the medium term, a central bank can reduce the economic damage.

Leverage

Leveraged buyout

A corporate takeover, usually undertaken by a private equity group, using a lot of borrowed money. The aim is to cut costs and sell assets at the target company, thereby bringing down the debt, and making it possible for the private equity group to make a profit for its investors.

Liabilities

Something owed to others, and the other side of the balance-sheet from assets. Often, this is in the form of money, such as a debt. But it could be a warranty to repair or replace a product that the company has sold or the legal costs involved in compensating customers for a defective product.

Liberalisation

Life-cycle hypothesis

Most people see their incomes improve as their career progresses. But their need to spend is less variable than their incomes. So the life-cycle hypothesis, proposed by Franco Modigliani, an Italian-American economist and Nobel laureate, suggests that they will borrow to fund their spending (or to buy a house) at the start of their careers, save as they approach retirement and run down their savings after they stop working. See also permanent income hypothesis.

Limited liability

One of the most important concepts in modern capitalism. Limited liability means that investors who own the equity of a company can only lose their initial stake if the business collapses; creditors cannot pursue their other assets, such as their homes. By limiting liabilities in this way, more entrepreneurs are willing to take the risk of setting up businesses, and more investors are willing to back them.

Liquidity

Liquidity trap

Loss aversion

Lump of labour fallacy

The assumption that there is a fixed amount of work to go round, so that letting new entrants into the job market will penalise existing workers. It was once used to argue against women joining the workforce and is still used against immigrants. But the fallacy ignores an obvious point; that new workers earn wages and then spend those wages on goods and services produced by other workers. Indeed, the global population has increased enormously over the past century, yet most people have found jobs.

Macroeconomics

Macroprudential regulation

Setting rules for the financial system to try to prevent a widespread collapse, on the lines of the 2007-09 crisis. Examples might include getting banks to have minimum amounts of equity capital or requiring home buyers to put up a larger deposit when they take out a mortgage. See also systemic risk.

Manufacturing

Margin

Marginal cost

The cost of producing an extra unit of something. When production is increased, the marginal cost of producing an extra item can be significantly lower than the average cost of production (see economies of scale).

Marginal propensity to consume

The proportion of an extra earned dollar that an individual would spend rather than save. People with lower incomes have a higher marginal propensity to consume than the rich. This means that attempts to ease fiscal policy are best targeted at those who are not well off.

Marginal tax rate

The proportion of an extra earned dollar that will be taken by tax. High marginal tax rates can reduce incentives to work. This occurs at both ends of the income scale. At the lower end, marginal tax rates can be high as welfare benefits are withdrawn once individuals' incomes pass certain levels. At the upper end, many societies impose higher marginal tax rates on those with high incomes. See also progressive taxation.

Marginal utility

The added (or lost) satisfaction or benefit gained by consumers from the increase (or decrease) of one unit. The usual assumption is that marginal utility declines as consumption increases: for a hungry person, the first slice of toast is very satisfying but they may stop eating before their seventh or eighth.

Mark-to-market

The practice of recording the value of an asset in a set of accounts at the current price, rather than the price at which it was bought. Though logical in theory, the practice has been criticised for encouraging short-termism. If the market value is hard to ascertain, then the company can exploit the uncertainty to manipulate the figures: mark-to-market accounting was at the heart of the Enron scandal.

Market failure

Marxism

See communism.

Mass production

One of the breakthroughs in 20th-century manufacturing was the development of mass production, normally associated with the Ford Motor Company. Mass production usually involved the division of labour, specialised machinery and standardised products. The economies of scale involved allowed manufacturers to lower their prices and vastly expand the potential market for their goods.

Maturity

A term which applies to debt, and refers to the amount of life before the debt needs to be repaid and thus refinanced.

Medium of exchange

Mercantilism

Mergers and acquisitions

This term, often abbreviated to M&A, concerns corporate takeovers. Genuine mergers, in which two companies of roughly equal size combine, are much rarer than acquisitions, in which a larger company buys a smaller one. And hostile acquisitions, in which the smaller company resists the deal, are rarer than agreed takeovers. The deals are very lucrative for investment banks, and other advisers, who are thus understandably happy to recommend them. But the buying company faces the risk of overpaying for the target and the danger that the culture of the two businesses is incompatible, leading to disappointing returns.

Microeconomics

The branch of economics that studies the decision-making of individual entities, such as individuals and businesses. Microeconomists look at how these agents will respond to incentives, or to changes in prices, regulations or taxes. By contrast, macroeconomics looks at the behaviour of the economy in aggregate.

Middle income trap

Minimum wage

Minsky moment

A sudden collapse in market sentiment. Named after Hyman Minsky, an economist, who developed a financial instability hypothesis. As asset prices rise, investors become more and more confident and use leverage to finance their positions. By the end, they will be buying regardless of underlying valuations. At some point, confidence will falter and investors will rush to sell and repay their debts, causing prices to collapse. For more, read our Schools Brief.

Misery index

The sum of the rates of inflation and unemployment. Created in the 1970s by Arthur Okun, an American economist, to gauge the cost of stagflation.

Mixed economy

An economic system that combines elements of free enterprise and state planning. Few economies are not mixed to some degree, with the possible exception of North Korea. Even communist Cuba allows some market activity.

Models

A description of economic relationships in mathematical or graphical form, designed to allow hypotheses to be tested. Inevitably, models have to simplify the incredibly complex nature of relationships in the real world. Although models can add clarity and mathematical rigour to statements about the economy, some are criticised for their unrealistic assumptions (such as perfect information and rational expectations). And a fondness for complex mathematical equations has led economists to be accused of "physics envy"; trying to create precise rules in a social science.

Modern monetary theory (MMT)

Monetarism

Monetary financing

Monetary policy

Money

The oil that greases the economy's wheels, and acts as the unit of account for economic activity. Money can be any token that is accepted as payment; past examples have included seashells and the giant stones on the island of Yap. For a while, money was linked to precious metals but modern money is largely fiat currency and is electronic in form. Whatever its form, money needs to be a reasonably stable store of value and an acceptable medium of exchange.

Money illusion

Failing to take account of the effect of inflation. Employers may find workers more willing to agree to a pay rise of 4% when inflation is 6% than to accept a pay freeze when prices are falling. Savers should be happier about earning a return of 2% when inflation is zero than the prospect of earning 4% when inflation is 6%. See also real terms.

Money markets

A term used to describe the borrowing and lending of money on a short-term basis (generally for less than a year). Banks need to finance themselves with short-term borrowing on a regular basis, so when the money markets freeze (as they did in 2008) a crisis usually follows.

Money supply

The total amount of money in an economy. This is very hard to define; notes and coins are only a small part of the money we use. Current account balances, unused credit card balances and holdings of money-market funds can all be added to the mix. Measuring all these, and deciding which are the most important, dogged the application of monetarism in practice.

Monopoly

A company with a controlling position in an industry or sector. Traditionally, the main fear was that monopolies would exploit their position to overcharge customers. But in the internet age, concerns have shifted to the idea that technology companies with strong franchises will strangle competition by denying new firms access to their platforms, or by simply acquiring them to add the product to their range, thereby increasing their dominance. See antitrust.

Monopsony

Whereas a monopoly is a seller with a dominant position, a monopsony is a dominant buyer. An example could be a food producer which is the main buyer of coffee beans or fresh chickens from farmers. A monopsonist can exploit its position by insisting on low prices.

Moral hazard

The risk that providing insurance might alter the behaviour of those being insured. Homeowners or car drivers may take more risks if they know that an insurance company will cover their losses. This is also a problem for central banks when they act as a lender of last resort for banks; knowing they will be rescued in a crisis, bank executives may take more risks and investors may be less choosy about the banks with which they do business. See asymmetric information.

Most favoured nation

A core principle of the World Trade Organisation (WTO) and the GATT, this requires countries to treat the imports and exports of all other WTO members in the way that they treat the "most favoured nation" among their trading partners. In other words, there is no special treatment for any one country.

Multiplier effect

NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement)

A deal signed in 1993 by America, Canada and Mexico to eliminate tariff barriers between the three countries by creating a free trade area. The agreement was disliked by many on both the left and the right of American politics and President Donald Trump renegotiated it during his term of office, renaming it the US-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA). The main change was that a greater proportion of a car or truck's components had to be manufactured in America to qualify for tariff exemption.

Nairu (Non-Accelerating Inflation Rate of Unemployment)

Nash equilibrium

National debt

National income

See gross domestic product and gross national product

Nationalisation

The takeover by the state of private businesses. Under communism, all large businesses are state-owned and the previous private owners are rarely compensated. In a social democracy, the state tends to focus on certain industries, notably utilities (power generation, water etc), those deemed to be strategically important (steel, coal) and loss-making businesses that employ a lot of workers. Nationalisation was common after 1945 but was reversed under the privatisation programmes of the 1980s and 1990s.

Natural experiment

Natural rate of unemployment

Negative equity

This arises when a borrower buys a property and the price falls sharply, so that the size of the loan is greater than the value of the property. This was a big problem in the American housing market in the mid-2000s. Negative equity meant, at best, borrowers would be unable to move and at worst, they would default, with resulting losses for the lenders as well as themselves.

Negative income tax

A payment made to people on low incomes as a way of reducing poverty. The approach can be an alternative to welfare payments, which can be complex to administer and carry social stigma. Instead the state just makes a payment to those whose incomes are below a certain level.

Negative interest rates

Neoclassical economics

A school of thought, associated with Alfred Marshall, an English economist, that developed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Rather than focus on the cost of production as the most important element in determining the price of a good or service (as did the classical school), neoclassical economists focused on the preferences of consumers, and the utility they attach to the product. The focus on both producers and consumers in maximising utility allowed the neoclassicists to build models of how the economy works.

Neoliberalism

Net present value

A standard approach used in business investment. A firm estimates all the future revenues that will flow from a project and then discounts them to reflect their value in today's money. The calculation is highly sensitive to the assumptions about future revenue growth and the discount rate applied; the risk is overoptimism. See also time value of money.

Network effect

The benefits that accrue to consumers and producers when more customers buy a product; it is little use being the only person to own a telephone, for example. Network effects have been significant in the development of the internet; platforms such as eBay and Airbnb benefit from network effects as consumers are attracted by a plethora of suppliers and suppliers flock to platforms with many consumers. See also first mover advantage.

Nobel prize for economics

This award was first awarded in 1969, well after Alfred Nobel's death, and was set up in his memory, with Sweden's central bank funding the prize. Notable winners have included Paul Samuelson, Simon Kuznets and Milton Friedman.

Nominal interest rates

The stated level of interest rates, taking no account of inflation. A nominal return of 5% might sound good, but if inflation is 8%, then the purchasing value of the saver's money is declining (by about 3%). Real interest rates adjust for actual, or expected, inflation.

Normal distribution

Also known as the bell curve, this describes phenomena where most data points cluster around the average and there are few outliers; human heights are a classic example. When bankers use the normal distribution in financial models, however, they can be caught out by extreme events or fat tails.

OECD

The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development was created in 1961 and has acted as a club for developed nations, compiling reports on individual economies and serving as a hub for research on policy options and economic data. For more, see this Explainer.

OPEC

The Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries is a producers' cartel which attempts to influence both the supply and the price of oil. It was most effective in the 1970s, quadrupling the oil price and contributing to the stagflation of the era. Its influence waned after that era as new producers like Norway emerged and America developed its shale oil reserves. But OPEC's decisions (these days taken after consultation with Russia and other producers) still matter.

Offshore haven

A jurisdiction which imposes little or no tax on transactions or profits and thus is chosen by financial and multinational companies as a hub for some of their activities. Rich individuals also hold money offshore, to reduce their tax bills. The IMF has estimated that governments worldwide lose around $500bn to $600bn a year through the use of offshore havens. For more, see this Explainer.

Oligopoly

When a few firms control a market. This can lead to agreements (tacit or explicit) to fix prices or exclude new entrants. Adam Smith famously wrote: "People of the same trade seldom meet together, even for merriment and diversion, but the conversation ends in a conspiracy against the public, or in some contrivance to raise prices." See cartel.

Opportunity cost

The cost of something may not just be its price but the alternative; what was given up to get it. So the opportunity cost of spending the afternoon at a bar is the wages you might have earned had you stayed at work. Money spent on a fancy meal could have been spent on a training course to enhance your skills.

Optimal currency area

A theoretical assessment of the geopolitical regions where it would be most efficient, in economic terms, to share a currency. The criteria, developed by Robert Mundell (winner of a Nobel prize), include the existence of highly integrated economies, with flexible labour markets, and the potential for fiscal transfers between nations.

Option

A derivative contract that gives the right, but not the obligation, to undertake a transaction at a set price for a set period. A call option is the right to buy and a put option the right to sell. In return, the option holder pays a premium to the person who grants the option. See also share options.

Output

The result of economic activity. GDP is the total output of a nation's economy.

Output gap

The extent to which an economy is operating above potential. In theory, the economy will overheat, driving inflation, only if the output gap is positive, meaning that businesses are chasing scarce workers and resources. But assessing the level of potential output is very difficult, so estimates of the output gap are imprecise.

Over-the-counter markets

Forums where financial instruments are traded, but are not a recognised exchange (like the New York Stock Exchange). Trillions of dollars of currencies are traded this way every day.

Overheating

If an economy is growing too fast, companies may face bottlenecks in acquiring resources or hiring labour. This will lead to higher costs and wages, and thus rising inflation.

Overshooting

When financial markets take a trend too far. For example, when a currency depreciates, investors may lose confidence and sell, driving the currency to an undervalued level. Investors may also overreact when central banks start to tighten monetary policy, driving up rate expectations further than the authorities intend. But overshooting is not always irrational or mistaken. Rudi Dornbusch, a German economist, showed that exchange rates naturally overshoot under certain conditions.

Pareto distribution

Vilfredo Pareto, an Italian economist, noticed that 80% of Italian land was owned by 20% of the population. This distribution, also known as a power law, crops up in a wide variety of circumstances; one study found that 80% of health-care expenses were linked to just 20% of patients.

Pareto efficiency

Another idea named after Vilfredo Pareto. It describes a situation in which resources are distributed so that it is not possible to make anyone better off without making someone else worse off. In theory, if Pareto efficiency is not achieved, this is a case of market failure since it is possible to improve the allocation of resources.

Passive management

The purchase of a portfolio that replicates the broad market in an asset class (usually equities). Passive management emerged in the 1970s when it was noticed that many active managers failed to beat the index after fees (this is inevitable, because the index does not reflect costs).

Pension funds

Institutional investors that run portfolios on behalf of current and future retirees. Final-salary (or defined-benefit) funds offer a pension that is linked to employees' salaries; these are increasingly confined to the public sector. In the private sector, younger employees are only offered defined-contribution pensions, where the retirement income is dependent on market performance.

Perfect competition

Permanent income hypothesis

A theory of consumption, developed by Milton Friedman, that suggests people try to spread their spending evenly over their lifetimes. A sudden windfall will not be spent entirely; a significant part will be saved. And those savings will be used to top up spending in the event of a loss of income; for example, losing a job. Thus an individual's spending will be less volatile than their income. See also life-cycle hypothesis.

Phillips curve

This concept, developed by William Phillips, an economist, suggests that inflation and unemployment are inversely related; when inflation is high, unemployment is low and vice versa. Phillips had discovered the link in data from the British economy between 1861 and 1957. In the 1970s, however, both inflation and unemployment were high (see stagflation) and in the 2000s, both were low by historical standards. This suggests the relationship is far from stable. Our Schools Brief explains in more detail.

Physics envy

Pigouvian tax

Platform company

A new type of firm that emerged with the internet and links together suppliers and consumers. For example, AirBnB connects homeowners with properties to rent and holidaymakers who need somewhere to stay. Platform companies benefit from network effects: a large number of suppliers attracts consumers and vice versa.

Positional goods

Products that confer status and are thus both limited in supply and carry premium prices. Examples include properties in highly residential areas, fancy sports cars and upmarket hotels. The existence of positional goods helps explain why rising living standards have not been accompanied by a substantial reduction in working hours; people work hard so they can feel a cut above the rest. For more, see this article.

Post-neoclassical endogenous growth theory

See endogenous growth theory.

Poverty

Measures of poverty can be absolute or relative. In the former case, individuals or households have insufficient income to afford the basics of life: food, shelter, heat, clothing. In the latter, poverty is measured against a proportion (say, 50% or 60%) of median income. At the global level, extreme poverty is defined by the World Bank as an income of less than $2.15 a day, at the time of writing. On this measure, the proportion of the world population in extreme poverty has dropped from more than 35% in 1990 to less than 10%.

Poverty trap

A term used when people find it impossible to improve their circumstances thanks to institutional barriers. One example is the workings of the tax and benefits system. High effective marginal tax rates-combining taxes on earnings and withdrawal of benefits as incomes rise-may mean that their employment earnings will make them barely any better off. Another is access to the highest level of education and health services, which may prevent people from realising their full potential.

Power law

See Pareto distribution.

Precariat

Precautionary motive

Holding a proportion of assets in cash, so that the individual can bear the cost of an unexpected event. Keynes suggested there were three reasons to hang on to cash: the other two are the speculative motive and the transactions motive.

Price

Price elasticity

See elasticity.

Price-earnings ratio

An oft-used valuation method for individual shares and for the stock market as a whole. It compares the share price with the company's after-tax profits. This can be based on historic or forecast profits. Robert Shiller of Yale University (a winner of a Nobel prize) has developed a method for valuing the entire market, based on an average of the past ten years' profits (adjusted for inflation), called the cyclically adjusted price-earnings ratio or CAPE.

Primary balance

The gap between a government's revenues and expenditure in a given year, excluding interest payments on its existing debt. This is sometimes used as a measure of the sustainability of a country's finances. Much depends on the size of the government's existing debt and the level of interest rates. But a country that can run a primary surplus is likely to reduce its ratio of debt to GDP over time.

Primary market

Principal-agent problem

Private equity

Private sector

Those economic activities that are not controlled by the government, ranging from a one-man window cleaning business to giant corporations.

Privatisation

The transfer of assets or firms from the public sector to the private sector. There was much enthusiasm for this in the 1980s and 1990s, not least because it raised money for governments in a relatively painless fashion. Some sectors, such as telecoms and airlines, clearly benefited in terms of operating efficiency from being privatised. But the evidence is less clear when it comes to utilities, such as water companies, which are natural monopolies.

Productivity

One of the most important concepts in economics, productivity measures the level of output for a given level of inputs. This is most commonly expressed as output per worker hour. Boosting productivity is the key to long-term economic growth, which is why there has been much concern about the sluggish performance of productivity in the developed world since the financial crisis of 2007-09. See also total factor productivity.

Profits

The difference between a company's revenues and its costs. Profits lie at the heart of the capitalist system and are one of the key motives for business formation. They will either be reinvested in the business or distributed to shareholders in the form of dividends or share buy-backs. See also windfall tax. Profit is also the term used when an asset is sold for a gain.

Progressive taxation

A system in which higher marginal rates of taxation apply to higher incomes. In the past, these rates have been very high. In America, a rate of 94% was imposed on the highest incomes in 1944. The top rates were lowered significantly in America and Britain under Ronald Reagan and Margaret Thatcher.

Property

Ownership of private property is the essence of all economic systems, bar communism. Those who own property (defined broadly as all assets) have an incentive to use it productively and to invest it for future gains. These incentives are reduced without property rights; hence the quip "no one ever washed a rented car". See also tragedy of the commons. In narrow terms, the word is also used to describe land and buildings as an asset class.

Protectionism

Public choice theory

A branch of economics that studies how those involved in government (politicians, bureaucrats etc) might behave. The theory suggests that those in the public sector might act in line with their self-interest; building up their departments to enhance their power and status, or framing regulations to favour the localities they represent. Thus there can be government failures as well as market failures.

Public goods

Things that, if they exist, can only exist for everyone in a society. If one person consumes a public good, that does not stop another person from doing so too. Among the commonest examples are clean air, radio broadcasts and national defence. Because public goods are subject to the free-rider problem they tend to be provided by governments and paid for by taxation.

Public sector

That part of the economy which is controlled by, or owned by, the government.

Public spending

Purchasing-power parity (PPP)

A method of adjusting exchange rates to take account of the different levels of prices in different countries. In the absence of barriers to trade, theory suggests that the prices of goods and services in different countries should be roughly equivalent (allowing for transport costs). In practice, this is rarely the case. But economists calculate PPP exchange rates as a way of assessing whether currencies are under- or over-valued; The Economist does this in a light-hearted way with its Big Mac index (see this article), which uses the prices of McDonald's burgers.

Quantitative easing (QE)

A policy introduced to alleviate the effects of the 2007-09 financial crisis. Central banks slashed interest rates but the effect of such cuts seemed to diminish as they approached the zero lower bound. Quantitative easing (QE) involved banks buying government bonds (and some other assets) in the secondary market and creating new money to pay the sellers (see this Explainer). This had the double effect of injecting liquidity into the economy and pushing down bond yields, cutting the cost of borrowing for the corporate sector. Critics argue that QE is hard to reverse (see this article) and is perilously close to monetary financing.

Quantitative tightening

Quantity theory of money

Quit rate

A measure of how many people leave their jobs voluntarily, rather than being laid off or fired. A rising quit rate implies that workers are more confident about finding new jobs, and thus the economy is expanding. See also job vacancies.

Quota

A trade barrier that limits the number, or monetary value, of goods that a country imports. See also protectionism.

Quoted company

A business which has listed its shares on a stock exchange.

R*

The real (after inflation) interest rate that would prevail when the economy is operating at potential. Models of the macroeconomy say monetary policy is delivering stimulus if and only if the prevailing real interest rate set by the central bank is lower than r*. Unfortunately, this crucial variable cannot be observed directly.

Randomised control trials

Rate of return

Ratings

Measures of the riskiness of a financial instrument, provided by a ratings agency (such as Standard & Poor's, Moody's and Fitch). The higher the credit rating, the lower the risk, and when applied to debt instruments, the lower the interest rate the borrower has to pay. Ratings below a certain level are regarded as high-risk (see junk bonds). The ratings agencies came in for heavy criticism during the financial crisis of 2007-09, when financial instruments that had been rated highly plunged in value.

Rational expectations

The idea that people base their decisions on the best information available to them and learn from their mistakes. In particular, this led free-market and monetarist economists to argue that consumers would anticipate government policy changes and adjust their behaviour accordingly. So if the government runs a big budget deficit to stimulate demand, consumers will anticipate that taxes will rise in the long run, and save some of the windfall to meet their future tax bills (an idea known as Ricardian equivalence). Thus Keynesian fiscal policy will be self-defeating in the long run.

Raw materials

Basic commodities-eg, oil, metals and cotton-that firms need to manufacture products.

Real terms

Real-time indicators

Much economic data is only published after a lag and thus tells policymakers about the previous state of the economy. So statisticians are looking increasingly at real-time data such as the number of online job adverts, traffic activity on the roads, credit-card spending and so on. To learn more about the growing importance of real-time data, read our Briefing.

Recession

A period of falling economic output. This is often defined as two consecutive quarters of declining gross domestic product. However, the National Bureau of Economic Research, which is the authority on American recessions, simply regards them as "a significant decline in economic activity that is spread across the economy and that lasts more than a few months". It looks at measures such as real incomes, employment and industrial production. This Explainer tells you more.

Redlining

The discriminatory practice of refusing financial services (such as loans or insurance) to people living in certain areas, usually based on ethnicity. The American government has passed regulations to try to stop redlining, but cases are still discovered.

Reflation

Regressive taxes

Regulatory arbitrage

The practice of shifting the location of, or structure of, a company so that it can benefit from more favourable rules. A classic example was the shadow banking system, which avoided many of the regulations that applied to commercial banks; the lack of scrutiny of the sector contributed to the 2007-09 financial crisis.

Regulatory capture

When the regulator gets too close to the sector it is overseeing. This may occur because the industry will spend a lot of effort lobbying for its cause, and will have more spending power than consumer groups on the other side of the argument. Or it may happen because the regulator recruits staff from the sector or because the regulator's employees hope to get lucrative jobs in the sector in subsequent years.

Remittances

Money sent by migrants back to their home country, usually to support their families. They are an important source of income for some developing nations; the World Bank estimated that low- to middle-income countries received $626bn via this route in 2022.

Rent

The income paid to a landowner for the use of land or buildings. Economists also use the word in a different sense; see economic rent.

Rent-seeking

A broad term used to describe the practice of grabbing a bigger slice of the cake without adding more value. A company might lobby the government to grant it profitable contracts on sweetheart terms, or regulations that stifle competitors. See crony capitalism (and our index). The most basic private-sector example of rent-seeking is a protection racket, in which criminals demand a cut of (say) a bar-owner's or shopkeeper's revenue.

Repo

See repurchase agreement

Repurchase agreement

In a repurchase agreement, or repo, one party sells a security (usually a government bond) to another and agrees to buy it back for a slightly higher price at a future date (usually the following day). This is a form of borrowing and the difference between the two prices is essentially the interest rate on the debt. The repo market is huge, with an estimated size of more than $4trn in America alone. It is the way many market participants finance themselves in the short term.

Rescheduling

The rearrangement of the terms of a debt, when the borrower is struggling to repay. This will usually involve reducing the interest payments in the short term and extending the life of the loan or bond. Rescheduling often requires lengthy negotiations between the borrower and the creditors.

Research and development

Often shortened to R&D, this is the vital work that helps to create innovation and boosts productivity in the economy. Governments can directly fund R&D themselves (particularly in wartime) or encourage it through tax breaks. Countries in the OECD spend around 2.5% of GDP each year at the time of writing, although some countries (eg, Israel, South Korea and Taiwan) spend much more.

Reservation wage

The lowest wage at which a worker will accept employment. Looked at in another way, this is a measure of potential workers' valuation of their leisure time.

Reserve currency

A currency held by a central bank for use in emergencies. The central bank might need reserves to defend the currency of its home nation (by selling the foreign currency and buying the domestic one). Or it might lend its reserves to domestic banks should they need them. The dominant reserve currency is the American dollar (around 60% of global reserves at the time of writing) but the euro and Japanese yen are also used.

Reserve requirements

Reserves are electronic money held in accounts at the central bank. Usually only commercial banks can hold reserves. The overall amount in existence is determined by the central bank, though individual commercial banks can lend them to one another or convert them into physical cash. In the past some central banks have set minimum reserve requirements and the authorities sometimes changed the level of required reserves as a way of tightening or loosening monetary policy; China still does this today. Since 2008 the quantity of reserves has grown significantly because of quantitative easing, leading the Federal Reserve and other central banks to pay interest on reserves. This sets a floor under interest rates in the interbank market.

Resource curse

Ricardian equivalence

Risk

The possibility that events might not turn out as expected. Risk faces all economic participants; workers might not get paid, or might lose their jobs; customers may overpay or purchase a shoddy product; producers may find that demand is much lower than they hoped; investors may lose money; and so on. Some risks can be quantified: actuaries have a pretty good idea how many people will die in a normal year. But much risk is subject to Knightian uncertainty; there is not enough information to assess all the probabilities.

Risk premium

The extra return investors demand for holding risky assets such as equities, compared with the return they get on risk-free assets such as cash or government bonds. The risk premium needs to reflect two factors; the potential for absolute loss (if the company goes bust or defaults on a debt) and the volatility of the asset (that is, the variability of its price). In a crisis, risky assets plunge in price, meaning that investors may have to sell them at a loss.

Risk-adjusted return

A calculation that reflects the greater risks of some portfolios compared with others. A fund manager might achieve a 20% return over a year, compared with a market return of just 10%. But if the manager owned just a few stocks, that portfolio was a lot riskier than the market as a whole. There is no guarantee that the manager's luck will hold in subsequent years.

Risk-averse

Risk-free return

The return on assets deemed to be safe, such as cash or government bonds. This concept is the basis for financial models in which investors demand a risk premium over the risk-free rate. However, such assets are not really risk-free, as investors can suffer real losses if the returns are below inflation and, in the case of government bonds, capital losses when yields rise. In the late 2010s, when government bonds in some countries traded on negative yields, some commentators quipped they offered "return-free risk".

Rules of origin

Regulations that determine where a product is sourced or made and thus how it will be treated for trade purposes, in particular whether they qualify for tariff-free treatment within a free-trade area.

Sales tax

A much-used and lucrative source of government finance, sales taxes are a form of indirect taxation, as they are collected by retailers and other middlemen. In Europe, the sales tax comes in the form of a value added tax, which is levied at each point of the supply chain.

Sanctions

Defined by Benjamin Coates, a historian, as "a collective denial of economic access designed to enforce global order". Sanctions might include trade embargoes, bans on travel and investment, and asset freezes. They have become a widely used tool of foreign policy, not least after Russia's invasion of Ukraine in 2022. For more about their use, history and effectiveness, read our Briefing and this article.

Savings

Say's law

Seasonal adjustment

Some economic activity varies depending on the time of the year. Retail sales surge in the run-up to Christmas, for example. Statisticians adjust economic data to take account of these variations.

Secondary market

The forum where existing securities (such as bonds or equity) are traded. Turnover in the secondary market is vast, running at many trillions of dollars a day. When the media report on "nervous markets", it is the secondary market to which they refer. See also primary market.

Securities

A catch-all term used to describe tradable financial instruments, such as bonds and equities.

Securitisation

The practice of bundling together certain types of assets so they can be repackaged as interest-bearing securities. The assets in question tend to be those that are not normally tradable: residential mortgages, commercial mortgages, car loans etc. Securitisation was highly popular in the early 2000s, when investors were looking for assets that yielded more than government bonds. But the bundling of subprime mortgages led to the financial crisis of 2007-09.

Seigniorage

The difference between the face value of money and the cost of producing it. Over history, this has been a nice little earner for governments. However, small coins, such as the American penny, can cost more to make than they are worth.

Seniority

The order in which creditors are entitled to be repaid in the event of a company going bankrupt. Senior debt must be paid off before junior debt and is thus less risky, carrying a lower yield.

Services

Economic activities that, unlike manufacturing, do not create a physical product. These make up the greater part of the GDP of most developed economies and include everything from architecture to zookeeping.

Shadow banks

Financial services companies that are not part of the regulated banking system but are still involved in lending and derivatives trading. The expansion of shadow banks in the early 2000s resulted in the credit expansion that eventually triggered the 2007-09 financial crisis. See also subprime mortgages.

Share options

Shareholder value

The idea, especially influential in the 1990s and early 2000s, that businesses should focus only on improving shareholder returns. Supporters argued that it was up to governments to pass laws to promote wider social goals, not companies. Opponents argued that the concept led to short-termism and a callous disregard for workers' rights and the environment. See also stakeholder capitalism.

Shares

An alternative term for equities.

Short-selling

The practice of borrowing shares, then selling them, in the hope of buying them back at a lower price and making a profit. Short-sellers tend to be unpopular, on the grounds that they prosper from bad news, and the practice tends to be banned or restricted during crises, the very times when it is most profitable. But short-sellers can play a useful role in sniffing out scandals and acting as a check on overheated markets.

Short-termism

An excessive focus on immediate returns at the expense of the long-term. This can apply to businesses if they pay too much attention to quarterly profits targets, or to institutional investors if they hold their position for a few weeks, rather than a few years. See share options.

Skill-biased technological change (SBTC)

An explanation for the rise in income inequality in the developed world. The rising use of new technology has led to a wage premium for those who can use it efficiently and depressed the wages of lower-skilled workers.

Socialism

A term that is hard to define. Socialists believe in some forms of collective ownership but not the near-complete abolition of the private sector imposed under communism. They will attempt to redistribute wealth through taxes on the rich and welfare for the poor, but not to eliminate all income differentials.

Sovereign risk

The risk that a government will default on a bond or a loan.

Sovereign-wealth funds

Investment pools accumulated by national governments, often from the proceeds of energy wealth. Among the largest are those of China, Norway, Abu Dhabi and Kuwait. These funds give countries a chance to diversify their assets, and thus to protect themselves against an economic downturn or a decline in a key industry.

Special drawing right (SDR)

Specialisation

Speculation

The line between speculation and conventional investment is a fine one. Generally speaking, speculation will be short-term in nature, will involve leverage and will have no fundamental relationship to the business or personal interests of the speculator. Although speculators are often condemned, many businesses would struggle to hedge their risks without a speculator to take the other side of the position.

Speculative motive

One of three reasons suggested by Keynes for holding cash. An investor might hope that asset prices will fall and thus hangs on to cash in the expectation of buying the assets more cheaply. See also precautionary motive and transactions motive.

Spot price

The price that has to be paid for something if it is bought immediately. Most commonly used in the commodity markets, and a contrast with the futures price.

Spread

A common term in financial markets to describe the difference between two prices or interest rates. When an investor seeks to trade a share, the dealer will offer a spread between the price at which they buy and sell. Riskier companies pay a higher rate to borrow than high-quality companies, or the American government, and the difference in yields is known as the spread over the less-risky bond.

Stagflation

Stagnation

A prolonged period of little or no economic growth.

Stakeholder capitalism

The idea that businesses should serve a wider community than just their shareholders, including their workers, suppliers and society at large. Proponents argue that this is better for the economy in the long run than a focus on short-term profit; indeed, they believe that companies that ignore their other stakeholders will eventually run into trouble. See also shareholder value.

State capitalism

See authoritarian capitalism

Sticky prices

Stock exchange

A formal market where shares, or equities, are traded. The word stock is commonly used as an alternative for shares in American English. Most developed countries have at least one stock exchange, and each exchange will have listing requirements for companies that want to have their shares traded. Trading was once conducted via open outcry in a single location but is now done mostly electronically.

Stockmarket

A term used broadly to describe all the trading in shares or equities.

Strategic industry

Structural adjustment

A programme of economic change designed to improve long-term growth. The IMF and World Bank may demand a programme of structural adjustment in return for a loan. And many a leader in The Economist has recommended structural reform.

Structural unemployment

Subprime mortgages

Home loans made to those with poor credit ratings. In the 2000s, some of these borrowers were dubbed "ninjas" as they had no income, job or assets. The loans were then bundled together as part of the securitisation process and sold to institutional investors and shadow banks. When house prices started to fall, many subprime borrowers defaulted, contributing to the 2007-09 financial crisis.

Subsidy

Money paid by a government, usually to one of two groups. The first is consumers, to encourage them to buy a product (such as insulation) or to keep prices down (as in 2022 when energy prices surged). The second is businesses, either to keep them from going bust (and save existing jobs) or to set up in a certain area (and create new jobs). Many economists dislike subsidies, since they distort market signals, unless they correct externalities.

Substitution effect

When the price of a product rises, consumers may replace it with an alternative; chicken instead of beef, for example. Statisticians need to adjust for this when compiling inflation indices.

Sunk costs

Expenses that cannot be recouped. Examples include the building of a prototype or the cost of obtaining planning permission for a new development. The danger is that businesses develop "sunk cost syndrome", continuing with a project, regardless of its prospects, rather than admit it was a failure and take the loss. See also loss aversion.

Supply

Those goods and services that are available to meet demand.

Supply and demand curves

Supply shock

A disruption to economic activity caused by a sudden interruption to supply of important products, or a sharp rise in price. In the modern era, supply shocks are often associated with energy: the oil embargo imposed by OPEC in the 1970s, for example, or Russia's restrictions on gas supplies after its invasion of Ukraine in 2022. The covid-19 pandemic, which caused many businesses to close, was another supply shock. Supply shocks usually result in both higher inflation and lower output, and are thus difficult for policymakers to tackle.

Supply-side economics

Swaps

Systematic risk

Risk that cannot be diversified away. An investor could buy 100 shares and thereby reduce the danger that the collapse of a single company could damage their portfolio. But the systematic risk of a collapse in the stockmarket would remain.

Systemic risk

The risk of damage to the entire financial system from the collapse of an individual institution from a group of them. Regulators have had to reconsider this subject in the aftermath of the financial crisis of 2007-09 when some companies were deemed "too big to fail". Large commercial banks definitely fall into the category but the collapse of AIG, an insurance company, indicated that the potential for systemic risk was widespread. See also macroprudential regulation.

Tangible assets

Literally, things that can be touched such as buildings and machinery. See also intangible assets.

Tariff

A tax imposed on imports. Tariffs are designed to support domestic producers but they result in higher prices for consumers. The Economist was founded in 1843 to campaign against a tariff on grain, known as the Corn Laws.

Tariff-rate quota

Tax avoidance

Tax competition

Tax evasion

Paying less tax than is legally required. Tax evasion is punished with fines and sometimes imprisonment but that requires the evaders to be caught. Contrast with tax avoidance.

Tax haven

A jurisdiction that imposes little or no tax on corporations and wealthy individuals. The haven benefits by attracting deposits to its banks and by generating business for local lawyers and accountants.

Tax incidence

A term for where the burden of tax actually falls, as opposed to liability in law. Tax a company and the cost will be passed on to its shareholders (via lower dividends), its customers (via higher prices) or its workers (via lower wages). The chain can be complicated; sales taxes may be paid by consumers but if the result is lower demand, that may hit the profits of retailers. Sometimes referred to as the "effective" incidence of a tax, in contrast to its "formal" incidence. For more on the distinction, see this article.

Tax neutrality

The principle that governments should set tax rules so that economic decisions are made on their own merits, and not for tax reasons. A combination of the policy priorities of politicians and lobbying by corporations means the principle is rarely observed in practice.

Taylor rule

Technical progress

Terms of trade

The average price of a country's exports, relative to that of its imports. Terms of trade shocks thus come in two main types. Developing countries can be hit by a fall in commodity prices, which reduces the value of their exports and this can worsen their trade balance. And developed economies can be hit by a rise in commodity prices, which increases the cost of imports and hits their trade balance,

Time value of money

Tobin tax

Total factor productivity

Output relative to inputs, measured (eg, by America's official statisticians) by dividing an index of output by a combined index of labour and capital. Growth in TFP is thus productivity growth that cannot be accounted for by extra inputs, but comes from greater efficiency or the adoption of new technology.

Total return

The sum of all returns from an investment, including income and capital gain.

Trade bloc

A group of nations that have agreed terms to reduce tariffs, or other trade barriers, among them. The European Union is the most obvious example. See also free-trade area.

Trade unions

Trade-weighted exchange rate

A weighted average of a country's exchange rate with its main trading partners. The weights reflect the proportion of trade done with each partner. Trends in this rate are a useful guide to the country's competitive position.

Tragedy of the commons

If individuals have access to a public resource, they will exploit it, without considering the common good. So small farmers will let their animals graze on the common (since it is free) until all the vegetation is destroyed; over the centuries, humans have overfished the oceans. Avoiding this problem either requires regulation or market pricing to discourage overuse.

Transactions motive

One of three reasons for holding cash suggested by Keynes and the simplest: people need cash to buy stuff. See also precautionary motive and speculative motive.

Transfer

In economics, a transfer is a payment of money without any goods or services being exchanged in return. Governments make transfers in the form of welfare benefits but individuals make transfers, both to charities and to friends and family members. See also remittances.

Transfer pricing

This occurs when goods or services are exchanged, across national borders, but within a multinational company. This creates the scope for a subsidiary within a high-tax jurisdiction to sell at a low price (or buy at a high price) when dealing with another subsidiary in a low-tax area. As a result, the subsidiary in a low-tax nation makes most of the profit. There are rules against this form of tax avoidance but it undoubtedly occurs: see this article.

Treasury bills

Short-term government debt with a maturity of less than a year. The term is most commonly used for debt issued by the American government, and the market in these bills is highly liquid. However, other governments (including Britain) also issue Treasury bills.

Treasury bonds

Medium- and long-term debt issued by the American government. This is one of the most liquid markets in the world and the basis for many financial transactions including repurchase agreements.

Trust

A necessary condition for much economic activity; suppliers must trust that their customers must pay them and customers must trust that the goods they buy are satisfactory. Surveys have found that higher levels of trust are associated with faster economic growth in the long run. For more detail, see this article.

USMCA (United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement)

Uncertainty

See Knightian uncertainty and risk.

Unemployment

Unions

See Trade unions

Universal basic income (UBI)

Term used for a variety of schemes to reduce poverty which involve giving all citizens an income that is enough to support them. Depending on the scheme design, the UBI would replace all or part of the benefit system. There are doubts about its potential effectiveness; a UBI might require punitively high marginal tax rates and might create a disincentive to work.

Usury

The charging of excessive rates of interest. Many ancient philosophers disliked the concept of interest payments and in the Middle Ages, laws against usury were common. Since lending was inherently risky in that era, this discouraged trade expansion and business formation. In the modern era, some governments still have laws that discourage sky-high rates of interest charged by those known as "loan sharks".

Vacancy rate

In the property sector, this is a measure of the proportion of rentable, or lettable, properties that are unoccupied. A high vacancy rate is either a sign of economic problems or the aftermath of excessive property building. For employment vacancies, see job vacancies.

Value added

The difference between the price of a good or service and the cost of producing it. This can be applied at the level of the individual firm (and is the basis for value added tax) or at the sectoral level.

Value at risk (VAR)

A measure used by financial institutions to estimate the maximum financial loss they might suffer, due to market movements, within a set period. Some institutions that used VAR were caught out in the financial crisis of 2007-09, because their models failed to allow for extreme events, or fat tails.

Variable costs

That part of a firm's expenditure that changes with the level of output (for example, extra raw materials). See also fixed costs.

Veblen goods

Luxury goods for which demand increases in line with their price. They are named after Thorstein Veblen, who described the phenomenon of "conspicuous consumption" in the late 19th century. Ownership of these goods confers social status, so their high price makes them more desirable by indicating that the buyer is part of the elite. As the saying goes: "If you have to ask the price, you can't afford it."

Velocity of circulation

A measure of how quickly money changes hands. A key component in the formula at the heart of the quantity theory of money.

Venture capital

A branch of the investment management industry that invests in start-ups, or recently formed companies, with the hope that they will achieve long-term success. Inevitably, venture capital investments have a high failure rate but the few successes can be so lucrative that overall returns can still be good. The sector has played a big role in financing the technology firms in Silicon Valley.

Visible trade

Trade in physical goods, such as raw materials, components and manufactured articles, like cars. See also invisible trade.

Volatility

A measure of risk in the financial markets. In its simplest terms, it is how much an asset price tends to go up and down. More precisely, it is calculated using the standard deviation of the logarithmic return over a given period. More volatile assets are deemed to be more risky and thus investors demand a higher return for owning them. For more, see this article.

Voluntary unemployment

Wage-price spiral

A feedback loop in which rising inflation causes workers to demand higher wages and the cost of meeting those wage rises causes businesses to push up their prices. Workers are often the losers, as wages fail to keep up: see this article.

Wages

The return due to labour. As well as a weekly or monthly payment, workers are often entitled to other benefits such as pensions, health insurance and sick pay. Some workers also receive overtime pay and performance-related bonuses. Although, in theory, wages are a matter of negotiation between employers and employees, some states have minimum wage levels while trade unions may negotiate on the workers' behalf.

Washington consensus

Wealth effect

The impact of a change in wealth on consumption. A sudden collapse in the stockmarket or in house prices will make people feel poorer and thus they will spend less. Conversely rapidly rising asset prices may make consumers more confident and prompt them to increase their spending.

Wealth tax

An idea that appeals to many on the left, given the wealth disparities in many countries. Inheritance taxes are a form of wealth tax and played their part in reducing disparities in the first half of the 20th century, by eating into the landed wealth of European aristocracies. More ambitious politicians hope to impose annual levies on the assets of the wealthy. However, the rich are good at tax avoidance and the revenues raised from such taxes tend to be low as a proportion of GDP. And many economists think that taxes on capital distort the economy by encouraging consumption rather than saving and investment.

Welfare

A term used, particularly in America, for social benefits to help people who are unemployed, sick, retired or have low incomes. Before the 20th century, welfare benefits were low and designed to discourage the "undeserving poor" from applying. But the Great Depression demonstrated the need for social benefits and developed economies built "welfare states" after the second world war. In 2019 welfare spending averaged around 20% of GDP across the OECD.

Welfare-to-work programmes

Schemes that encourage people to take up jobs and employers to give them work. These may include training, education or tax credits that reduce the impact of the loss of benefits to workers, and tax incentives for companies.

Windfall gains

A sudden, unexpected, gain in wealth such as an inheritance or a lottery win. If the permanent income hypothesis were correct, people would save the bulk of these gains. But not everyone does.

Windfall taxes

Levies imposed on companies that make large profits after an economic change. The most recent examples have been taxes on energy companies when their profits surged after Russia's invasion of Ukraine in 2022. Economists are dubious about the merits of these taxes as they may discourage future investment; companies may need the occasional windfall to compensate them for the losses they incur in difficult times. For the case against, see this article.

Winner-takes-all markets

When enormous rewards go to a few. Lots of people can sing or play football but the big money goes to those good enough to sell out concerts or play for top-flight clubs. By the same token, the best accountants, lawyers or fund managers will attract very high fees as clients will seek them out.

Withholding tax

A levy that is collected before the recipient gets their money. Such taxes are often applied to interest and dividend income. Taxes are also deducted before most workers get their wages.

Working from home (WFH)

A phenomenon that took off during the covid-19 pandemic when many offices were closed. Although employees in many sectors (retailing, manufacturing) could not work from home, office workers were able to use technology, such as video conferencing, to carry on. The evidence did not suggest a great impact on productivity but as the pandemic eased, hybrid working (with some days at home and some in the office) became quite common where it was possible. For more, see our Special Report.

World Bank

World Economic Forum

A research and conference group that holds an annual meeting in Davos, Switzerland, that attracts the great and the good. The conference has given rise to the stereotype of "Davos man" who is entitled and spouts the latest received wisdom. The forum has fuelled a thousand conspiracy theories.

World Trade Organisation

A body set up, under the auspices of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, to replace that regime and rule on trade disputes. China's admission to the WTO in December 2001 was followed by a rapid expansion of its exports, but not by the political liberalisation that some hoped would occur. The WTO is disliked by some campaigners-and some governments-because its decisions impinge on national sovereignty.

Zero coupon bond

A bond on which no interest payments are made. Instead it is issued at a discount to its repayment value and the bondholder makes a capital gain if they hold it to maturity. In some jurisdictions, this may have tax advantages if capital gains are treated less harshly than interest income.

Zero lower bound

Zero-hours contracts

A form of employment in the gig economy that offers maximum flexibility to employers and little security to workers. Employees are summoned for work only when they are needed and cannot therefore be sure of their likely income, their availability for other jobs or child-care commitments.

Zero-sum game

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Absolute advantage A concept that helps to explain international trade. If country A is better at making toasters than country B, and B is better at making kettles than A, it makes sense for each country to focus on the area where they have this advantage, and then trade toasters for kettles.

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Helpful Instructional Websites Links to Practical Resources

Links to Resources on Debates over the Government and Federal Budget Simulators Links to Learning Resources Links to Student Essay, Video, and Debate Contests Professional Organizations Journals Other

Podcasts: EconTalk

YouTube: CommonSenseEconomics
(Videos links are placed in play lists by economic content standard and/or economic concept.)

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Helpful Instructional Websites Links to Practical Resources Links to Resources on Debates over the Government and Federal Budget Simulators Links to Learning Resources Links to Student Essay, Video, and Debate Contests Professional Organizations Journals Other Podcasts: EconTalk YouTube: CommonSenseEconomics (Videos links are placed in play lists by economic content standard and/or economic concept.)

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This site is specific towards economic students. This site includes educational economic videos and lists a selection of economic resources.

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copyright BusinessEconomics.com

WolframAlpha.com
Wolframalpaha.com/Examples
We love this site it is a statistical search engine. You ask it for data and it will give you it. GDP per capita, exports as a percentage of GDP, population, value of the currency against the dollar, stock prices and charts...and much more. Solves equations and covers many subject areas from science, maths, music and history.

1) councilforeconed.org
The council for Economics education website proves a useful starting point for students of economics.

3) economicsnetwork.ac.uk
A great site for students who wish to learn all about economics, tons of material and useful data and links

4) economics.about.com
A nice site giving basic coverage of economics and links to interesting economics sites

5) econlib.org
Provides a concise encyclopaedia, classic texts and, articles and data links by topic. Plus some excellent discussion.

6) econedlink.org
For those beginning economics grades 6 to 12. Useful discussions and data links. Aimed at both students and educators.
There is also a glossary of key terms.

7) WebEc
A good place to find information on various branches of economics such a business economics, international economics, labor economics etc

8) tutor2u.net
A nice economics blog/education site covering basic micro and macroeconomics. Ideal for A-level students and year 1 university students.

9) Econguru.com
A site for those studying economics, lots of useful links and also links to some 9,700 economics texts

10) ocw.mit.edu/courses/economics
The open courseware courses of MIT enable students to access courses as taught by the leading MIT faculty.

11) intute.ac.uk/economics
Intute provides valuable links to resources in many areas of economics.

12) Ask Dr Econ
The Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco site. You can ask an economics question and they keep an historical archive of previous questions and answers.

13) Economicsonline.co.uk
A nice online resource for those studying economics. Good coverage of both micro and macro economics and global economy.

14) MRUniversity.com
The Marginal Revolution University is a pioneering effort to put courses online for students and lecturers. Each course offered has accompanying slides, notes and videos. The course offerings will expand over time.
illustrates basic economic principles through interactive graphs. The graphs enable students to develop analytic and deductive reasoning skills by manipulating graphical elements of the economic models. Students also learn how to apply these models to analyze and understand economic phenomena.

HumanProgress.org
This site is run by the Cato institute and produces statistics that track human progress over time.
15) New Economics Foundation
An alternative to mainstream economic ideas. The foundation puts planets and people first and promotes new economic ideas

16) EconomyWatch.com
A very useful resource covering the current state of the US and global economy. Also provides investment, personal finance and economic statistics. We like the slideshows covering interesting economic issues.

17) Amosweb.com
This site is a very useful economics resource site with a nice sense of humour. Includes a glossary and encyclopaedia and much more.

18) Bookboon.com
Provides free pdf textbooks written by University Professors, covers microeconomics, macroeconomics and econometrics. Financed by adverts in the books!

19) Resources for Economists
The American Economic Association provides a customized search engine to over 23,000 Economics Resources.

20) Nobel Prize in Economics
The Nobel prize for Economics was started in 1968. Since then many of the most distinguished economists have been awarded the prize and given speeches that are interesting.

21) EH.net
Economic History website provides resources for scholars specialised in Economic History. Includes extensive book reviews and links to useful databases.

22) E-Axes.com
An excellent resource for those interested in international economic issues such as the Eurozone crisis. Includes an archive of various topics and links to relevant articles.

23) New Economics Foundation
A website that encourages alternative economic thinking. It challenges mainstream economic thinking in the areas of economics, environment and social issues.

24) MetalProject.co.uk
A project devoted to improving mathematics learning resources for students and lecturers of economics at the undergraduate level.

25) Econoday.com/indicators
This page gives definitions of important economic and financial indicators. Includes a useful why investors care analysis.

26) DollarsandSense.org
Publishes economic news and analysis. There are also reports on economic justice and primers on economic topics. Takes a critical view of the mainstream media's coverage of the economy.

27) EconClassroom.com
This site has video lectures covering key concepts in both micro and macroeconomics. Very useful for students looking to understand basic concepts.

28) FreeEconHelp.com
A very helpful website for those wishing to learn economics to a reasonable standard. Lots of materials including video lectures of important concepts.

29) Econsources.com
A site run by an economics Professor Gary Clayton providing useful links to a variety of economics related websites.

30) EBEA.org.uk
The Economics Business and Enterprise Association website is a great resource for teachers of Economics and Business. It has lots of advice on how to make teaching in these subject areas more interesting

31) FEE.org
The Foundation for Economic Education is a great way to learn about free market economic thinking. There is a huge catalogue of articles published in the Freeman journal. There are also videos and other useful resources.

32) Economy.com
Run by Moody's this website looks at what is happening in the global economy. It has the latest data and you can look at what is currently happening to GDP, inflation and unemployment in each economy.

33) Economistsdoitwithmodels.com
This website is run by Jodi Beggs and is devoted to explaining economics to first year university level. There are some nice instructional videos covering various topics and plenty of interesting posts and links.

34) Whatiseconomics.org
A blog that introduces some basic economic concepts and explains various branches of economics.

35) VirtualProfessors.com/economics
Has video lectures from leading economists on a variety of topics such as behavioural economics, inequality in income, the state of the world economy etc

36) YouTube.com/economicsfun
This youtube channel has a lot of videos covering microeconomics at the introductory level. Very detailed explanations with appropriate diagrams.

37) Econtalk.org
Russ Roberts talks to a wide variety of very well known economists such as Joseph Stiglitz, Robert Barro, Milton Friedman on a huge range of topics. You can play them live or stream them. Checkout the archive for full list.

38) Tutor2u.net/RevisionEconomics
This is a part of the Tutor2u website with specific revision notes that are useful for last minute revision.

39) Chartsbin.com
We like this website as it includes many maps of the world and you can see via the colours things like , health, income levels, degrees of inequality, energy consumption and much more social, business and economic indicators.

40) Coursera.org/Economics
Has lots of courses from leading University Professor covering economics, game theory, behavioural economics. You follow the courses over a period of weeks.

41) Khanacademy.org/Finance-Economics
The Khan Academy provides video lectures in a variety of economics areas such as micro and macro economics. The above links to a variety of lectures from their microeconomics offering.

42) Topdocumentaryfilms.com/economics
The top documentary films website has a superb collection of documentary videos on economics including the financial crisis, collapse of Lehman's and other interesting topics over 70 videos.

43) s-cool.co.uk/economics
The S-cool website has a nice economics section for students doing first year economics or A-level type courses in economics. Covers major topics such as inflation, economic growth, balance of payments and unemployment.

44) Chartporn.org
Don't be put off by the title, there are some excellent charts on this site covering finance, business and the global economy. It is a great teaching resource with lots of useful diagrams and data.

45) EconomicsRevealed.co.uk
A great resource for those studying economics, lots of videos covering main economic issues, plus useful links to various websites.

46) Youtube.com/economicsfun
A very nice set of videos on basic economic concepts such as the effects of taxes, price elasticity, the gains from trade, production possibility frontier and much more.

47) ChineseHongKongUniveristy/IntEcon
The Chinese University of Hong Kong has this very useful webpage of links for those interested in international economics - over 3800 links. From exchange rates to WTO.

48) Commanding Heights
This site gives a comprehensive overview of global economic history since World War 1. It includes interviews, essays, charts, reports, an interactive atlas of history and economic data on globalization.
The wikipedia economics section is an excellent starting point for those wishing to learn more about economics. It covers both micro and macroeconomics in some detail. Plus there are sections on international economics and also extensive sections covering the history of economics and different schools of economics.

50) urch.com/forums/phd-economics
The Urch forum is a very useful discussion board for those interested in doing a PhD in economics. Others share their thoughts on the merits of various schools. This website has good coverage for an introductory economics course covering both microeconomic and macroeconomic topics. It is particularly useful for UK students studying A-level economics.

53) Economicshelp.org
This website published by Tejvan Pettinger is a great resource for those studying A-level economics. It has a UK focus and has a selection of material covering both micro and macro-economics. All in all a very useful resource.

54) The Global Development and Environment Institute at Tufts University is a great resource for those wishing to look at economics from an alternative perspective including social and environmental issues there are also free online course materials.

This website contains a lot of free material covering micro, macro, international economics. It is ideal for those doing introductory economics and A-level economics. There are also lots of self-test questions.

56) 55)
The economics section of Cliffnotes provides a good overview of both micro and macro topics. The course notes are also accompanied with useful diagrams.

57) Economicstudents.com
This is a website run by the Economics Students Society of Australia. It is basically a student led economics website covering various economics issues of the day. There are many interesting articles on the application of economics to the real world. There is also an interesting forum. 51) Ingrimayne.com/econ

The Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta has a nice education center for economists including videos and powerpoints on topics like the history of central banking, GDP, Unemployment, fractional reserve banking and inflation.

59) Nationsonline.org
Nations online is an established portal linking to information on every country of the world. There are statistics on the populations, major cities and links to a huge range of resources from each country covering news, data and much more.

60) free-economics.tripod.com
A useful website covering definitions of the various areas of economics. Areas covered include micro and macroeconomics, international economics, environmental economics and others.

61) TeenAnalyst.com
64) internationalecon.com The Cato institute published a monthly article on a particular topic or issue by an eminent economists, policy maker or professional on a key economic issue. The essays are much longer than a normal blog post and there are hundreds of issues covered.

66)
A website about ideas for a free society. Has a lot of economics coverage including an economics 101 covering lots of topics and relevant videos. The videos are covered by different professors who are experts in the relevant area.

67) The International Economics study center is where you can read online Steve Suranovic's textbook on international economics. He covers a wide range of international economics issues and also has a nice blog.
Topics are explained in a lively and interesting way.

68) Frbsf.org/education The Federal Reserve Bank of St Louis has links to many useful resources for economics students such as the GDP, Federal Reserve System. There are other interesting resources such as the Fed Chairman game.
Learni.st is a site where people share their insights in various topic areas. Many post links to excellent resources such as videos and articles. The above links to their economics sites.

70)
The Institute for New Economics thinking is a website devoted to trying to move economics in a new direction so as to face the challenges of the 21st century. The Institute funds research into new economics projects that challenge the mainstream consensus. There are also some very good blogs written by prominent economists.

72) Jorum.ac.uk Saylor offers a variety of open access courses in economics including labor economics, international trade, principles of micro and macro, econometrics and statistics. The module material are provided for free and might supplement an existing university module.
Jorum is the place where you will find free open educational resources produced by the UK Further and Higher Education community. If you tap in "economics" it will direct you to economics resources such as notes, powerpoints and course outlines.

73) saylor.org/economics 74) economicswebinstitute.org learni.st/economics
65) Cato-unbound.org/issues
If you are thinking of studying economics at a college or higher degree level then the above link from the American Economic Association discusses many issues for those thinking of studying the subject .

This is a website aimed at teenagers and gives them the basics in investing, stocks, bonds and economics. There are also useful sections on career and education.

62) 77) IPL2.org/Business&Economics education-portal.com
Education Portal has a range of courses in business and economics. Courses include, macroeconomic, principles of marketing, principles of management and organizational behaviour. The courses are taught with the use of good quality video.

63) etown.edu/vl HiddenSecretsofMoney.com
The Hidden secrets of money is a series of videos about money and the money creation process. It provides an interesting take on the world of fiat money and its dangers favoring investors to hoard gold and silver.

This site provides lots of interesting long term charts comparing gold price to consumer prices, the Dow Jones compared to gold, debt to GDP etc. Charts cover economy, markets and comparisons.

80)
The American Institute for Economic Research covers current issues in economics with respect primarily to the US economy. As well as an associated blog there are interesting videos.

The etown virtual library system is a frequently updated Internet directory of over 2000 annotated links to high-quality English-language sources of current information and analysis in a wide range of international affairs, international relations, international
studies, global studies, and global education topics. This website has a nice basic economics course covering both microeconomics and macroeconomics concepts. The explanations are supplemented with appropriate diagrams and illustrated with numerical examples as well.

52) Economicsonline.co.uk

GDAE
Dineshbakshi.com
Cliffsnotes.com/Economics

frbatlanta.org/edresources

The International Monetary Fund back to basic series covers some basic economic concepts for the non specialist. Various contributors explain the difference between micro and macro economics, econometrics, GDP, inflation, monetary and fiscal policy etc.

Econometrics Academy
This website is great for those wishing to improve their knowledge of econometrics. There are lessons on times series, cross sectional and panel data using econometrics packages such as Stata.

71) ineteconomics.org

This site has quite a lot of useful free resources. The site covers a wide range of topics, from macroeconomics to market structures, from management to international trade, from economic policies to climate change. There are useful links to software and economic datasets.

This is a UK based website providing details of economics for those students thinking of studying Economics at the University level. Issues covered include skills required, areas of economics and career and pay prospects upon graduation.

The IPL2 websites has links to many useful resources in Business and Economics as well as other education areas. There is coverage of accountancy, banking, economics, business, insurance and finance.

) GoldmanSachs.com/our-thinking
The Goldman our thinking site is useful as it has videos covering macreoconomic trends and trends in business. There is also a link to talks with senior thought leaders and a useful archive section linking to papers and research.

81) Chartbookofeconomicinequality.com
For anyone interested in the issue of inequality then this website Covering research by Brian Atkinson and Salvatore Morelli covers some 25 countries over 100 years to look at whether inequality is rising or falling in terms of both income and wealth.82)

Ourworldindata.org
This excellent resource published by Max Moser provides charts and graphics looking at societal progress using 16 dimensions including health, population, education, war and peace, Economic Development, Work Standard of Living etc

Economists are often called upon to interpret economic data ad there is always a danger of spurious correlations. This website has tons of funny spurious correlations. Did you know consumption of margarine and divorce are highly correlated ?!

The Federal Reserve Bank of St Louis page one economics site has lots of material on economics. With articles on all sorts of interesting economics questions with accompanying PDFs and exercises. In addition there is easy access the latest macro data such as GDP, inflation and unemployment. re

Core-econ.org
The Institute for New Economic Thinking has been keen to promote a new way of teaching economics. One result is a new economics textbook provided free online reflecting the new curriculum they would like to see. The book is open access to all those that sign up at this site.

Whitenova.com/thinkEconomics
ThinkEconomics

This site specializes in producing infographics. The website describes itself as "a new way to discover business opportunities and learn about investment trends. The site is populated with exclusive infographics from our own design studio and curated visual content from around the web."

visual.ons.gov.uk
This site is produced by the office for National Statistics to provide a visual look at UK data. There are sections covering business, industry and trade, the economy, employment and labour market. and people population and community.

WelkersWikinomics.com/blog

This site provides resources such as, quality supplements, economic examples and links to cool stuff. It also has information on a full multi-media course package and workshop announcements on how to get trained to teach a course using the package in a seated or online setting.

This site has some useful links and seems to have some links to older editions of some well known textbooks.

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copyright BusinessEconomics.com WolframAlpha.com Wolframalpaha.com/Examples We love this site it is a statistical search engine. You ask it for data and it will give you it. GDP per capita, exports as a percentage of GDP, population, value of the currency against the dollar, stock prices and charts...and much more.

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This game focuses on the federal budget and bring the federal budget into perspective. Teaches students that budgeting at the federal level is close to impossible.

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Teachers can use The People's Pie to give students an appreciation and understanding of federal budgeting. To extend learning, have students research how the budget is currently allocated, and any recently passed or proposed spending bills. With this information, they can write position papers on how the budget is divided or allocated, or they can even try to politically involved and write their congresspeople or the President. Get students to play the role of the government, creating their political platform, planning out their own federal budgets, and drafting bills. Students could also engage in light live action role-playing, assuming different roles as they try to plan and pass the budget and bills. For teachers interested in broader civics learning, dive into the rest of the iCivics curriculum and games to situate People's Pie in a larger unit that shows, for instance, the other responsibilities of the President or the branches of government.

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People's Pie Review for Teachers | Common Sense Education

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Teachers can use The People's Pie to give students an appreciation and understanding of federal budgeting. To extend learning, have students research how the budget is currently allocated, and any recently passed or proposed spending bills.

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This websites gives a great lists of useful/helpful economics apps. Great for students in economics and great for teachers to reference as possible activities to include in a lesson plan.

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Your phone is one of the most useful tools you've got, whether you're studying or working in the field. Try out these apps to help you with both your studies and your research in economics.

To find more pieces on economics, click the button below to download the latest INOMICS handbook. ➲ Download the 2019 Handbook now!

1. Economic Times

This handy news app covers the latest developments in the field of business and the stock market. If you're looking to stay up to date on developments of economic news, then this app has a global perspective that includes news, slideshows, stock tracking, and push notifications for important updates. More international than other economics news apps, this gives you a perspective on economic stories from around the globe.

2. EconBiz

For both students and researchers, EconBiz is a handy app to have to find information about recently published economics papers. It gives you access to a vast range of books, journal articles, and papers in the field of economics. While it started off as a German-language app, now it covers a large amount of English language content too, making it useful for any economist who is trying to find a paper to reference.

3. iTunes U

If you're an early stage economics student, then you can take online courses in almost anything with iTunes U. This app lets you access full courses including videos and downloads from some of the best universities in the world. There are economics courses available from Westminster Academy, Khan Academy, Cornell University, and more.

4. World Bank DataFinder

When you're writing a paper and you need quick access to important statistics from the World Bank, you can turn to their DataFinder app. Instead of having to trawl through the rather cumbersome website, you can check the app for data, including charts and maps, which compare countries and indicators, advanced queries to sift through large data sets to find what you need, and current data to get the latest information directly from the World Bank API.

5. Economic Growth

This app is aimed at younger students or those new to economics. It provides bite-sized information on how economies grow, by explaining what economic growth is and how it can be measured. It also gives information on real life scenarios where you can see the principles of economic growth playing out in real-life, which makes it a great learning tool.

6. Yahoo Finance

One of the most popular finance apps is Yahoo Finance, which you can use to track the stocks that you are interested in and get real-time information on the stock market. There is also a section for finance news which has all the headlines you need to read to stay updated about the current economy. The app is mostly aimed at investors, but with all this information it's also helpful for economics students who want to stay informed.

7. Khan Academy

Another resource like iTunes U that is very helpful for students - especially new students - is Khan Academy. This app offers full courses on the basics of economics which you can follow along online. The content is likely to be too basic to be useful for postdoc students, but for new Bachelor's students seeking to refresh their knowledge of key topics like microeconomics or elasticity, it's great.

8. Castbox

A great way to keep up with the latest news and discussions in economics is to listen to podcasts. Podcasts like Marketplace, Planet Money, or Bloomberg Taking Stock are great ways to learn, and you can listen to them while you are exercising or pottering around the house. Castbox is a free and easy to use podcast app.

9. Bloomberg

Another very popular finance app like Yahoo Finance is Bloomberg. This app has sections for business and finance news, market data, and portfolio tracking. Although the portfolio tracking features are less likely to be useful for students, the news section is outstanding and offers analysis and opinion pieces as well as the latest news in the field.

10. PocketCAS Mathematics Toolkit

If you're doing advanced calculations for your data analysis, then it's useful to have a scientific calculation app on your phone. The PocketCAS app has advanced features like creating 2D and 3D plots, performing calculus operations, algebra functions, and conversion of physical units. For advanced statistics users, this app is a must.

11. The Economist: UK & World News

This app from The Economist magazine focuses on news and analysis for economics topics from around the world. It offers a selection of free articles from The Economist, plus reports on current affairs, science, technology, and other news. You can save articles to read later and share articles over social media. If you're a regular reader of The Economist, then this app is a must-have.

12. Oanda Currency Converter

When you need to stay informed about fluctuations in world currencies, it helps to have all of the important information in one place. This is what the Oanda Currency Converter offers, letting you track daily rates for different currencies and including an option to add a percentage to rates to simulate the actual rate offered by banks and credit card companies.

13. Oanda Forex Trading

This unique app is highly educational and also a lot of fun. It is designed for investors, but it also has a demo mode which is perfect for students. The demo mode lets you use fake money to make investments by buying and selling real currencies, and then keep track of how successful your 'investments' are. This is a great way to learn the basics of investing with no risk involved.

14. EasyBib

The only thing more annoying than formatting your essay is formatting your bibliography. There are a bunch of different citation styles like MLA, APA, Chicago and Harvard, each of which is slightly different, and trying to get the formatting just right is a pain. Luckily, the EasyBib app can help - you can use your phone's camera to photograph the barcode on your books and the app automatically creates a bibliography in the format of your choice.

15. Econ Ed Mobile

This app from the Federal Reserve Bank of Saint Louis is an educational tool which is ideal for new economics students. You can see a whole lot of data like tracking the costs of goods and services from one year to the next or see how inflation rates have changed over time. There are also challenge games to teach you about estimating the cost of credit and the prices for goods over time, which makes it a fun way to learn about the basics of economics in a practical way.

For more pieces on economics, click the button below to download the latest INOMICS handbook. ➲ Download the 2019 Handbook now!

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15 Most Useful Apps for Economics Students

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Your phone is one of the most useful tools you've got, whether you're studying or working in the field. Try out these apps to help you with both your studies and your research in economics. To find more pieces on economics, click the button below to download the latest INOMICS handbook.

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This podcast is a great resource for teachers, and this website is great reference because it lists the podcasts episodes. Each listing provides a short annotation explaining what is going to be discussed within the podcast.

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Discover the hidden side of everything with Stephen J. Dubner, co-author of the Freakonomics books. Each week, Freakonomics Radio tells you things you always thought you knew (but didn't) and things you never thought you wanted to know (but do) - from the economics of sleep to how to become great at just about anything. Dubner speaks with Nobel laureates and provocateurs, intellectuals and entrepreneurs, and various other underachievers.

467

Is the Future of Farming in the Ocean?
Bren Smith, who grew up fishing and fighting, is now part of a movement that seeks to feed the planet while putting less environmental stress on it. He makes his argument in a book called Eat Like a Fish; his secret ingredient: kelp. But don't worry, you won't have to eat it (not much, at least). An installment of The Freakonomics Radio Book Club.

6/23/21

42:55

463

How to Get Anyone to Do Anything
The social psychologist Robert Cialdini is a pioneer in the science of persuasion. His 1984 book Influence is a classic, and he has just published an expanded and revised edition. In this episode of the Freakonomics Radio Book Club, he gives a master class in the seven psychological levers that bewitch our rational minds and lead us to buy, behave, or believe without a second thought.

5/26/21

58:03

458

How to Manage Your Goal Hierarchy
In this special crossover episode, People I (Mostly) Admire host Steve Levitt admits to No Stupid Questions co-host Angela Duckworth that he knows almost nothing about psychology. But once Angela gives Steve a quick tutorial on "goal conflict," he is suddenly a fan. They also talk parenting, self-esteem, and how easy it is to learn econometrics if you feel like it.

4/14/21

51:26

453

A Rescue Plan for Black America
New York Times columnist Charles Blow argues that white supremacy in America will never fully recede, and that it's time for Black people to do something radical about it. In The Devil You Know: A Black Power Manifesto, he urges a "reverse migration" to the South to consolidate political power and create a region where it's safe to be Black. (This is an episode of the Freakonomics Radio Book Club.)

3/3/21

56:47

339

The Future of Freakonomics Radio
After eight years and more than 300 episodes, it was time to either 1) quit, or 2) make the show bigger and better. We voted for number 2. Here's a peek behind the curtain and a preview of what you'll be hearing next.

7/4/18

35:58

305

The Demonization of Gluten
Celiac disease is thought to affect roughly one percent of the population. The good news: it can be treated by quitting gluten. The bad news: many celiac patients haven't been diagnosed. The weird news: millions of people without celiac disease have quit gluten - which may be a big mistake.

10/19/17

43:55

202

How Many Doctors Does It Take to Start a Healthcare Revolution? The practice of medicine has been subsumed by the business of medicine. This is great news for healthcare shareholders - and bad news for pretty much everyone else.

4/9/15

53:56

105

Have a Very Homo Economicus Christmas
Who better than an economist to help with your shopping list?

12/12/12

15:10

72

Lottery Loopholes and Deadly Doctors
Season 2, Episode 5: What do you do when smart people keep making stupid mistakes? And: are we a nation of financial illiterates? This is a "mashupdate" of " Is America Ready for a "No-Lose Lottery"?," " The "No-Lose Lottery," Part 2," and " What Do Hand-Washing and Financial Illiteracy Have in Common? "

4/25/12

58:04

70

" Eating and Tweeting
Season 2, Episode 4: Does the future of food lie in its past - or inside a tank of liquid nitrogen? Also: how anti-social can you be on a social network? This is a "mashupdate" of Waiter, There's a Physicist in My Soup, Part 1," " Waiter, There's a Physicist in My Soup, Part 2," and " Is Twitter a Two-Way Street?"

4/12/12

57:27

68

The Power of the President - and the Thumb
Season 2, Episode 3: How much does the President of the United States really matter? And: where did all the hitchhikers go? A pair of "attribution errors." This is a "mashupdate" of " How Much Does the President Really Matter?" and " Where Have All the Hitchhikers Gone? "

3/29/12

58:09

66

Show and Yell
Season 2, Episode 2: Is booing an act of verbal vandalism or the last true expression of democracy? And: when you drive a Prius, are you guilty of "conspicuous conservation"? This is a "mashupdate" of " Hey, Baby, Is That a Prius You're Driving?" and " Boo ... Who?"

3/15/12

58:17

64

The Days of Wine and Mouses
Season 2, Episode 1: Do more expensive wines taste better? And: what does one little rodent in a salad say about a restaurant's future? This is a "mashupdate" of " Do More Expensive Wines Taste Better?" and " A Mouse in the Salad."

2/28/12

56:47

^†
One-hour special: Mashups of earlier podcasts, with updated material, which were once aired on the radio. Archive of On the Radio episodes.
Marketplace segment: For three years, Freakonomics Radio appeared regularly on Marketplace, the weekday business program from American Public Media.

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Freakonomics Radio Archive - Freakonomics

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Discover the hidden side of everything with Stephen J. Dubner, co-author of the Freakonomics books. Each week, Freakonomics Radio tells you things you always thought you knew (but didn't) and things you never thought you wanted to know (but do) - from the economics of sleep to how to become great at just about anything.

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This podcast is based not on the ideas of economics technically, but brings in the ideas, lives, and thoughts of some of the world's greatest economic thinkers. Would be great if discussing the writers of economic books and helps the students as seeing economics thinkers as more than "nerds" or "unrealistic people".

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Economics In Ten is your go-to podcast if you want to learn about the lives, times and ideas of the world's greatest economic thinkers. Each episode is a fun exploration of a famous economist using ten different questions. Presented by Pete and Gav, your friendly neighbourhood economists, with technical support from Nic and music from Jukedeck - create your own at http://jukedeck.com

Economics In Ten is your go-to podcast if you want to learn about the lives, times and ideas of the world's greatest economic thinkers. Each episode is a fun exploration of a famous economist using ten different questions. Presented by Pete and Gav, your friendly neighbourhood economists, with technical support from Nic and music from Jukedeck - create your own at http://jukedeck.com

Brill

Listening to this exquisite piece of work whilst trimming the lawn is almost as satisfying as taking candy from babies. I'm pretty certain I reached ultimate tranquility. Excellent work and a big shoutout to my mandem in my class
From your fave fan money maker h-dog

Epic

I was minding my own business searching for some more ABBA songs to sing along to when I stumbled across this masterpiece.

I now have posters of Phillip Hammond, John Maynard Keynes and some more of the money mandem plastered around my room.

Recommend Recommend Recommend

Pete and Gav should have their own show on prime time television! The banter and chemistry between these two is unreal! They need too bring out some merch for the true day one fans!

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‎Economics In Ten is your go-to podcast if you want to learn about the lives, times and ideas of the world's greatest economic thinkers. Each episode is a fun exploration of a famous economist using ten different questions. Presented by Pete and Gav, your friendly neighbourhood economists, with techn...

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In relation to the Freakonomics podcast this is a great book to help bring economics to realistic terms. Sometimes students can't see the importance of economics, but this books brings to light the importance of economics and how influential it is in American and world economy.

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This movie is EXTREMELY difficult to follow, but if broken down and only using certain clips, it can be a great way to put economics into perspective. This discusses the housing and economic crisis from (I believe 2008).

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The Big Short Trailer (2015) ‐ Paramount Pictures

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This lesson plan was created by Alexis Carraway and Gerae Haverkamp. This lesson plan explains the Ancient Aztec empire and incorporates project-based learning and great visual aides such as videos and a poster-making assignment.

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Museums are a great anthropological resource. They are almost always willing to allow a hand in helping teachers with their lessons and encourage learning. Even visiting museums to get students out of the classroom is a great idea.

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Get in touch with surrounding university professors and ask them to come in and talk to the students about a subject. The student will be much more engaged and will be surprised that anthropology is actually someone's job.

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Department of Sociology, Anthropology, and Social Work Kansas State University 204 Waters Hall 1603 Old Claflin Place Manhattan, KS 66506

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National Geographic magazine are a great anthropological resource. National Geographic discusses the entirety of the world and provides great video and image representations of cultures, artifacts, and people.

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This website is great because it lists multiple anthropology websites with a short explanation about each site. Would be great for lesson planning and cut down on any research times searching for appropriate sites.

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New Jersey, USA About Blog The website intends to promote and facilitate discussion, review research, extend stewardship of resources, and disseminate knowledge. Anthropology.net's mission is to create a cohesive online community of individuals interested in anthropology.
Frequency 1 post / week
Blog anthropology.net
Twitter followers 341 ⋅ Social Engagement 160ⓘ ⋅ Domain Authority 51ⓘ

Denver, CO About Blog SAPIENS aims to transform how the public understands anthropology. Every piece of content is grounded in anthropological research, theories, or thinking. We present stories and perspectives that are authoritative, accessible, and relevant but still lively and entertaining.
Frequency 1 post / day
Blog sapiens.org
Facebook fans 67.4K ⋅ Twitter followers 15.6K ⋅ Social Engagement 626ⓘ ⋅ Domain Authority 60ⓘ

About Blog Anthro{dendum} is a group blog devoted to 'doing anthropology in public' - providing well-written relevant discussion of sociocultural anthropology that everyone will find accessible.
Frequency 1 post / month
Blog anthrodendum.org
Facebook fans 2.2K ⋅ Twitter followers 4.2K ⋅ Social Engagement 144ⓘ ⋅ Domain Authority 38ⓘ

Arlington, VA About Blog Anthropology News (AN) is the American Anthropological Association's news source. The American Anthropological Association is the world's largest association for professional anthropologists, with more than 10,000 members. Based in Washington, DC, the Association was founded in 1902, and covers all four main fields of anthropology.
Frequency 6 posts / month
Blog anthropology-news.org
Facebook fans 82.8K ⋅ Twitter followers 23.6K ⋅ Social Engagement 21ⓘ ⋅ Domain Authority 52ⓘ

About Blog A storehouse of linguistic, archaeological, cultural and biological anthropology information.
Frequency 4 posts / day
Blog reddit.com/r/Anthropology
Facebook fans 1.3M ⋅ Twitter followers 641K ⋅ Social Engagement 7.2Kⓘ ⋅ Domain Authority 91ⓘ

About Blog Comprehensive up-to-date news coverage about Anthropology, aggregated from sources all over the world by Google News.
Frequency 26 posts / day
Blog news.google.com/news/section..
Facebook fans 27.3M ⋅ Twitter followers 257.1K ⋅ Social Engagement 29ⓘ ⋅ Domain Authority 95ⓘ

Kansas, USA About Blog I study the genomes of modern and ancient peoples in order to uncover details of human prehistory. This is a blog about my passions: science, conflict, adventure, and interesting people.
Frequency 1 post / quarter
Blog violentmetaphors.com
Facebook fans 2.8K ⋅ Twitter followers 11.8K ⋅ Social Engagement 140ⓘ ⋅ Domain Authority 51ⓘ

New York City About Blog The Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research, Inc. is a private operating foundation dedicated to the advancement of anthropology throughout the world.
Frequency 2 posts / month
Blog blog.wennergren.org
Facebook fans 7.4K ⋅ Twitter followers 12K ⋅ Social Engagement 55ⓘ ⋅ Domain Authority 51ⓘ

Wisconsin About Blog John Hawks is the Vilas-Borghesi Distinguished Achievement Professor of Anthropology at the University of Wisconsin Madison. John Hawks weblog on paleoanthropology, evolution and genetics is Tracking research into human origins, from the field to the laboratory.
Frequency 5 posts / quarter
Since Jul 2016
Also in Evolution Blogs
Blog johnhawks.net/weblog/article..
Twitter followers 18.6K ⋅ Social Engagement 4ⓘ ⋅ Domain Authority 59ⓘ

Oneonta, NY About Blog Living Anthropologically showcases anthropology's undying faith in the richness & variability of humankind. Let's bring anthropology to life & public debates.
Frequency 1 post / month
Blog livinganthropologically.com/..
Facebook fans 26.5K ⋅ Twitter followers 10.8K ⋅ Domain Authority 46ⓘ

New York City About Blog News about archaeology and anthropology. Commentary and archival information about archaeology and anthropology from The New York Times.
Frequency 2 posts / week
Blog nytimes.com/topic/subject/ar..
Facebook fans 16.8M ⋅ Twitter followers 44M ⋅ Social Engagement 9.1Kⓘ ⋅ Domain Authority 95ⓘ

Rockville, MD About Blog Anthropology news. Read about early human culture, civilizations and latest discoveries at ancient sites in our anthropology news.
Frequency 2 posts / day
Blog sciencedaily.com/news/fossil..
Facebook fans 1.7M ⋅ Twitter followers 235.1K ⋅ Social Engagement 222ⓘ ⋅ Domain Authority 93ⓘ

About Blog Dienekes' Anthropology blog is dedicated to human population genetics, physical anthropology, archaeology, and history.
Frequency 1 post / quarter
Blog dienekes.blogspot.com
Twitter followers 1.4K ⋅ Social Engagement 2ⓘ ⋅ Domain Authority 53ⓘ

Portland About Blog Anthropologizing features a mixed-bag of posts on applied social research, business anthropology, design and user experience research, social observations, and other topics by Portland-based anthropologist and design researcher Amy L. Santee.
Frequency 1 post / quarter
Blog anthropologizing.com
Social Engagement 7ⓘ ⋅ Domain Authority 26ⓘ

Japan About Blog In the spirit of open-text, collaboration, communication and good anthropology... Visual Anthropology of Japan explores Japanese culture through photography, film and other visual methods.
Frequency 1 post / day
Blog visualanthropologyofjapan.bl..
Facebook fans 3.1K ⋅ Twitter followers 2K ⋅ Domain Authority 36ⓘ

United States About Blog Wisdom from the Society for the Anthropology of Food and Nutrition.
Frequency 1 post / month
Blog foodanthro.com
Twitter followers 771 ⋅ Social Engagement 20ⓘ ⋅ Domain Authority 39ⓘ

About Blog This blog is primarily dedicated to sharing news, information, and opinions on topics dealing with globalism, globalization, liberalism, imperialism, working class politics, and the political economy of knowledge production in the social sciences and in anthropology specifically. Authored by Maximilian Forte, Professor, Political Anthropology.
Frequency 2 posts / month
Blog zeroanthropology.net
Social Engagement 204ⓘ ⋅ Domain Authority 48ⓘ

Wellington About Blog Anthropod is a blog documenting how a cultural anthropologist thinks about research, teaching, and the ways that we live in and shape the world around us. Anthropod is written by Lorena Gibson, an anthropologist and musician based in Wellington, Aotearoa New Zealand.
Frequency 1 post / year
Blog anthropod.net/category/anthr..
Domain Authority 11ⓘ

About Blog SVA promote the study of visual representation and media. Both research methods and teaching strategies fall within the scope of the society. The Society for Visual Anthropology (SVA) is a section of the American Anthropological Association.
Frequency 2 posts / month
Blog societyforvisualanthropology..
Facebook fans 5.5K ⋅ Twitter followers 276 ⋅ Social Engagement 12ⓘ ⋅ Domain Authority 39ⓘ

About Blog The purpose of this blog is to build a community of anthropologists interested in pedagogy and to provide them with a reputable source of information and a way to share news on teaching anthropology, publishing in the field, new innovations, and new books.
Frequency 1 post / week
Blog utpteachingculture.com
Twitter followers 5.8K ⋅ Social Engagement 7ⓘ ⋅ Domain Authority 32ⓘ

About Blog The purpose of this blog is to build a community of anthropologists interested in pedagogy and to provide them with a reputable source of information and a way to share news on teaching anthropology, publishing in the field, new innovations, and new books.
Frequency 1 post / week
Also in Culture Blogs
Blog utpteachingculture.com/blog
Social Engagement 7ⓘ ⋅ Domain Authority 32ⓘ

About Blog Andrew White is an anthropological archaeologist with interests in hunter gatherers, lithic technology, human evolution, and complex systems theory. Andrew is interested in combining archaeological methods and theory with ethnographic data and computational modeling to develop new ways to push the boundaries of our understanding of the social, cultural, and evolutionary aspects of the human past.
Frequency 1 post / day
Blog andywhiteanthropology.com
Twitter followers 591 ⋅ Social Engagement 31ⓘ ⋅ Domain Authority 39ⓘ

USA About Blog The National Association for the Practice of Anthropology was founded in 1983 to promote the practice of anthropology and the interests of practicing anthropologists, and to further the practice of anthropology as a profession.
Frequency 1 post / day
Blog practicinganthropology.org/blog
Facebook fans 2.6K ⋅ Twitter followers 11.9K ⋅ Social Engagement 11ⓘ ⋅ Domain Authority 38ⓘ

About Blog I'm Kat. I'm an aspiring forensic anthropologist studying at UCF. I mainly blog about science, bones, bioarchaeology, anthropology, art, culture, and history. If you have any questions about any of the above, feel free to ask!
Frequency 30 posts / year
Blog bone-of-contention.tumblr.com
Domain Authority 7ⓘ

About Blog A blog published by the Anthropology and Environment Society, a section of the American Anthropological Association Engagement blog publishes engaged scholarly research on anthro & environment issues.
Frequency 4 posts / quarter
Blog aesengagement.wordpress.com
Facebook fans 10.2K ⋅ Social Engagement 47ⓘ ⋅ Domain Authority 31ⓘ

Intergalactic About Blog An anthropological approach to all things geek. A community blog where geek culture and its areas of interest are analysed through the perspective of sociocultural anthropology.
Frequency 1 post / week
Blog thegeekanthropologist.com
Facebook fans 1.7K ⋅ Twitter followers 2.8K ⋅ Social Engagement 69ⓘ ⋅ Domain Authority 43ⓘ

Pennsylvania About Blog The Section of Archaeology at The State Museum of Pennsylvania curates the largest collection in the museum and is responsible for multiple functions within the PHMC. Developing and maintaining exhibits in the Hall of Anthropology and Archaeology is a primary function, but our role as the state repository for cultural resource projects is substantial.
Frequency 2 posts / month
Since Feb 2009
Also in Archaeology Blogs, Pennsylvania Blogs
Blog twipa.blogspot.com
Social Engagement 94ⓘ ⋅ Domain Authority 27ⓘ

About Blog Cultural anthropologist, researcher, author, and teacher impassioned by understanding all things human.
Frequency 5 posts / year
Blog almagottlieb.com
Social Engagement 110ⓘ ⋅ Domain Authority 20ⓘ

global About Blog (SMA), formed in 1967 and incorporated into the American Anthropological Association (AAA) in 1971, is dedicated to the profession and practice of medical anthropology, which uses concepts and methods from anthropology to produce new understandings of health, disease, illness, treatment, and care.
Frequency 1 post / day
Blog medanthro.net
Facebook fans 4.7K ⋅ Twitter followers 5.8K ⋅ Social Engagement 1ⓘ ⋅ Domain Authority 41ⓘ

New York About Blog Myeashea Alexander is a physical anthropology grad student and science and art enthusiast. This blog is to de-mystify the world of Anthropology! This all-inclusive discipline needs better PR.
Frequency 6 posts / year
Blog therockstaranthropologist.wo..
Facebook fans 1.2K ⋅ Twitter followers 1.4K ⋅ Social Engagement 45ⓘ ⋅ Domain Authority 20ⓘ

About Blog A collection of writings that speak to the anthropological perspective focusing on examples of public issues that we can better understand if we apply an anthropological lens, what anthropologists can bring to a workplace, and resources for teaching anthropology in and outside of the anthropology classroom... and everywhere else.
Blog anthrolens.blogspot.com
Twitter followers 530 ⋅ Domain Authority 15ⓘ

Washington, D.C. About Blog Cultural anthropologist Barbara Miller, who blogs at anthropologworks, offers you updates of what is important and relevant about people, culture, change, and policy around the world.
Frequency 5 posts / year
Blog anthropologyworks.com
Facebook fans 8.9K ⋅ Twitter followers 21.6K ⋅ Social Engagement 1ⓘ ⋅ Domain Authority 41ⓘ

About Blog Ancient Sacred Symbols and Talismans to improve your Well-being. The sciences of Anthropology, Neuroscience, Psychology and Theoretical Physics are drawn upon to explain Human Evolution and the value of Symbols.
Frequency 1 post / month
Blog thestudyofman.com/blogs/blog
Social Engagement 2ⓘ ⋅ Domain Authority 6ⓘ

About Blog A Forensic Anthropology Blog by Chris on Tumblr.
Frequency 1 post / quarter
Blog 4n6-anthro.tumblr.com
Domain Authority 8ⓘ

About Blog Anthropologydaily is dedicated to blogging all things cultural, physical, and archaeological.
Frequency 1 post / quarter
Blog anthropologydaily.tumblr.com
Domain Authority 10ⓘ

About Blog Online Supplement to Museum Anthropology, the Journal of the Council for Museum Anthropology, a section of the American Anthropological Association
Frequency 4 posts / week
Blog museumanthropologyblog.com
Facebook fans 2.9K ⋅ Twitter followers 893 ⋅ Domain Authority 12ⓘ

Santa Barbara About Blog A space for anthropologists to share their work. A place for everyone to be enriched by it. Our goal is that anyone can have a direct link to connect and enter the world of anthropology in an exciting and accessible way.
Blog boasnetwork.com
Facebook fans 1.4K ⋅ Twitter followers 1.2K ⋅ Domain Authority 26ⓘ

Leiden About Blog The Leiden Anthropology Blog is written by scholars at the Institute of Cultural Anthropology and Development Sociology of Leiden University. They blog about their research, teaching in the Bachelor and Master program, and share anthropological perspectives on a wide range of social issues.
Frequency 2 posts / quarter
Blog leidenanthropologyblog.nl
Facebook fans 2.9K ⋅ Twitter followers 197 ⋅ Social Engagement 54ⓘ ⋅ Domain Authority 31ⓘ

About Blog Perspectives in Anthropology, is a new online publication series launched in 2014. The series specializes in articles in any field of Social Anthropology which are available online as open-access and free-to-read. All publications in the series are evaluated by an open-source, peer-review process.
Frequency 1 post / month
Blog perspectivesinanthropology.w..
Facebook fans 2.8K ⋅ Social Engagement 6ⓘ ⋅ Domain Authority 21ⓘ

About Blog Occasional posts on anthropologically interesting science fiction, anthropological futures and my own future as an anthropologist by Samuel Gerald Collins. samuel is a professor of anthropology at a mid-sized, state university in Maryland, USA.
Frequency 2 posts / quarter
Blog tomorrowculture.blogspot.com
Domain Authority 14ⓘ

About Blog The Sound Ethnography Project is an experiment in engaging with sound to produce novel ethnographic methods and forms. The project began out of the University of California, Irvine through the collaborative initiative of graduate students in anthropology.
Blog soundethnography.com
Domain Authority 17ⓘ

Vienna, Austria About Blog Anthropology of media and technology, Indigenous internet practices and media, technology enhanced learning and ethnographic fieldwork.
Frequency 1 post / month
Blog philbu.net/blog
Twitter followers 1.2K ⋅ Social Engagement 2ⓘ ⋅ Domain Authority 31ⓘ

About Blog Material World is an interactive, online hub for contemporary debates, discussion, thinking and research centred on material and visual culture.
Frequency 2 posts / month
Blog materialworldblog.com
Twitter followers 1.1K ⋅ Social Engagement 1ⓘ ⋅ Domain Authority 46ⓘ

Arlington, VA About Blog Founded in 1902, the American Anthropological Association (AAA) is the world's largest organization of individuals interested in anthropology. The purposes of the Association shall be to advance anthropology as the science that studies humankind in all its aspects through archaeological, biological, ethnological, and linguistic research.
Frequency 4 posts / year
Blog blog.americananthro.org
Facebook fans 82.8K ⋅ Twitter followers 37.5K ⋅ Social Engagement 1.6Kⓘ ⋅ Domain Authority 62ⓘ

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Top 50 Anthropology Blogs & Websites For Anthropologists in 2019

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New Jersey, USA About Blog The website intends to promote and facilitate discussion, review research, extend stewardship of resources, and disseminate knowledge. Anthropology.net's mission is to create a cohesive online community of individuals interested in anthropology.

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I have never personally seen this movie but I have been interested in viewing it for a while now. It seems like a great cultural experience. This documentary follows the early lives of four babies from four different areas/cultures around the world. Helps students gain a worldly perspective and is an eye-opening experience.

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Directed by Thomas Balmès. With Bayar, Hattie, Mari, Ponijao. A look at one year in the life of four babies from around the world, from Mongolia to Namibia to San Francisco to Tokyo.

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This movie is a bit older but is a great educational resources, concerning anthropology. In the annotation online they use the phrase, "emphasis not on "where" but, "what's there". Need only to show clips concerning the areas being discussed.

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2 wins & 1 nomination. See more awards "

Storyline

Without words, cameras show us the world, with an emphasis not on "where," but on "what's there." It begins with morning, natural landscapes and people at prayer: volcanoes, water falls, veldts, and forests; several hundred Balinese Hindu men perform kecak, the monkey chant. Indigenous peoples apply body paint; whole villages dance. The film moves to destruction of nature via logging, blasting, and strip mining. Images of poverty, rapid urban life, and factories give way to war, concentration camps, and mass graves. Ancient ruins come into view, and then a sacred river where pilgrims bathe and funeral pyres burn. Prayer and nature return. A monk rings a huge bell; stars wheel across the sky.

Taglines:

A world beyond words.

Details

Release Date:

19 November 1993 (USA)

Box Office

Budget:

$2,000,000 (estimated)

Opening Weekend USA:

$26,812, 26 September 1993

Cumulative Worldwide Gross:

$1,332,110

Company Credits

Technical Specs

See full technical specs "

Did You Know?

Trivia

Director Ron Fricke invented a special time lapse camera just to make this film as he found the IMAX cameras too cumbersome. See more "

Goofs

In the closing credits where filming locations are listed by country, Vatican City is listed as a location in Italy when technically it is a country in its own right. Although Vatican City is physically totally contained within Italy, it is an independent nation. See more "

Connections

Featured in The Matrix Reloaded (2003) See more "

Soundtracks

Broken Vow - A Prayer of Kala Rupa / An Daorach Bheac
[Excerpt: "A Prayer of Kala Rupa" from "Sacred Ceremonies." Performed by The Monks of the Dip Tse Chok Ling Monastery ©1990 Fortuna Records]
Music Composed and performed by Michael Stearns
[Excerpt: "An Daorach Bheac", performed by Brother (Hamish Richardson, Angus Richardson, Fergus Richardson)]
(P)© Magidson Films, Inc. Manufactured under license from Varèse Sarabande Records, Inc. U.S.A. by Colosseum Music Entertainment GmbH, Germany
Edited By Miguel Rivera, Mastered By Joe Gastwirt
See more "

User Reviews

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2 wins & 1 nomination. See more awards " Without words, cameras show us the world, with an emphasis not on "where," but on "what's there." It begins with morning, natural landscapes and people at prayer: volcanoes, water falls, veldts, and forests; several hundred Balinese Hindu men perform kecak, the monkey chant.

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One of my favorite professors in my time as a student at Kansas State University, Professor Wesch provides a unique and in-depth experience of anthropology. His book "The Art of Being Human" is noted on, pages dog-eared, read several times, and sitting on the top shelf of my book shelf next to my National Geographic magazines. Will definitely be referenced for years to come in my classroom. Professor Wesch is an excellent resource for anthropology work.

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An off-branch of Michael Wesch from above. This website is a great resource, full of educational videos and multiple cultural perspectives. Along with posts from K-State students (including myself).

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This website is full of multiple games and ideas for anthropology lessons and learning. Each listing has a short explanation. All games are educational and very fact based. A great way to keep students attention. Also anthropology is very versatile and can be used throughout the entire school year and throughout many lessons. This website and games can be used year-round.

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A sampling of games with themes related to anthropology:

Cards Against Anthropology: "A shameless rip off of the game Cards Against Humanity" designed to promote classroom discussion of ethical challenges faced by anthropologists.

First Nations of Catan: A set of modified rules for Settlers of Catan in which one player plays as the First Nations, the indigenous inhabitants of Catan, attempting to address the erasure of indigenous people in the original game.

The Gift of Food: A board game about traditional Northwest Native foods by the Northwest Indian College.

Loy Loy: Each player takes the role of a Cambodian garment factory worker while contributing to their local savings group. You could think of Loy Loy as a sharing economy version of Monopoly. Playtest report from #AnthropologyCon 2017

Potlatch: A strategic, educational card game based on indigenous philosophies, developed as a community effort with local elders and language experts.

Yams!: A strategy card game set in the 1890s Trobriand Islands, where players compete to "bargain, steal and charm their way to the top through numerous yam harvests." Unfortunately, Yams! is out of print.

: A game about the often meaningless and always painful process of getting laid off, by Alex Rowland depicts the ways in which workers are denied their humanity and defined by their economic output before extending a hand to build them back up.

Dim Sum? More Like Git Sum : Game about family dynamics, played around a dim sum table

#Feminism: Written by feminists from eleven different countries, #Feminism offers bite-sized takes on contemporary feminist issues. Each of the 34 nano-games in this collection requires between three and five participants, simple (if any) props, and up to an hour of play time.

: One Year is about a community of people trying to create something beautiful

Polka Pillow Production : Slovenian folk dancing and Warsaw Pact era worker's co-ops

: Players gain insight into colonialism and its often ugly aftermath. When the torch goes out, a story ends and a new one begins...

Under a Broken Flag : a near-future America that is not just in decline, but in collapse - and as players we are not in a position to fix anything, merely mitigate the damage as best we can.

: The We-Ness is a game where players take part in becoming a small colony through language. Through experimenting and restricting the "I" when speaking with one another, The We-Ness creates a singular organism with its players.

Winter Counts: A process that gets people thinking about where they have been as process of growth and history and affirmation.

Dialect: A game About Language and How it Dies: In this game, you'll tell the story of the Isolation by building their language. New words will come from the fundamental aspects of the community: who they are, what they believe in, and how they respond to a changing world.

Ehdrigohr: The Roleplaying Game Culturally, Ehdrigohr is a non-traditional fantasy world. Rather than fantasy seen through a Euro-Medieval lens, Ehdrigohr is instead crafted to take inspiration from the myth and folklore of tribal, and indigenous, cultures from around the world.

Ganakagok A fantasy where characters are members of a tribe that lives in a night-time world on an island of ice who must deal with the coming of the Dawn and the changes it brings. Each session produces an authentic-seeming myth of an imaginary people.

Coyote Quest (Web): A point-and-click adventure game for the web based on Coyote's Crazy Smart Science Show on Aboriginal Peoples Television Network

Honour Water (iOS): An Anishinaabe singing game for healing water.

Invaders (Web, iOS, Android): A spin on the classic arcade game Space Invaders

Ngurrara (iOS): Ngurrara follows the journeys of three young Australian Aboriginal Ngarluma men as they fish, hunt and carve their own stories.

Ninagamomin ji-nanaandawi'iwe ( (web): A musical choose-your-own adventure text game

Singuistics (iOS): A singing game which passes on language featuring singing by the Miskwaasining Nagamojig

Warlu Song (iOS): Continuing the Australian Aboriginal oral tradition, this story was originally dreamt by a blind songsmith and is here sung in Yindjibarndi and spoken in English in an effort to continue passing it on.

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A sampling of games with themes related to anthropology: Board/Card Games Cards Against Anthropology: "A shameless rip off of the game Cards Against Humanity" designed to promote classroom discussion of ethical challenges faced by anthropologists. First Nations of Catan: A set of modified rules for Settlers of Catan in which one player plays as the...

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While "food days" can be used throughout many subjects, it would also be a great resource for anthropology. Especially if teaching in a diverse school, student can pick a culture and try to recreate a food from that culture.

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This lesson plan was created by Alexis Carraway and Gerae Haverkamp. It discusses the Montgomery Bus Boycott, and provides links to Rosa Parks, Martin Luther King Jr. and the involvement it had in the push forward of the Civil Rights Movement. Incorporates an eye-opening "Rosa Parks" simulation.

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A Patriot's History of the United States

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A Patriot's History of the United States

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This book sits on the top of my book shelf. Any page turned to is a great read and excerpts from the book are great for Powerpoint and "hooks" for lessons.

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Touching on multiple "American values" and discussing how or how not the country has upheld these values. Concerns questions such as equality, natural rights, political equality, and broken politics.

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A book made into a movie, this historical recounting of events is not well-known. I have read this book twice and loved the movie just the same. Possibly not be able to incorporate it entirely into lesson, but would be a great resource to have in the classroom for students to dive into during their spare time.

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Cast overview, first billed only:

In the California apple country, 900 migratory workers rise up "in dubious battle" against the landowners. The group takes on a life of its own - stronger than its individual members and more frightening. Led by the doomed Jim Nolan ( Nat Wolff), the strike is founded on his tragic idealism - on the "courage never to submit or yield." Published in 1936, the novel "In Dubious Battle" is considered the first major work of Pulitzer Prize-winning author John Steinbeck.

Release Date:

17 February 2017 (USA)

Also Known As:

In Dubious Battle

Budget:

$15,000,000 (estimated)

Cumulative Worldwide Gross:

$213,982

See full technical specs "

Goofs

Scene where Mac brushes his teeth, he's using a 21st century white plastic toothbrush with accordion bend. See more "

Quotes

[first lines]
: [narrating] My pop always told me to watch the scales. Said the world will always find a way to cheat the working man. I met Mac McLeod in 1933, and I witnessed up close the price of real change.
Title Card: At the height of The Great Depression, nearly one quarter of Americans were without jobs.
: [standing on the back of his truck] Gentlemen, ladies, come in, come in. Listen, please. Hear what I have to say, all right? This price cut pains me as much as it pains you. With the market as volatile ...
[...]
See more "

Soundtracks

Stepping In, Stepping Out
Written and Performed by Timo Elliston
Published by 16W18 Music (BMI)
By Arrangement with BANG NY
See more "

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Cast overview, first billed only: In the California apple country, 900 migratory workers rise up "in dubious battle" against the landowners. The group takes on a life of its own - stronger than its individual members and more frightening.

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This site is great because it lists multiple different movies specifically based towards United State History. The site also provides a small explanation to the movie. Movies are a great resource that can catch students' attention. Should usually only be shown in clips.

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TWM recommends these movies as the best of the best in meeting curriculum standards while providing students with stellar educational experiences.

Email your nominations and a description of your reasons, including your experience with the film. Tell us the name of your school and what grades you teach. You might find yourself in print.

Don't ignore the great teaching opportunities from other movies! Review our extensive Drama index.

Check the list from time to time. We'll change it depending on your feedback and our experience. It's an ongoing conversation.

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THE BEST OF TWM: U.S. HISTORY FOR HIGH SCHOOL

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TWM recommends these movies as the best of the best in meeting curriculum standards while providing students with stellar educational experiences. Email your nominations and a description of your reasons, including your experience with the film. Tell us the name of your school and what grades you teach.

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Kansas State University professors and surrounding university professors are always great resources. This site lists what their specifications are to their subject, making it easy to find who you could potentially invite to talk to or provide resources such as slide shows or book excerpts for your classroom.

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Walters, Mary Elizabeth, Assistant Professor
(Ph.D., University of North Carolina, 2019): Military History, specifically humanitarian interventions, peacekeeping initiatives, the 1999 Kosovo Refugee Crisis, The Balkans, and cultural approaches to military history

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Walters , Mary Elizabeth, Assistant Professor (Ph.D., University of North Carolina, 2019): Military History, specifically humanitarian interventions, peacekeeping initiatives, the 1999 Kosovo Refugee Crisis, The Balkans, and cultural approaches to military history

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This podcast discusses major milestone throughout United States History. Such as the Gold Rush, Prohibition, Space Race, Etc. Also discussing how these events impacted families.

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About This Show

Show Info:

The Cold War, Prohibition, the Gold Rush, the Space Race. Every part of your life -the words you speak, the ideas you share- can be traced to our history, but how well do you really know the stories that made America? We'll take you to the events, the times and the people that shaped our nation. And we'll show you how our history affected them, their families and affects you today. Hosted by Lindsay Graham (not the Senator). From Wondery, the network behind Tides Of History, Fall Of Rome and Dirty John.Read more "

Listen Whenever

Related Shows

Most Recent Episode

Introducing TR Vs. Corruption

Long before Batman and Commissioner Gordon fought corruption under cover of darkness in Gotham, Theodore Roosevelt, president of the police commission, was prowling around New York City in plainclothes at night to make sure his policemen were doing their jobs. It was just one battle in a long war against corruption, during which TR fought against the spoils system, trusts, and lax food safety standards. In short, Roosevelt certainly tried his best to change the nation for the better. Did it work?

Listen to History VS. on the iHeartRadio App, Apple Podcasts, or wherever you get your podcasts. You can find more episodes here.

Read more "

Episodes of This Show

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Listen to American History Tellers episodes free, on demand. The Cold War, Prohibition, the Gold Rush, the Space Race. Every part of your life -the words you speak, the ideas you share- can be traced to our history, but how well do you really know the stories that made America?

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This podcast starring Mike Rowe is a unique viewpoint on America and its history. Fun and interesting takes on some of America's "greats" and "not-so-greats".

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mikerowe.com, Michael Gregory Rowe is an American television host and narrator, actor and former opera singer best known for his work on the Discovery Channel series Dirty Jobs, Deadliest Catch, After the Catch, Somebody’s Gotta Do It - Mike Rowe introduces us to people who perform unique jobs in hi…

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This site list multiple different interactive sites for students to use. This site gives a short review with a link to a longer explanation review which cuts down time on researching for lesson plans.

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Best U.S. History Websites for Students | Common Sense Education

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Web-based resources with in-depth info on U.S. history. Explore this Best U.S. History Websites for Students Top Picks list of 27 tools curated by Common Sense Education editors to find relevant and engaging edtech solutions for your classroom.

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You can learn so much from a photograph. As they say, "A picture is worth a thousand words". This site gives a list of multiple historical photography based entirely on United State History, along with an explanation of the photo. Would be great when researching images for powerpoint or student projects.

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Welcome to U.S. History Images! Below you'll find a list of the most recently added images. Use the links on the left to view all the U.S. History Images in this growing collection, or visit the Site Maps.

In April, 2011, I started adding a collection of almost 5,000 images concerning the American Civil War. As you can imagine, this is a huge undertaking. Here it is, April, 2012, and I've only been able to add images up to the middle of 1862. It's taking me much longer than I imagined to accomplish this goal, but I keep plugging away as I am able. Hopefully I will be done before the Civil War's 150th anniversary is over!

Although I try to present the images in chronological order, sometimes it's just not possible. So if you're looking for something in particular, the best way to find it is to use the search bar on the left or visit the Site Maps.

The images are free for you to use any way you want with just a couple of exceptions. By using the images you agree to my Terms of Use, so please read them for more information. You can also find more U.S. History Images at Public Domain Images.

This website is a work in progress and new images will be added, in chronological order, over time. Be sure to bookmark this page or subscribe to a feed so you can be notified as more U.S. History Images are included.

U.S. History Images: Fort Donelson Battlefield

The success of Brig. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant on theFort Donelson Battlefield elevated him from an obscure and largely unproven leader to the rank of major general, earning him the nickname "Unconditional Surrender" Grant. These illustrations show gun boats attacking, the explosion of a gun on board the Carondelet, and the gallant charge of regiments led by Colonel Morrison on February 13, 1862.

U.S. History Images: Battle of Hampton Roads

TheBattle of Hampton Roads, often referred to as the Battle of the Monitor and Merrimack (or Merrimac), was the most noted and arguably most important naval battle of the American Civil War from the standpoint of the development of navies. This page shows views of the arrival of the Monitor and its struggles with the Monitor.

U.S. History Images: Battle of the Ironclads

TheBattle of the Ironclads consisted of the Confederate ironclad ram CSS Virginia (built from the remnants of the USS Merrimack) and supporting vessels opposing the ironcladUSS Monitor and several conventional wooden vessels. The two ironclads fought for about three hours, with neither being able to inflict significant damage on the other. You'll find six illustrations of that battle on his page.

U.S. History Images: Monitor and Merrimac

TheseMonitor and Merrimac images show nine scenes of their encounter at Hampton Roads, Virginia. The duel between the two ironclads ended indecisively, with theMerrimac returning to her home at the Gosport Navy Yard for repairs and theMonitor returning to her station defending Minnesota.

U.S. History Images: Battle of Island No. 10

Six scenes of theBattle of Island No. 10, which was fought between February 28 and April 8, 1862 at the Kentucky Bend on the Mississippi River. This page includes maps, an image of theCarondelet running the Confederate batteries, and Colonel Roberts's men of the Illinois 42nd spiking the guns of the upper battery.

U.S. History Images: Battle of Fort Jackson

Here are six illustrations of events pertaining to theBattle of Fort Jackson, a deceisive battle for possession of New Orleans in the Civil War. Forts Jackson and St. Philip were Confederate forts on the Mississippi River south of the city. They were attacked by the Union Fleet on April 18, 1862, with a fairly unsuccessful bombardment. Here you'll find images of the naval battle involving the flagshipHartford, the Confederate ramLouisiana, and the U.S. steamers Mississippi and Harriet Lane.

U.S. History Images: Fort St. Philip

Here are six illustrations of Fort St. Philip, the second Confederate fort to surrender to Union forces on April 30, 1862. The surrender of Forts Philip and Jackson lead to the fall of New Orleans. This page shows sections of the fort, the bombardment, and the Confederate iron-clad, Louisiana on her way to the fort.

U.S. History Images: Battle of White Oak Swamp

This page contains six views of theBattle of White Oak Swamp, which took place on June 30, as the Union army retreated southeast toward the James River and Major General William B. Franklin stopped Major General Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson's division at the White Oak Bridge crossing, while the largerBattle of Glendale was being fought two miles to the south. These nine images depict an artillery engagement there, as well as various other scenes.

American Civil War - 1861

Outbreak of the American Civil War

U.S. History Images: Star of the West

Star of the West was a steamship that was trying to resupply Major Anderson's garrison at Fort Sumter in January of 1861, before the Confederacy was formed. The ship was fired upon by cadets from Morris Island battery as it entered Charleston Harbor and was unable to get food and ammunition to Fort Sumter.

Thank you to the contributors at Wikipedia for helping me with the descriptions on this page.

To cite this website:
U.S. History Images. Karen J. Hatzigeorgiou, 6 Apr. 2012. Web.

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Welcome to U.S. History Images! Below you'll find a list of the most recently added images. Use the links on the left to view all the U.S. History Images in this growing collection, or visit the Site Maps. In April, 2011, I started adding a collection of almost 5,000 images concerning the American Civil War.

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Teaches kids valuable social skills, along with skills needed for future careers and social relationships. Keeps everyone "in-check", especially when students are assigned "jobs" for the project or assignment such as someone taking notes and someone in charge of reading or researching.

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An Overview Of Cooperative Learning

David W Johnson and Roger T Johnson

Without the cooperation of its members society cannot survive, and the society of man has survived because the cooperativeness of its members made survival possible.... It was not an advantageous individual here and there who did so, but the group. In human societies the individuals who are most likely to survive are those who are best enabled to do so by their group.

(Ashley Montagu, 1965)

How students interact with each another is a neglected aspect of instruction. Much training time is devoted to helping teachers arrange appropriate interactions between students and materials (i.e., textbooks, curriculum programs) and some time is spent on how teachers should interact with students, but how students should interact with one another is relatively ignored. It should not be. How teachers structure student-student interaction patterns has a lot to say about how well students learn, how they feel about school and the teacher, how they feel about each other, and how much self-esteem they have.

In the mid-1960s, cooperative learning was relatively unknown and largely ignored by educators. Elementary, secondary, and university teaching was dominated by competitive and individualistic learning. Cultural resistance to cooperative learning was based on social Darwinism, with its premise that students must be taught to survive in a "dog-eat-dog" world, and the myth of "rugged individualism" underlying the use of individualistic learning. While competition dominated educational thought, it was being challenged by individualistic learning largely based on B. F. Skinner's work on programmed learning and behavioral modification. Educational practices and thought, however, have changed. Cooperative learning is now an accepted and often the preferred instructional procedure at all levels of education. Cooperative learning is presently used in schools and universities in every part of the world, in every subject area, and with every age student. It is difficult to find a text on instructional methods, a teacher's journal, or instructional materials that do not discuss cooperative learning. Materials on cooperative learning have been translated into dozens of languages. Cooperative learning is now an accepted and highly recommended instructional procedure.

Definition of Cooperative Learning

Students' learning goals may be structured to promote cooperative, competitive, or individualistic efforts. In every classroom, instructional activities are aimed at accomplishing goals and are conducted under a goal structure. A learning goal is a desired future state of demonstrating competence or mastery in the subject area being studied. The goal structure specifies the ways in which students will interact with each other and the teacher during the instructional session. Each goal structure has its place (Johnson & Johnson, 1989, 1999). In the ideal classroom, all students would learn how to work cooperatively with others, compete for fun and enjoyment, and work autonomously on their own. The teacher decides which goal structure to implement within each lesson. The most important goal structure, and the one that should be used the majority of the time in learning situations, is cooperation.

Cooperation is working together to accomplish shared goals. Within cooperative situations, individuals seek outcomes that are beneficial to themselves and beneficial to all other group members. Cooperative learning is the instructional use of small groups so that students work together to maximize their own and each other's learning. It may be contrasted with competitive (students work against each other to achieve an academic goal such as a grade of "A" that only one or a few students can attain) andindividualistic (students work by themselves to accomplish learning goals unrelated to those of the other students) learning. In cooperative and individualistic learning, you evaluate student efforts on a criteria-referenced basis while in competitive learning you grade students on a norm-referenced basis. While there are limitations on when and where you may use competitive and individualistic learning appropriately, you may structure any learning task in any subject area with any curriculum cooperatively.

Theorizing on social interdependence began in the early 1900s, when one of the founders of the Gestalt School of Psychology, Kurt Koffka, proposed that groups were dynamic wholes in which the interdependence among members could vary. One of his colleagues, Kurt Lewin refined Koffka's notions in the 1920s and 1930s while stating that (a) the essence of a group is the interdependence among members (created by common goals) which results in the group being a "dynamic whole" so that a change in the state of any member or subgroup changes the state of any other member or subgroup, and (b) an intrinsic state of tension within group members motivates movement toward the accomplishment of the desired common goals. For interdependence to exist, there must be more than one person or entity involved, and the persons or entities must have impact on each other in that a change in the state of one causes a change in the state of the others. From the work of Lewin's students and colleagues, such as Ovisankian, Lissner, Mahler, and Lewis, it may be concluded that it is the drive for goal accomplishment that motivates cooperative and competitive behavior.

In the late 1940s, one of Lewin's graduate students, Morton Deutsch, extended Lewin's reasoning about social interdependence and formulated a theory of cooperation and competition (Deutsch, 1949, 1962). Deutsch conceptualized three types of social interdependence-positive, negative, and none. Deutsch's basic premise was that the type of interdependence structured in a situation determines how individuals interact with each other which, in turn, largely determines outcomes. Positive interdependence tends to result in promotive interaction, negative interdependence tends to result in oppositional or contrient interaction, and no interdependence results in an absence of interaction. Depending on whether individuals promote or obstruct each other's goal accomplishments, there is substitutability, cathexis, and inducibility. The relationships between the type of social interdependence and the interaction pattern it elicits is assumed to be bidirectional. Each may cause the other. Deutsch's theory has served as a major conceptual structure for this area of inquiry since 1949.

Types Of Cooperative Learning

Formal Cooperative Learning

Formal cooperative learning consists of students working together, for one class period to several weeks, to achieve shared learning goals and complete jointly specific tasks and assignments (Johnson, Johnson, & Holubec, 2008). In formal cooperative learning groups the teachers' role includes (see Figure 4):

1. Making preinstructional decisions. Teachers (a) formulate both academic and social skills objectives, (b) decide on the size of groups, (c) choose a method for assigning students to groups, (d) decide which roles to assign group members, (e) arrange the room, and (f) arrange the materials students need to complete the assignment. In these preinstructional decisions, the social skills objectives specify the interpersonal and small group skills students are to learn. By assigning students roles, role interdependence is established. The way in which materials are distributed can create resource interdependence. The arrangement of the room can create environmental interdependence and provide the teacher with easy access to observe each group, which increases individual accountability and provides data for group processing.

2. Explaining the instructional task and cooperative structure.Teachers (a) explain the academic assignment to students, (b) explain the criteria for success, (c) structure positive interdependence, (d) structure individual accountability, (e) explain the behaviors (i.e., social skills) students are expected to use, and (f) emphasize intergroup cooperation (this eliminates the possibility of competition among students and extends positive goal interdependence to the class as a whole). Teachers may also teach the concepts and strategies required to complete the assignment. By explaining the social skills emphasized in the lesson, teachers operationalize (a) the social skill objectives of the lesson and (b) the interaction patterns (such as oral rehearsal and jointly building conceptual frameworks) teachers wish to create.

3. Monitoring students' learning and intervening to provide assistance in (a) completing the task successfully or (b) using the targeted interpersonal and group skills effectively.While conducting the lesson, teachers monitor each learning group and intervene when needed to improve taskwork and teamwork. Monitoring the learning groups creates individual accountability; whenever a teacher observes a group, members tend to feel accountable to be constructive members. In addition, teachers collect specific data on promotive interaction, the use of targeted social skills, and the engagement in the desired interaction patterns. This data is used to intervene in groups and to guide group processing.

4. Assessing students' learning and helping students process how well their groups functioned. Teachers (a) bring closure to the lesson, (b) assess and evaluate the quality and quantity of student achievement, (c) ensure students carefully discuss how effectively they worked together (i.e., process the effectiveness of their learning groups), (d) have students make a plan for improvement, and (e) have students celebrate the hard work of group members. The assessment of student achievement highlights individual and group accountability (i.e., how well each student performed) and indicates whether the group achieved its goals (i.e., focusing on positive goal interdependence). The group celebration is a form of reward interdependence. The feedback received during group processing is aimed at improving the use of social skills and is a form of individual accountability. Discussing the processes the group used to function, furthermore, emphasizes the continuous improvement of promotive interaction and the patterns of interaction need to maximize student learning and retention.

Informal Cooperative Learning

Informal cooperative learning consists of having students work together to achieve a joint learning goal in temporary, ad-hoc groups that last from a few minutes to one class period (Johnson, Johnson, & Holubec, 2008). During a lecture, demonstration, or film, informal cooperative learning can be used to focus student attention on the material to be learned, set a mood conducive to learning, help set expectations as to what will be covered in a class session, ensure that students cognitively process and rehearse the material being taught, summarize what was learned and precue the next session, and provide closure to an instructional session. The teacher's role for using informal cooperative learning to keep students more actively engaged intellectually entails having focused discussions before and after the lesson (i.e., bookends) and interspersing pair discussions throughout the lesson. Two important aspects of using informal cooperative learning groups are to (a) make the task and the instructions explicit and precise and (b) require the groups to produce a specific product (such as a written answer). The procedure is as follows.

1. Introductory Focused Discussion: Teachers assign students to pairs or triads and explain (a) the task of answering the questions in a four to five minute time period and (b) the positive goal interdependence of reaching consensus. The discussion task is aimed at promoting advance organizing of what the students know about the topic to be presented and establishing expectations about what the lecture will cover. Individual accountability is ensured by the small size of the group. A basic interaction pattern of eliciting oral rehearsal, higher-level reasoning, and consensus building is required.

2. Intermittent Focused Discussions: Teachers divide the lecture into 10 to 15 minute segments. This is about the length of time a motivated adult can concentrate on information being presented. After each segment, students are asked to turn to the person next to them and work cooperatively in answering a question (specific enough so that students can answer it in about three minutes) that requires students to cognitively process the material just presented. The procedure is:

a. Each student formulates his or her answer.

b. Students share their answer with their partner.

c. Students listen carefully to their partner's answer.

d. The pairs create a new answer that is superior to each member's initial formulation by integrating the two answers, building on each other's thoughts, and synthesizing.

The question may require students to:

a. Summarize the material just presented.

b. Give a reaction to the theory, concepts, or information presented.

c. Predict what is going to be presented next; hypothesize.

d. Solve a problem.

e. Relate material to past learning and integrate it into conceptual frameworks.

f. Resolve conceptual conflict created by presentation.

Teachers should ensure that students are seeking to reach an agreement on the answers to the questions (i.e., ensure positive goal interdependence is established), not just share their ideas with each other. Randomly choose two or three students to give 30 second summaries of their discussions. Such individual accountabilityensures that the pairs take the tasks seriously and check each other to ensure that both are prepared to answer. Periodically, the teacher should structure a discussion of how effectively the pairs are working together (i.e., group processing). Group celebrations add reward interdependence to the pairs.

3. Closure Focused Discussion: Teachers give students an ending discussion task lasting four to five minutes. The task requires students to summarize what they have learned from the lecture and integrate it into existing conceptual frameworks. The task may also point students toward what the homework will cover or what will be presented in the next class session. This provides closure to the lecture.

Informal cooperative learning ensures students are actively involved in understanding what is being presented. It also provides time for teachers to move around the class listening to what students are saying. Listening to student discussions can give instructors direction and insight into how well students understand the concepts and material being as well as increase the individual accountability of participating in the discussions.

Cooperative Base Groups

Cooperative base groups are long-term, heterogeneous cooperative learning groups with stable membership (Johnson, Johnson, & Holubec, 2008). Members' primary responsibilities are to (a) ensure all members are making good academic progress (i.e., positive goal interdependence) (b) hold each other accountable for striving to learn (i.e., individual accountability), and (c) provide each other with support, encouragement, and assistance in completing assignments (i.e., promotive interaction). In order to ensure the base groups function effectively, periodically teachers should teach needed social skills and have the groups process how effectively they are functioning. Typically, cooperative base groups are heterogeneous in membership (especially in terms of achievement motivation and task orientation), meet regularly (for example, daily or biweekly), and last for the duration of the class (a semester or year) or preferably for several years. The agenda of the base group can include academic support tasks (such as ensuring all members have completed their homework and understand it or editing each other's essays), personal support tasks (such as getting to know each other and helping each other solve nonacademic problems), routine tasks (such as taking attendance), and assessment tasks (such as checking each other's understanding of the answers to test questions when the test is first taken individually and then retaken in the base group).

The teacher's role in using cooperative base groups is to (a) form heterogeneous groups of four (or three), (b) schedule a time when they will regularly meet (such as beginning and end of each class session or the beginning and end of each week), (c) create specific agendas with concrete tasks that provide a routine for base groups to follow when they meet, (d) ensure the five basic elements of effective cooperative groups are implemented, and (e) have students periodically process the effectiveness of their base groups.

The longer a cooperative group exists, the more caring their relationships will tend to be, the greater the social support they will provide for each other, the more committed they will be to each other's success, and the more influence members will have over each other. Permanent cooperative base groups provide the arena in which caring and committed relationships can be created that provide the social support needed to improve attendance, personalize the educational experience, increase achievement, and improve the quality of school life.

Integrated Use Of All Three Types Of Cooperative Learning

These three types of cooperative learning may be used together (Johnson, Johnson, & Holubec, 2008). A typical class session may begin with a base group meeting, which is followed by a short lecture in which informal cooperative learning is used. The lecture is followed by a formal cooperative learning lesson. Near the end of the class session another short lecture may be delivered with the use of informal cooperative learning. The class ends with a base group meeting.

Basic Elements of Cooperation

Not all groups are cooperative (Johnson & F. Johnson, 2009). Placing people in the same room, seating them together, telling them they are a group, does not mean they will cooperate effectively. To be cooperative, to reach the full potential of the group, five essential elements need to be carefully structured into the situation: positive interdependence, individual and group accountability, promotive interaction, appropriate use of social skills, and group processing (Johnson & Johnson, 1989, 2005). Mastering the basic elements of cooperation allows teachers to:

1. Take existing lessons, curricula, and courses and structure them cooperatively.

2. Tailor cooperative learning lessons to unique instructional needs, circumstances, curricula, subject areas, and students.

3. Diagnose the problems some students may have in working together and intervene to increase the effectiveness of the student learning groups.

The first and most important element is positive interdependence. Teachers must give a clear task and a group goal so students believe they "sink or swim together." Positive interdependenceexists when group members perceive that they are linked with each other in a way that one cannot succeed unless everyone succeeds. If one fails, all fail. Group members realize, therefore, that each person's efforts benefit not only him- or herself, but all other group members as well. Positive interdependence creates a commitment to other people's success as well as one's own and is the heart of cooperative learning. If there is no positive interdependence, there is no cooperation.

The second essential element of cooperative learning is individual and group accountability. The group must be accountable for achieving its goals. Each member must be accountable for contributing his or her share of the work (which ensures that no one "hitch-hikes" on the work of others). The group has to be clear about its goals and be able to measure (a) its progress in achieving them and (b) the individual efforts of each of its members. Individual accountability exists when the performance of each individual student is assessed and the results are given back to the group and the individual in order to ascertain who needs more assistance, support, and encouragement in completing the assignment. The purpose of cooperative learning groups is to make each member a stronger individual in his or her right. Students learn together so that they can subsequently perform higher as individuals.

The third essential component of cooperative learning is promotive interaction, preferably face-to-face. Promotive interactionoccurs when members share resources and help, support, encourage, and praise each other's efforts to learn. Cooperative learning groups are both an academic support system (every student has someone who is committed to helping him or her learn) and a personal support system (every student has someone who is committed to him or her as a person). There are important cognitive activities and interpersonal dynamics that can only occur when students promote each other's learning. This includes orally explaining how to solve problems, discussing the nature of the concepts being learned, teaching one's knowledge to classmates, and connecting present with past learning. It is through promoting each other's learning face-to-face that members become personally committed to each other as well as to their mutual goals.

The fourth essential element of cooperative learning is teaching students the required interpersonal and small group skills. In cooperative learning groups students are required to learn academic subject matter (taskwork) and also to learn the interpersonal and small group skills required to function as part of a group (teamwork). Cooperative learning is inherently more complex than competitive or individualistic learning because students have to engage simultaneously in taskwork and teamwork. Group members must know how to provide effective leadership, decision-making, trust-building, communication, and conflict-management, and be motivated to use the prerequisite skills. Teachers have to teach teamwork skills just as purposefully and precisely as teachers do academic skills. Since cooperation and conflict are inherently related, the procedures and skills for managing conflicts constructively are especially important for the long-term success of learning groups. Procedures and strategies for teaching students social skills may be found in Johnson (2009) and Johnson and F. Johnson (2009).

The fifth essential component of cooperative learning is group processing. Group processing exists when group members discuss how well they are achieving their goals and maintaining effective working relationships. Groups need to describe what member actions are helpful and unhelpful and make decisions about what behaviors to continue or change. Continuous improvement of the process of learning results from the careful analysis of how members are working together.

These five elements are essential to all cooperative systems, no matter what their size. When international agreements are made and when international efforts to achieve mutual goals (such as environmental protection) occur, these five elements must be carefully implemented and maintained.

The Validating Research

Amount And Characteristics Of Research

The study of cooperative, competitive, and individualistic efforts is commonly recognized as one of the oldest fields of research in social psychology. In the late 1800's Triplett in the United States, Turner in England, and Mayer in Germany conducted a series of studies on the factors associated with competitive performance. Since then over 750 studies have been conducted on the relative merits of cooperative, competitive, and individualistic efforts and the conditions under which each is appropriate. This is one of the largest bodies of research within psychology and education.

An extensive literature search was conducted aimed at identifying all the available studies from published and nonpublished sources. Seven-hundred-fifty-four studies contained enough data to compute an effect size (there are many studies from which an effect size could not be computed) (Johnson & Johnson, 1989). The research on social interdependence, furthermore, has an external validity and a generalizability rarely found in the social sciences. The more variations in places, people, and procedures the research can withstand and still yield the same findings, the more externally valid the conclusions. The research has been conducted over twelve decades by many different researchers with markedly different theoretical and practical orientations working in different settings and countries. A wide variety of research tasks, ways of structuring social interdependence, and measures of the dependent variables have been used. Participants in the studies varied from ages three to post-college adults and have come from different economic classes and cultural backgrounds. The studies were conducted with different durations, lasting from one session to 100 sessions or more. Research on social interdependence has been conducted in numerous cultures in North America (with Caucasian, Black-American, Native-American, and Hispanic populations) and countries from North, Central, and South America, Europe, the Middle East, Asia, the Pacific Rim, and Africa. The research on social interdependence includes both theoretical and demonstration studies conducted in educational, business, and social service organizations. The diversity of these studies gives social interdependence theory wide generalizability and considerable external validity.

Promotive, oppositional, and no interaction have differential effects on the outcomes of the situation (see Johnson & Johnson, 1989, 2005). The research has focused on numerous outcomes, which may be subsumed within the broad and interrelated categories of effort to achieve, quality of relationships, and psychological health (Johnson, 2003; Johnson & Johnson, 1989, 2005) (see Table 1 and Figure 2). Figure 1 shows the relationships among the outcomes.

Table 1

Mean Effect Sizes For Impact Of Social Interdependence On Dependent Variables

ConditionsAchievementInterpersonal AttractionSocial SupportSelf-Esteem

Total Studies

Coop vs. Comp0.670.670.620.58

Coop vs. Ind0.640.600.700.44

Comp vs. Ind0.300.08-0.13-0.23

High Quality Studies

Coop vs. Comp0.880.820.830.67

Coop vs. Ind0.610.620.720.45

Comp vs. Ind0.070.27-0.13-0.25

Note: Coop = Cooperation, Comp = Competition, Ind = Individualistic

Reprinted By Permission From: Johnson, D. W. & Johnson, R. (1989). Cooperation and Competition: Theory and Research.Edina, MN: Interaction Book Company

Effort To Achieve

From Table 1 it may be seen that cooperation promotes considerable greater effort to achieve than do competitive or individualistic efforts. Effort exerted to achieve includes such variables as achievement and productivity, long-term retention, on-task behavior, use of higher-level reasoning strategies, generation of new ideas and solutions, transfer of what is learned within one situation to another, intrinsic motivation, achievement motivation, continuing motivation to learn, and positive attitudes toward learning and school. Overall, cooperation tends to promote higher achievement than competitive or individualistic efforts (effect-sizes = 0.67 and 0.64 respectively). The impact of cooperative learning on achievement means that if schools wish to prepare students to take proficiency tests to meet local and state standards, the use of cooperative learning should dominate instructional practice.

An important aspect of school life is engagement in learning. One indication of engagement in learning is time on task. Cooperators spent considerably more time on task than did competitors (effect size = 0.76) or students working individualistically (effect size = 1.17). In addition, students working cooperatively tended to be more involved in activities and tasks, attach greater importance to success, and engage in more on-task behavior and less apathetic, off-task, disruptive behaviors. Finally, cooperative experiences, compared with competitive and individualistic ones, have been found to promote more positive attitudes toward the task and the experience of working on the task (effect-sizes = 0.57 and 0.42 respectively).

Quality Of Relationships

Quality of relationships includes such variables as interpersonal attraction, liking, cohesion, esprit-de-corps, and social support. The degree of emotional bonding that exists among students has a profound effect on students' behavior. The more positive the relationships among students and between students and faculty, the lower the absenteeism and dropout rates and the greater the commitment to group goals, feelings of personal responsibility to the group, willingness to take on difficult tasks, motivation and persistence in working toward goal achievement, satisfaction and morale, willingness to endure pain and frustration on behalf of the group, willingness to defend the group against external criticism or attack, willingness to listen to and be influenced by colleagues, commitment to each other's professional growth and success, and productivity (Johnson & F. Johnson, 2009).

There are over 175 studies that have investigated the relative impact of cooperative, competitive, and individualistic efforts on quality of relationships and another 106 studies on social support (Johnson, 2003; Johnson & Johnson, 1989, 2005). As Table 2 shows, cooperation generally promotes greater interpersonal attraction among individuals than does competitive or individualistic efforts (effect sizes = 0.67 and 0.60 respectively). Cooperative experiences tend to promote greater social support than does competitive (effect-size = 0.62) or individualistic (effect-size = 0.70) efforts. Stronger effects are found for peer support than for superior (teacher) support. The high-quality studies tend to have even more powerful effects.

It is difficult to overemphasize the importance of these research results. Friends are a developmental advantage (see Johnson, 2003; Johnson & Johnson, 1989, 2005). There is a close association between antisocial behavior and rejection by the normal peer group. Rejected children tend to be deficient in a number of social-cognitive skills, including peer group entry, perception of peer group norms, response to provocation, and interpretation of prosocial interactions. Among children referred to child guidance clinics, 30 to 75 percent (depending on age) are reported by their parents to experience peer difficulties. Moreover, children referred for psychological treatment have fewer friends and less contact with them than nonreferred children, their friendships are significantly less stable over time, and their understanding of the reciprocities and intimacies involved in friendships is less mature. Peer group acceptance and friendships may be built through the extensive use of cooperative learning.

Psychological Health

Asley Montagu (1966) was fond of saying that with few exceptions the solitary animal in any species is an abnormal creature. Similarly, Karen Horney (1937) stated that the neurotic individual is someone who is inappropriately competitive and, therefore, unable to cooperate with others. Montagu and Horney recognized that the essence of psychological health is the ability to develop and maintain cooperative relationships. More specifically, psychological health is the ability (cognitive capacities, motivational orientations, and social skills) to build, maintain, and appropriately modify interdependent relationships with others to succeed in achieving goals (Johnson, 2003; Johnson & Johnson, 1989, 2005). People who are unable to do so often (a) become depressed, anxious, frustrated, and lonely, (b) tend to feel afraid, inadequate, helpless, hopeless, and isolated, and (c) rigidly cling to unproductive and ineffective ways of coping with adversity.

With our students and colleagues, we have conducted a series of studies relating cooperative, competitive, and individualistic efforts and attitudes to various indices of psychological health (see Johnson, 2003; Johnson & Johnson, 1989, 2005). The samples studied included middle-class junior-high students, middle-class high school seniors, high-school age juvenile prisoners, adult prisoners, Olympic ice-hockey players, adult step-couples, and business executives in China. The diversity of the samples studied and the variety of measures of psychological health provide considerable generalizability of the results of the studies. A strong relationship was found between cooperativeness and psychological health, a mixed picture was found with competitiveness and psychological health, and a strong relationship was found between an individualistic orientation and psychological pathology.

Finally, there is evidence that cooperation promotes more frequent use of higher level reasoning strategies than do competitive (effect size = 0.93) or individualistic (effect size = 0.97) efforts. Similarly, cooperation tends to promote more accurate perspective taking than do competitive (effect size = 0.61) or individualistic (effect size = 0.44) efforts. Thus, the more cooperative learning experiences students are involved in, the more mature their cognitive and moral decision making and the more they will tend to take other people's perspectives in account when making decisions.

Conclusions and Summary

Teachers who wish to use cooperative learning should ideally base their classroom practices on theory validated by research. The closer classroom practices are to validated theory, the more likely they will be effective. When more directly practice is connected to theory, furthermore, the more likely practice will be refined, upgraded, and improved over the years. There are, however, few classroom practices that are directly based on validated theory. The close relationship between theory, research, and practice makes cooperative learning somewhat unique. It also creates a set of issues for teachers using cooperative learning.

The first issue is understanding the nature of social interdependence. Social interdependence is created when goals are structured so that the accomplishment of a person's goal is affected by others' actions. The interdependence may be positive (which results in individuals working cooperatively to achieve their mutual goals) or negative (which results in individuals competing to see who will achieve the goal). The absence of interdependence indicates no connection between people's attempts to achieve their goals. In cooperative situations, students' actions substitute for each other, students are inducible, and a positive cathexis is created toward other's actions. In competitive situations, the opposite psychological processes may be found. The fundamental premise of social interdependence theory is that the way in which goals are structured determines how individuals interact, and those interaction patterns create outcomes. Positive goal interdependence tends to result in promotive interaction, negative goal interdependence tends to result in oppositional interaction, and no interdependence tends to result in no interaction.

The second issue is understanding the research validating social interdependence theory. There are hundreds of studies indicating that cooperation, compared to competitive and individualistic efforts, tends to result in greater effort to achieve, more positive relationships, and greater psychological health. The diversity of this research provides considerable generalizabiity to the findings.

The third issue is to understand the five basic elements that make cooperation work. There is nothing magical about putting students in groups. Students can compete with groupmates, students can work individualistically while ignoring groupmates, or students can work cooperatively with groupmates. In order to structure cooperative learning effectively, teachers need to understand how tostructure positive interdependence, individual accountability, promotive interaction, appropriate use of social skills, and group processing into learning situations.

The fourth issue is to understand the flexibility and many faces of cooperative learning. When the five basic elements may be effectively implemented in formal cooperative learning situations (formal cooperative learning may be used to structure most learning situations), informal cooperative learning situations (informal cooperative learning may be used to make didactic lessons cooperative), and cooperative base groups (which are used to personalize a class and the school). Together they provide an integrated system for instructional organization and design (as well as classroom management). When utilizing these three types of cooperative learning, any learning situations in any subject area with any age students and with any curriculum can be structured cooperatively.

References

Deutsch, M. (1949). A theory of cooperation and competition. Human Relations, 2, 129-152.

Deutsch, M. (1962). Cooperation and trust: Some theoretical notes. In M. Jones (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation, (pp. 275-319). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.

Horney, K. (1937). The neurotic personality of our time. New York: Norton.

Johnson, D. W. (2003). Social interdependence: The interrelationships among theory, research, and practice. American Psychologist, 58(11), 931-945.

Johnson, D.W. (2009). Reaching out: Interpersonal effectivenessand self- actualization (10th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Johnson, D.W., & Johnson, F. (2009). Joining together: Group theory and group skills (10th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Johnson D. W., & Johnson, R. (1989). Cooperation and competition: Theory and research. Edina, MN: interaction Book Company.

Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. (1999). Learning together and alone: Cooperative, competitive, and individualistic learning (5th Ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Montagu, A. (1966). On being human. New York: Hawthorn.

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What is Cooperative Learning? - Cooperative Learning Institute

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David W Johnson and Roger T Johnson Without the cooperation of its members society cannot survive, and the society of man has survived because the cooperativeness of its members made survival possible.... It was not an advantageous individual here and there who did so, but the group.

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While I am terrible with technology, it is a great resource to use in the classroom. Powerpoint, videos, projected images, movies, interactive games, etc. Keeps the students interest and cuts down on the need for them to want their phones.

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Technology is aid to teaching in a great manner; and the same is quite visible from the way we see children's love for tech integration.

If you are one of those educators who love to try different things then 5 strategies are listed below that might come handy for you to engage students better than before.

1) Use of Multimedia

Vivid images, videos, instantaneous information, all of this capture attention from students easily. Use of various multimedia resources adds zing to your classroom sessions. Students enjoy distinctive resources and variety of these resources keeps students engaged and interested in the classrooms throughout. Multimedia can stimulate more than one sense at a time, and in doing so, educators reach all different types of learners and hold student's attention longer. Giving students the ability to create and utilize different types of multimedia creates a more collaborative classroom and allows students communicate and actually apply what they are learning, enhancing the overall educational experience.
Also Read: Why and How Should Educators Embrace Media Literacy in Classrooms
2) Utilization of Social Media

Every kid, every teacher in fact everybody uses and enjoys social media. So when this social media is used for teaching purposes, it turns out to be of great use. Students love being social, collaborating, sharing and exchanging ideas. Various important aspects that are integral part of teaching like collaboration and interaction can happen seamlessly via social media. Not just that it is being used by all but it also enables you to keep things all checked up and helps you in assigning tasks, assignment and other class related activities effortlessly. Social media also plays an important role when you talk about keeping guardians updated about the students' performance and other school activities. Various platforms like Facebook and Twitter are being used by educators worldwide and are enjoyed by the masses.
Also Read: Social Media Tips Every Educational Leader Must Follow
3) Using Variety of Resources

Mix things up and add some engagement. The source of the information is not just limited to books in 21 st century instead you can use podcasts, videos, OERs, blogs and other resources to deliver knowledge. Kids enjoy exploring various resources and widening their horizons. A mix of various resources is enjoyed by students and is refreshing. It even caters to the different learning needs of the students, as one same resource may not be apt for all.

4) Making Most of Games and Perks of Gamification

Maybe this is the best part about tech integration. The thing that students get to learn while gaming is the best thing. No doubts about the thing that how much love kids have for the games and here educational games are there to help kids learn their important lessons while playing amazing games. Students can get motivated by challenging each other and if done on a mobile device, students are more likely to continue learning outside of the classroom. Using educational games is one of the best ways to use technology in the classroom to make students eager for learning. And gamification can be used as a framework for education that can be used anywhere and in any level of complexity. It can be directly applied to contents, to the pedagogical framework (usually constructivism), or even to other complementary frameworks.
You can also watch these 9 videos to know more about gamification in education.
5) Use Technology to Empower Students and Reach Out

Technology nurtures artistic expression. Engaged students are those who actively express opinions, and don't just passively 'receive wisdom'. Technology can give them a platform to explain their ideas, not just regurgitate facts. Apart from this you can help students reach out and learn more. Social media helps you connect to people around the world and you can get in touch with experts.

Modern technology-based art forms have encourage artistic expression among our diverse student population. These tools provide forms of artistic communication for those students who have been constrained by the traditional options of verbal and written communication. You should also help students to have a 'voice'. One way to do this, for example, is to get them to each set up a blog or participate in other ways to demonstrate their learning. But remember that not everyone's the same: introvert students might find Twitter intimidating, for instance. Instead, offer multiple choices: podcasting, YouTube etc. To make this work, students need to be aware of ethics of online world and the principles of digital citizenship. You should help with this on priority before starting up!
You must check these fun resources on digital citizenship for kids.
Which strategies do you follow to keep your students engaged and active in the classroom?

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5 Teaching Strategies to Engage Students Using Technology

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Technology is aid to teaching in a great manner; and the same is quite visible from the way we see children's love for tech integration. If you are one of those educators who love to try different things then 5 strategies are listed below that might come handy for you to engage students better than before.

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Turning the lesson around and opening it up to have students ask the questions is a great way for students to thinking more deeply on the unit/subject being discussed. Having the students work in groups and have to move around keeps their brain active. (My cooperating teacher sometimes even had the students do jumping jacks).

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In Effective Teaching and Learning , educational researcher Naga Subramani argues that an effective teacher:

"Constantly renews himself [or herself] as a professional on his [or her] quest to provide students with the highest quality of education possible. This teacher has no fear of learning new teaching strategies or incorporating new technologies into lessons. "

There's more than one way to teach a diverse and dynamic classroom. In this post you'll find:

Classroom teaching strategies

1. Classroom management strategies

According to research from 2006 , teachers overwhelmingly reported a lack of professional development support when it came to improving their own classroom management strategies. This can lead to confusion for students and frustration for teachers.

When students clearly understand what's expected of them, they're more likely to be focused and engaged with their lessons. Some tips for building a positive environment include:

Model ideal behaviour: Clearly explain proper behaviour, and then follow it yourself.

Encourage initiative: Allow students to actively participate in the learning process.

2. Flexible seating

Kristine Fourman, a teacher in the Bucyrus Elementary Preschool Program, connects student seating and academics: "When students aren't trying to hold themselves still in their chairs, they can integrate auditory, visual and tactile systems of the body."

3. Webb's Depth of Knowledge

There are four DoK levels:

4. Summative assessment

Summative assessments are end-of-unit tests, final projects or standardized tests used to assess student understanding on a broad and absolute level.

Critics of summative assessments say they're inauthentic and don't accurately reflect the learning process. But there are important benefits to using summative assessments as a teaching strategy: they motivate students to pay attention and challenges them to apply their learning. They're also a valuable source of insight for teachers, especially for those with larger classes - allowing them to easily identify and correct any wide gaps in understanding across the classroom.

5. Formative assessment

Formative assessments are the opposite of summative assessments because they take place the teaching process.

Formative assessments are a can reduce student stress around testing. They give you the chance to course correct mid-unit if there are serious comprehension issues and to see which students might need a bit more one-on-one time.

Some examples of formative assessment techniques include:

6. Active learning

Put students at the center of the classroom with active learning strategies - a teaching technique that increases student engagement in daily lessons. According to active learning advocate James Ballencia , the technique can also help teachers as much as it helps students:

"With the goal of teaching mindful learners who actively pursue knowledge, teachers become more actively engaged in how they teach the curriculum and how they develop each student's learning potential. They mix and match a variety of ... tactics to ensure that students not only learn more, better, and faster - they also learn smarter."

Some active learning strategies include:

Reciprocal questioning - Have students come up with questions for the class on a recent lesson or concept.

The pause procedure: Take a break every 10 to 15 minutes so that students have time to discuss, ask questions or solve problems.

Muddiest point: Ask students to write down which point in the lesson is the least clear to them.

7. Differentiated instruction

Differentiated instruction is a popular and effective teaching strategy that involves reacting to the diverse learning styles in every classroom with adjusted content and processes.

Carol Ann Tomlinson, a reputable thought leader on differentiated instruction, recommends analyzing teaching strategies on a constant basis to respond to needs:

"Frequently reflect on the match between your classroom and the philosophy of teaching and learning you want to practice. Look for matches and mismatches, and use both to guide you."

Strategies like learning stations and the think-pair-share method are small ways that you can bring unique learning experiences to your students.

8. Personalized learning

No two students are exactly alike. That's why personalized learning builds a learning experience that addresses the unique abilities of each student .

"Students attending [schools using personalized learning] made gains in math and reading over the last two years that are significantly greater than a virtual control group made up of similar students selected from comparable schools."

Personalized learning allows students to learn without stigma and gets students involved in what they're learning.

9. Universal design for learning (UDL)

Universal design for learning (UDL) is an educational framework that ensures all students have equal access to education. Use it in your classroom to give unique students flexible ways to learn and become more goal-oriented.

Some best practices for UDL:

10. Response to intervention

Response to intervention (RTI) focuses on early and continuous identification, assessment and assistance for students who have learning or behaviour needs. It's best used as part of a more general classroom management plan, and involves small-group or individual intervention that quickly addresses trouble spots.

The most effective RTI strategies are proactive. Start with everyday teaching and move to targeted intervention as soon as you spot a problem. When you're prepared to move quickly, you're more likely to be able to develop a tailored and effective learning plan.

Math teaching strategies

11. Classroom technology

Technology is a great way to improve student engagement and get students excited for class, but it can be difficult to incorporate seamlessly into the classroom.

There are an endless number of ways to use technology to enhance lessons, including:

A virtual field trip: Use virtual reality apps to explore famous landmarks and natural phenomena. Take a trip to the Great Barrier Reef to study ecosystems, or tour Barcelona as part of a Spanish class.

Video mini-lessons: TeacherTube offers an education-only version of YouTube, with videos on a number of core subjects. This makes the learning process more engaging, especially for visual learners.

Podcasts: Give students relevant podcasts and engage auditory learners, or have older students create their own - they'll develop research and technology skills at the same time.

12. Math games

Some examples of popular math games:

Bouncing Sums: Label a beach ball with integers, decimals and fractions. Each student must read the number on his or her label, adding or multiplying it by the sum from the previous student.

101 and out: Divide your class in half and give each group a die. Have groups roll the die and either keep it at face value or multiply it by 10. See which group can get closest to 101 without going over.

Math goodies: Math goodies is a free resource that provides puzzles and word problems. Students can either use this resource on their own or you can use it to create custom worksheets.

13. Math websites

Popular resources include:

TeacherVision: Looking for interdisciplinary activities? Look no further. TeacherVision gives teachers access to resources that connect math with subjects like art, history and geography.

: SuperKids is a one-stop resource for building worksheets. Select a skill and number range, and generate a custom assignment.

Students go on adventures, collect pets and battle with friends, all while answering skill-building, targeted math questions - for free.

For more resources, read 15 Helpful Math Websites for Teachers & 5 to Share with Kids [+ Downloadable List].

14. Mental math

Is mental math really a teaching strategy? Of course!

Mental math is an important part of math fluency. When students have a quick recall for math facts and can do simple equations quickly, they have the confidence to attempt more difficult problems.

"A combination of cognitive strategies that enhances flexible thinking and number sense. It is calculating mentally without the use of external memory aids. It improves computational fluency by developing efficiency, accuracy, and flexibility."

There's lots of resources available to boost mental math skills, including:

15. Common Core math

Common Core math is a new framework that seeks to improve students' conceptual understanding of math by encouraging problem-solving, critical thinking, and discussion skills.

Since it's so new, instructors have struggled to prepare materials that align with the standards. If that's you, here are some techniques to get you started:

Use modular tools: Younger students can model their problems using number blocks, and older student can use everyday objects to "act out" the concepts they're learning.

Encourage peer discussion: Common Core standards place a large focus on critical thinking and problem solving - two things that students can learn by talking through problems with their peers.

Math journals: Writing out the steps they took to solve a problem helps students to understand where they got stuck. Plus, it's a great tool for teachers looking to keep track of student comprehension.

16. Solve math problems faster

Teaching students to solve math problems quickly and without help can improve confidence and math fluency.

Provided your students have a solid grasp on the concepts behind what they've already mastered, math "tricks" can give them more confidence and get them excited about trying new problems.

There are tricks for just about every basic function, including:

17. How to teach multiplication

Multiplication is a big and often daunting step for learners, who feel like they've just mastered addition and are suddenly being thrown something new. Teachers also often struggle to communicate new concepts to student effectively.

What if we told you that multiplication could be one of the most rewarding lessons you ever taught?

Our six-step guide to teaching multiplication is designed to engage students in the learning processes with a clear and logical progression of ideas. There are lot of fun ways to teach multiplication and reduce student anxiety, including:

Multiplication doesn't have to be stressful - start with basic concepts and work your way up, and your students will be multiplication masters in no time at all!

18. Multiplication games

Multiplication is a difficult concept for many students to grasp. Memorizing and understanding core multiplication facts is a key element of math fluency, and provides an essential foundation for further study.

Game-based learning can be a successful way to help students develop this understanding and can engage students on stressful topic. Some multiplication games include:

True or false?: Write a multiplication sentence on the board that's either true or false. In teams, the class has a minute to discuss and respond with "true" or "false" cards.

Beach ball toss: Write multiplication questions on a beach ball and throw it. Have students answer the question that is closest to their pinky finger.

Jeopardy!: It's a classic for a reason - find an interactive template and fill it with questions. The team with the most points at the end of the game, wins!

19. Multiplying fractions

For some students, this leap is even more daunting than the switch from addition to multiplication. But not to worry! There are teaching strategies that will have your students multiplying fractions in no time at all.

Some best practices for teaching your class about multiplying fractions:

20. How to divide fractions

Lucky for them, we did the research. There are three simple steps to dividing a fraction:

Flip the divisor into a reciprocal

Change the division sign into a multiplication sign and multiply

Simplify if possible

The best way to make sure that students understand how to solve a problem is to make sure that they understand what, exactly, is happening. Instead of just teaching the answer, teach students what the answer .

21. Math puzzles

Math puzzles have been around almost as long as math has - for a reason. found that math puzzles "develop logical thinking, combinatorial abilities, strengthen the capacity of abstract thinking and operating with spatial images, instill critical thinking and develop mathematical memory."

My PreCalc students love riddles... can you figure out where the other dollar went?? #MathRiddles pic.twitter.com/BclqW9nq98

- Rachel Frasier (@MsFrasierMHS) January 8, 2019

Math puzzles build foundational skills and increase math fluency, while also connecting to existing curricula and promoting problem-solving skills. Some popular math puzzles include:

Student-focused teaching strategies

22. Gamification

Classroom gamification is an effective way to take a child's love for play and turn it into a love of learning. The benefits are huge: gamification can help students focus and build essential skills. A 2011 study from South Korea also found that gamification kept students motivated and engaged in the classroom.

In order to effectively use gamification techniques in your classroom, start with your students: What do they like? Where are their learning needs? Are there any notable behaviour issues? Other tips include:

Structure problems effectively: Gamification works best when surrounded by clear rules and expectations.

Make sure progress is visible: If students can't see how far they've come, they might get frustrated.

Create a manual: Make a resource for students that explains the games, rules, and scoring system.

23. Convergent and divergent thinking

Convergent thinking means understanding how separate pieces of information can be used to reach one solution. It's usually reserved for first or second depth of knowledge (DOK) levels, and can be used to answer questions that require a limited range of skills and knowledge (like multiple choice questions).

Divergent thinking requires students to start with one prompt, then think critically about it to diverge towards to distinct answers (think essay-writing, brainstorming and creative analyzing). This takes place at the third or fourth DOK level.

24. Project-based learning

Project-based learning is open-ended, and allows students working in groups to find their own way to the solution. It doesn't look the same in every classroom - class size, student ability and learning styles play a large role in shaping the process.

While proponents point to increased engagement, knowledge retention and improved critical thinking, there are also significant criticisms: Project-based learning can be too focused on product creation instead of learning, and assessment is often subjective.

25. Experiential learning

Provide students with new ways of learning to help them stay focused, learn dynamically and learn faster.

Engage students in the process of inquiry and reflection! Ask them to create three to five questions (with answers) on a recent lesson. In pairs, have students quiz their partners on the questions they wrote, and watch to see which concepts students consider to be the most important from their lesson.

26. Peer teaching

It can be difficult, however, to bring it to the classroom - students might have different proficiency levels or be hesitant about teaching their peers, and it can lead to confidentiality issues about which students are struggling.

Some best practices for peer teaching include:

27. Inquiry-based learning

Inquiry-based learning has been around since the 1960s, but it still remains a misunderstood teaching strategy. In the inquiry-based learning classroom, teachers are responsible for guiding students through their questions - past curiosity and into critical thinking and understanding.

There are 4 main types of inquiry-based learning:

Confirmation inquiry: Students are given a question along with a way to answer it

Structured inquiry: Students are given an open question and investigation method

Guided inquiry: Students work from an open question to design investigation methods

28. Problem-based learning

Problem-based learning is a student-centred pedagogy that puts students in groups to solve open-ended problems together. This teaching strategy has its advantages and disadvantages:

Even taking into account the different opinions on problem-based learning, there is an undeniable value in giving students a degree of control over their own education.

29. Cooperative learning

Cooperative learning is one of the most universal teaching strategies. It empowers students to work together and gives teachers a chance to deliver targeted, small-group learning.

A popular article from Theory into Practice details five essential aspects of cooperative learning:

Positive interdependence: Each group member is valuable

Accountability: Students accept responsibility for their roles

Soft skills instruction: Lessons and activities about teamwork

Group processing: Group should use strategies on how to meet their goals

30. Reciprocal teaching

Reciprocal teaching involves students in reading and gets them excited to learn. Learners are asked to predict what a text is about, ask questions about what they don't understand, re-read for clarification, and summarize what the text is saying - instead of just absorbing material as quickly as possible.

For more ideas about reciprocal teaching, read 4 Reciprocal Teaching Strategies to Use.

31. Blended learning

Blended learning combines online learning with traditional classroom instruction. It's a valuable tool to use in differentiation teaching strategies, and can help students learn tailored content at their own pace.

There are a number of different ways to bring blended learning to your classroom, but some common methods include implementing learning stations and putting certain lessons online in part or entirely.

32. Culturally responsive teaching

Start by getting to know your students - where do they come from? What do their parents do? What's their favourite after-school activity?

Then, take that information and connect it to your lessons. Explain how a topic relates to different cultures, and make sure the classroom is a place where all students feel empowered. Encourage students to ask questions and share unique answers.

Other options for culturally responsive teaching include:

33. Interdisciplinary teaching

In your classroom, interdisciplinary teaching could involve collaboration with other teachers, or asking your students to make connections between different subjects. Try these activities to get your class started:

News analysis: Play a news clip or hand out an article that discusses a local, national or international topic. Ask students to solve a related question using skills they've learned in other classes.

All About Weather: Look at the impact of weather and climate on the labour, agriculture and customs of other societies. This gives students a chance to learn about different cultures from a scientific and social standpoint.

Historical Pen Pals: Combine creative writing and history by having students take on the role of a historical figure and write to classmates about challenges her or she faced. Give students a variety of sources to improve their research skills at the same time.

34. Service learning

According to the National Youth Leadership Council , service learning is "a philosophy, pedagogy and model for community development that is used as an instructional strategy to meet learning goals and/or content standards."

Service learning brings the classroom into the larger community and teaches students about the value of being an active citizen. Students get hands-on experience in interdisciplinary study, and often improve their academic outcomes and reduce behavioural problems.

Service learning contains five steps:

#METC19 so happy you all are talking #medialiteracy !!@julnilsmith made this image- we love it!! pic.twitter.com/7JPG5azutY

- NAMLE (@MediaLiteracyEd) February 13, 2019

Students are saturated with an endless number of different media influences, from TV to social media to comic books. Students need to be educated on how to interpret and understand what they're consuming.

Media literacy allows students to recognize bias and develop critical thinking skills within the context of their existing interests. Some activities you can try in your classroom include:

Logo dissection: Have students bring in a few different logos of popular brands, and ask them to interpret what they think it means. What type of customer is the company looking for? What do they value? Why did they choose that color or shape?

Deconstruct advertising language: Explore and critique advertising claims that companies make. Pass out magazines and online ads for students to examine and analyze.

36. Growth mindset

Even though it sounds more like a corporate buzzword, the philosophy of growth mindset has infiltrated the classroom. It focuses on helping students see the value of effort, persistence and risk in their learning environment, and pushes them to try new things and learn new concepts.

Since growth mindset is a relatively new teaching strategy, some teachers might struggle to use it effectively. Here are some best practices:

Give positive feedback: Instead of rewarding intellect, praise students when they try new methods and make plans.

Promote a diverse classroom: When diversity is modelled for students, they're more likely to embrace different perspectives in their future learning goals.

Encourage goal-based journaling: Ask students set goals and reflect on their progress. Have goals follow the SMART method ( Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic and Time-Based) for maximum effect.

Resources for effectively using teaching strategies

Google

The applications are endless: use Assignments and to differentiate learning, track student growth through comprehensive reporting tools, engage students through game-based learning, or use it as part of a blended learning approach.

Students will love practising their math skills with this free math game. They'll on adventures, collect pets and earn rewards, all while answering curriculum-aligned math questions tailored to their individual skill levels.
Click here for more tips on how to use Prodigy in your classroom.
Student feedback

In order to know which teaching strategies will be the most effective, ask your students to provide you with some feedback: What do they like? How do they think they learn best? What do they want to learn more about? Students are more likely to be engaged in the learning process when they have a voice.

There are a couple of ways to gather feedback:

Start-stop-continue - Hand out blank sheets of paper, and ask students to respond with 1) something they would like you to start doing in the classroom, 2) something they would like to not see in the classroom anymore, and 3) a suggestion for an activity or process that they think would make the classroom better.

Mid-lesson feedback: Cut out circles of red, green and yellow paper, and hand one of each out to students. During the lesson, ask how well the class understands - green means good, yellow means they might need help soon, and red means they need help right away.

Professional development

"This suggests that the exchanging of ideas and experience about teaching with other teachers in the school, observing each other's classrooms and providing mutual support increases the likelihood of implementing good teaching strategies."

Teacher journal

After gathering all this amazing information from student feedback and professional development efforts, you're going to need somewhere to keep track of it all.

Parents

Parent involvement in student learning is a key indicator of student success and performance. Keep parents informed with a quick paper or email newsletter every month, and let them know about new things happening in the classroom. Communicate individual issues quickly and effectively to avoid any report card surprises, but don't just mention the problems - make time to give praise or share news of an achievement.

Final thoughts on teaching strategies

There are so many different types of teaching strategies available for your classroom that the options can be overwhelming.

But that's good news! Your teaching style, students and classroom are all unique - why shouldn't your teaching strategies be too?

Start small, and work your way up. Don't be afraid to try new strategies and see what works best in your classroom. Not everything's going to be a good fit, and that's OK - keep engaging with your students and you'll build up lifelong learners with a passion for knowledge.

> Create or log in to your teacher account on Prodigy - a free, game-based learning platform for math that's easy to use for educators and students alike. Aligned with curricula across the English-speaking world, it's loved by more than a million teachers and 50 million students .👇👇👇

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36 Teaching Strategies to Try in 2019 | Prodigy Math Blog

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
In Effective Teaching and Learning , educational researcher Naga Subramani argues that an effective teacher: "Constantly renews himself [or herself] as a professional on his [or her] quest to provide students with the highest quality of education possible. This teacher has no fear of learning new teaching strategies or incorporating new technologies into lessons.

# data[].attributes.body
Provided multiple options for completing assignments such as drawing a picture instead of writing a paragraph or provided more than one option for completing projects.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
In Effective Teaching and Learning , educational researcher Naga Subramani argues that an effective teacher:

"Constantly renews himself [or herself] as a professional on his [or her] quest to provide students with the highest quality of education possible. This teacher has no fear of learning new teaching strategies or incorporating new technologies into lessons. "

There's more than one way to teach a diverse and dynamic classroom. In this post you'll find:

Classroom teaching strategies

1. Classroom management strategies

According to research from 2006 , teachers overwhelmingly reported a lack of professional development support when it came to improving their own classroom management strategies. This can lead to confusion for students and frustration for teachers.

When students clearly understand what's expected of them, they're more likely to be focused and engaged with their lessons. Some tips for building a positive environment include:

Model ideal behaviour: Clearly explain proper behaviour, and then follow it yourself.

Encourage initiative: Allow students to actively participate in the learning process.

2. Flexible seating

Kristine Fourman, a teacher in the Bucyrus Elementary Preschool Program, connects student seating and academics: "When students aren't trying to hold themselves still in their chairs, they can integrate auditory, visual and tactile systems of the body."

3. Webb's Depth of Knowledge

There are four DoK levels:

4. Summative assessment

Summative assessments are end-of-unit tests, final projects or standardized tests used to assess student understanding on a broad and absolute level.

Critics of summative assessments say they're inauthentic and don't accurately reflect the learning process. But there are important benefits to using summative assessments as a teaching strategy: they motivate students to pay attention and challenges them to apply their learning. They're also a valuable source of insight for teachers, especially for those with larger classes - allowing them to easily identify and correct any wide gaps in understanding across the classroom.

5. Formative assessment

Formative assessments are the opposite of summative assessments because they take place the teaching process.

Formative assessments are a can reduce student stress around testing. They give you the chance to course correct mid-unit if there are serious comprehension issues and to see which students might need a bit more one-on-one time.

Some examples of formative assessment techniques include:

6. Active learning

Put students at the center of the classroom with active learning strategies - a teaching technique that increases student engagement in daily lessons. According to active learning advocate James Ballencia , the technique can also help teachers as much as it helps students:

"With the goal of teaching mindful learners who actively pursue knowledge, teachers become more actively engaged in how they teach the curriculum and how they develop each student's learning potential. They mix and match a variety of ... tactics to ensure that students not only learn more, better, and faster - they also learn smarter."

Some active learning strategies include:

Reciprocal questioning - Have students come up with questions for the class on a recent lesson or concept.

The pause procedure: Take a break every 10 to 15 minutes so that students have time to discuss, ask questions or solve problems.

Muddiest point: Ask students to write down which point in the lesson is the least clear to them.

7. Differentiated instruction

Differentiated instruction is a popular and effective teaching strategy that involves reacting to the diverse learning styles in every classroom with adjusted content and processes.

Carol Ann Tomlinson, a reputable thought leader on differentiated instruction, recommends analyzing teaching strategies on a constant basis to respond to needs:

"Frequently reflect on the match between your classroom and the philosophy of teaching and learning you want to practice. Look for matches and mismatches, and use both to guide you."

Strategies like learning stations and the think-pair-share method are small ways that you can bring unique learning experiences to your students.

8. Personalized learning

No two students are exactly alike. That's why personalized learning builds a learning experience that addresses the unique abilities of each student .

"Students attending [schools using personalized learning] made gains in math and reading over the last two years that are significantly greater than a virtual control group made up of similar students selected from comparable schools."

Personalized learning allows students to learn without stigma and gets students involved in what they're learning.

9. Universal design for learning (UDL)

Universal design for learning (UDL) is an educational framework that ensures all students have equal access to education. Use it in your classroom to give unique students flexible ways to learn and become more goal-oriented.

Some best practices for UDL:

10. Response to intervention

Response to intervention (RTI) focuses on early and continuous identification, assessment and assistance for students who have learning or behaviour needs. It's best used as part of a more general classroom management plan, and involves small-group or individual intervention that quickly addresses trouble spots.

The most effective RTI strategies are proactive. Start with everyday teaching and move to targeted intervention as soon as you spot a problem. When you're prepared to move quickly, you're more likely to be able to develop a tailored and effective learning plan.

Math teaching strategies

11. Classroom technology

Technology is a great way to improve student engagement and get students excited for class, but it can be difficult to incorporate seamlessly into the classroom.

There are an endless number of ways to use technology to enhance lessons, including:

A virtual field trip: Use virtual reality apps to explore famous landmarks and natural phenomena. Take a trip to the Great Barrier Reef to study ecosystems, or tour Barcelona as part of a Spanish class.

Video mini-lessons: TeacherTube offers an education-only version of YouTube, with videos on a number of core subjects. This makes the learning process more engaging, especially for visual learners.

Podcasts: Give students relevant podcasts and engage auditory learners, or have older students create their own - they'll develop research and technology skills at the same time.

12. Math games

Some examples of popular math games:

Bouncing Sums: Label a beach ball with integers, decimals and fractions. Each student must read the number on his or her label, adding or multiplying it by the sum from the previous student.

101 and out: Divide your class in half and give each group a die. Have groups roll the die and either keep it at face value or multiply it by 10. See which group can get closest to 101 without going over.

Math goodies: Math goodies is a free resource that provides puzzles and word problems. Students can either use this resource on their own or you can use it to create custom worksheets.

13. Math websites

Popular resources include:

TeacherVision: Looking for interdisciplinary activities? Look no further. TeacherVision gives teachers access to resources that connect math with subjects like art, history and geography.

: SuperKids is a one-stop resource for building worksheets. Select a skill and number range, and generate a custom assignment.

Students go on adventures, collect pets and battle with friends, all while answering skill-building, targeted math questions - for free.

For more resources, read 15 Helpful Math Websites for Teachers & 5 to Share with Kids [+ Downloadable List].

14. Mental math

Is mental math really a teaching strategy? Of course!

Mental math is an important part of math fluency. When students have a quick recall for math facts and can do simple equations quickly, they have the confidence to attempt more difficult problems.

"A combination of cognitive strategies that enhances flexible thinking and number sense. It is calculating mentally without the use of external memory aids. It improves computational fluency by developing efficiency, accuracy, and flexibility."

There's lots of resources available to boost mental math skills, including:

15. Common Core math

Common Core math is a new framework that seeks to improve students' conceptual understanding of math by encouraging problem-solving, critical thinking, and discussion skills.

Since it's so new, instructors have struggled to prepare materials that align with the standards. If that's you, here are some techniques to get you started:

Use modular tools: Younger students can model their problems using number blocks, and older student can use everyday objects to "act out" the concepts they're learning.

Encourage peer discussion: Common Core standards place a large focus on critical thinking and problem solving - two things that students can learn by talking through problems with their peers.

Math journals: Writing out the steps they took to solve a problem helps students to understand where they got stuck. Plus, it's a great tool for teachers looking to keep track of student comprehension.

16. Solve math problems faster

Teaching students to solve math problems quickly and without help can improve confidence and math fluency.

Provided your students have a solid grasp on the concepts behind what they've already mastered, math "tricks" can give them more confidence and get them excited about trying new problems.

There are tricks for just about every basic function, including:

17. How to teach multiplication

Multiplication is a big and often daunting step for learners, who feel like they've just mastered addition and are suddenly being thrown something new. Teachers also often struggle to communicate new concepts to student effectively.

What if we told you that multiplication could be one of the most rewarding lessons you ever taught?

Our six-step guide to teaching multiplication is designed to engage students in the learning processes with a clear and logical progression of ideas. There are lot of fun ways to teach multiplication and reduce student anxiety, including:

Multiplication doesn't have to be stressful - start with basic concepts and work your way up, and your students will be multiplication masters in no time at all!

18. Multiplication games

Multiplication is a difficult concept for many students to grasp. Memorizing and understanding core multiplication facts is a key element of math fluency, and provides an essential foundation for further study.

Game-based learning can be a successful way to help students develop this understanding and can engage students on stressful topic. Some multiplication games include:

True or false?: Write a multiplication sentence on the board that's either true or false. In teams, the class has a minute to discuss and respond with "true" or "false" cards.

Beach ball toss: Write multiplication questions on a beach ball and throw it. Have students answer the question that is closest to their pinky finger.

Jeopardy!: It's a classic for a reason - find an interactive template and fill it with questions. The team with the most points at the end of the game, wins!

19. Multiplying fractions

For some students, this leap is even more daunting than the switch from addition to multiplication. But not to worry! There are teaching strategies that will have your students multiplying fractions in no time at all.

Some best practices for teaching your class about multiplying fractions:

20. How to divide fractions

Lucky for them, we did the research. There are three simple steps to dividing a fraction:

Flip the divisor into a reciprocal

Change the division sign into a multiplication sign and multiply

Simplify if possible

The best way to make sure that students understand how to solve a problem is to make sure that they understand what, exactly, is happening. Instead of just teaching the answer, teach students what the answer .

21. Math puzzles

Math puzzles have been around almost as long as math has - for a reason. found that math puzzles "develop logical thinking, combinatorial abilities, strengthen the capacity of abstract thinking and operating with spatial images, instill critical thinking and develop mathematical memory."

My PreCalc students love riddles... can you figure out where the other dollar went?? #MathRiddles pic.twitter.com/BclqW9nq98

- Rachel Frasier (@MsFrasierMHS) January 8, 2019

Math puzzles build foundational skills and increase math fluency, while also connecting to existing curricula and promoting problem-solving skills. Some popular math puzzles include:

Student-focused teaching strategies

22. Gamification

Classroom gamification is an effective way to take a child's love for play and turn it into a love of learning. The benefits are huge: gamification can help students focus and build essential skills. A 2011 study from South Korea also found that gamification kept students motivated and engaged in the classroom.

In order to effectively use gamification techniques in your classroom, start with your students: What do they like? Where are their learning needs? Are there any notable behaviour issues? Other tips include:

Structure problems effectively: Gamification works best when surrounded by clear rules and expectations.

Make sure progress is visible: If students can't see how far they've come, they might get frustrated.

Create a manual: Make a resource for students that explains the games, rules, and scoring system.

23. Convergent and divergent thinking

Convergent thinking means understanding how separate pieces of information can be used to reach one solution. It's usually reserved for first or second depth of knowledge (DOK) levels, and can be used to answer questions that require a limited range of skills and knowledge (like multiple choice questions).

Divergent thinking requires students to start with one prompt, then think critically about it to diverge towards to distinct answers (think essay-writing, brainstorming and creative analyzing). This takes place at the third or fourth DOK level.

24. Project-based learning

Project-based learning is open-ended, and allows students working in groups to find their own way to the solution. It doesn't look the same in every classroom - class size, student ability and learning styles play a large role in shaping the process.

While proponents point to increased engagement, knowledge retention and improved critical thinking, there are also significant criticisms: Project-based learning can be too focused on product creation instead of learning, and assessment is often subjective.

25. Experiential learning

Provide students with new ways of learning to help them stay focused, learn dynamically and learn faster.

Engage students in the process of inquiry and reflection! Ask them to create three to five questions (with answers) on a recent lesson. In pairs, have students quiz their partners on the questions they wrote, and watch to see which concepts students consider to be the most important from their lesson.

26. Peer teaching

It can be difficult, however, to bring it to the classroom - students might have different proficiency levels or be hesitant about teaching their peers, and it can lead to confidentiality issues about which students are struggling.

Some best practices for peer teaching include:

27. Inquiry-based learning

Inquiry-based learning has been around since the 1960s, but it still remains a misunderstood teaching strategy. In the inquiry-based learning classroom, teachers are responsible for guiding students through their questions - past curiosity and into critical thinking and understanding.

There are 4 main types of inquiry-based learning:

Confirmation inquiry: Students are given a question along with a way to answer it

Structured inquiry: Students are given an open question and investigation method

Guided inquiry: Students work from an open question to design investigation methods

28. Problem-based learning

Problem-based learning is a student-centred pedagogy that puts students in groups to solve open-ended problems together. This teaching strategy has its advantages and disadvantages:

Even taking into account the different opinions on problem-based learning, there is an undeniable value in giving students a degree of control over their own education.

29. Cooperative learning

Cooperative learning is one of the most universal teaching strategies. It empowers students to work together and gives teachers a chance to deliver targeted, small-group learning.

A popular article from Theory into Practice details five essential aspects of cooperative learning:

Positive interdependence: Each group member is valuable

Accountability: Students accept responsibility for their roles

Soft skills instruction: Lessons and activities about teamwork

Group processing: Group should use strategies on how to meet their goals

30. Reciprocal teaching

Reciprocal teaching involves students in reading and gets them excited to learn. Learners are asked to predict what a text is about, ask questions about what they don't understand, re-read for clarification, and summarize what the text is saying - instead of just absorbing material as quickly as possible.

For more ideas about reciprocal teaching, read 4 Reciprocal Teaching Strategies to Use.

31. Blended learning

Blended learning combines online learning with traditional classroom instruction. It's a valuable tool to use in differentiation teaching strategies, and can help students learn tailored content at their own pace.

There are a number of different ways to bring blended learning to your classroom, but some common methods include implementing learning stations and putting certain lessons online in part or entirely.

32. Culturally responsive teaching

Start by getting to know your students - where do they come from? What do their parents do? What's their favourite after-school activity?

Then, take that information and connect it to your lessons. Explain how a topic relates to different cultures, and make sure the classroom is a place where all students feel empowered. Encourage students to ask questions and share unique answers.

Other options for culturally responsive teaching include:

33. Interdisciplinary teaching

In your classroom, interdisciplinary teaching could involve collaboration with other teachers, or asking your students to make connections between different subjects. Try these activities to get your class started:

News analysis: Play a news clip or hand out an article that discusses a local, national or international topic. Ask students to solve a related question using skills they've learned in other classes.

All About Weather: Look at the impact of weather and climate on the labour, agriculture and customs of other societies. This gives students a chance to learn about different cultures from a scientific and social standpoint.

Historical Pen Pals: Combine creative writing and history by having students take on the role of a historical figure and write to classmates about challenges her or she faced. Give students a variety of sources to improve their research skills at the same time.

34. Service learning

According to the National Youth Leadership Council , service learning is "a philosophy, pedagogy and model for community development that is used as an instructional strategy to meet learning goals and/or content standards."

Service learning brings the classroom into the larger community and teaches students about the value of being an active citizen. Students get hands-on experience in interdisciplinary study, and often improve their academic outcomes and reduce behavioural problems.

Service learning contains five steps:

#METC19 so happy you all are talking #medialiteracy !!@julnilsmith made this image- we love it!! pic.twitter.com/7JPG5azutY

- NAMLE (@MediaLiteracyEd) February 13, 2019

Students are saturated with an endless number of different media influences, from TV to social media to comic books. Students need to be educated on how to interpret and understand what they're consuming.

Media literacy allows students to recognize bias and develop critical thinking skills within the context of their existing interests. Some activities you can try in your classroom include:

Logo dissection: Have students bring in a few different logos of popular brands, and ask them to interpret what they think it means. What type of customer is the company looking for? What do they value? Why did they choose that color or shape?

Deconstruct advertising language: Explore and critique advertising claims that companies make. Pass out magazines and online ads for students to examine and analyze.

36. Growth mindset

Even though it sounds more like a corporate buzzword, the philosophy of growth mindset has infiltrated the classroom. It focuses on helping students see the value of effort, persistence and risk in their learning environment, and pushes them to try new things and learn new concepts.

Since growth mindset is a relatively new teaching strategy, some teachers might struggle to use it effectively. Here are some best practices:

Give positive feedback: Instead of rewarding intellect, praise students when they try new methods and make plans.

Promote a diverse classroom: When diversity is modelled for students, they're more likely to embrace different perspectives in their future learning goals.

Encourage goal-based journaling: Ask students set goals and reflect on their progress. Have goals follow the SMART method ( Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic and Time-Based) for maximum effect.

Resources for effectively using teaching strategies

Google

The applications are endless: use Assignments and to differentiate learning, track student growth through comprehensive reporting tools, engage students through game-based learning, or use it as part of a blended learning approach.

Students will love practising their math skills with this free math game. They'll on adventures, collect pets and earn rewards, all while answering curriculum-aligned math questions tailored to their individual skill levels.
Click here for more tips on how to use Prodigy in your classroom.
Student feedback

In order to know which teaching strategies will be the most effective, ask your students to provide you with some feedback: What do they like? How do they think they learn best? What do they want to learn more about? Students are more likely to be engaged in the learning process when they have a voice.

There are a couple of ways to gather feedback:

Start-stop-continue - Hand out blank sheets of paper, and ask students to respond with 1) something they would like you to start doing in the classroom, 2) something they would like to not see in the classroom anymore, and 3) a suggestion for an activity or process that they think would make the classroom better.

Mid-lesson feedback: Cut out circles of red, green and yellow paper, and hand one of each out to students. During the lesson, ask how well the class understands - green means good, yellow means they might need help soon, and red means they need help right away.

Professional development

"This suggests that the exchanging of ideas and experience about teaching with other teachers in the school, observing each other's classrooms and providing mutual support increases the likelihood of implementing good teaching strategies."

Teacher journal

After gathering all this amazing information from student feedback and professional development efforts, you're going to need somewhere to keep track of it all.

Parents

Parent involvement in student learning is a key indicator of student success and performance. Keep parents informed with a quick paper or email newsletter every month, and let them know about new things happening in the classroom. Communicate individual issues quickly and effectively to avoid any report card surprises, but don't just mention the problems - make time to give praise or share news of an achievement.

Final thoughts on teaching strategies

There are so many different types of teaching strategies available for your classroom that the options can be overwhelming.

But that's good news! Your teaching style, students and classroom are all unique - why shouldn't your teaching strategies be too?

Start small, and work your way up. Don't be afraid to try new strategies and see what works best in your classroom. Not everything's going to be a good fit, and that's OK - keep engaging with your students and you'll build up lifelong learners with a passion for knowledge.

> Create or log in to your teacher account on Prodigy - a free, game-based learning platform for math that's easy to use for educators and students alike. Aligned with curricula across the English-speaking world, it's loved by more than a million teachers and 50 million students .👇👇👇

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36 Teaching Strategies to Try in 2019 | Prodigy Math Blog

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In Effective Teaching and Learning , educational researcher Naga Subramani argues that an effective teacher: "Constantly renews himself [or herself] as a professional on his [or her] quest to provide students with the highest quality of education possible. This teacher has no fear of learning new teaching strategies or incorporating new technologies into lessons.

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Visualization is an easy teaching strategy for social studies teachers to incorporate into their classrooms. With so many movies, pictures, and all-around artifacts, maps, and actual people... there is a never ending list of possibilities. Museums and old journals are also great visual aides.

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Visualizing

What Is It?

Visualizing refers to our ability to create pictures in our heads based on text we read or words we hear. It is one of many skills that makes reading comprehension possible.

Why Is It Important?

Visualizing strengthens reading comprehension skills as students gain a more thorough understanding of the text they are reading by consciously using the words to create mental images. As students gain more deliberate practice with this skill, the act of visualizing text becomes automatic. Students who visualize as they read not only have a richer reading experience but can recall what they have read for longer periods of time. (Harvey & Goudvis 2000)

Visualizing text as it is being read or heard also creates personal links between the readers/listeners and text. Readers who can imagine the characters they read about, for instance, may become more involved with what they are reading. This makes for a more meaningful reading experience and promotes continued reading.

How Can You Make It Happen?

Visualizing is a skill that can be helpful in many domains, and while it is often associated with teaching early readers, even experienced readers can benefit from practice with this skill. When selecting a text for a visualizing activity, start with a piece that contains descriptive language and strong verbs and that lends itself to conjuring vivid images. It is not necessary to start with an entire book-even a well-crafted sentence or short paragraph can provide a rich springboard for a visualizing lesson.

Starting Small

To begin a series of lessons that will focus on improving visualizing skills, you might choose to start with a short passage taken from a text or of your own creation. For instance, the following sentences could be used to spark discussions:

Joan could barely believe her eyes. All these gifts were for her! She had never seen so many packages, not even on all her birthdays combined!

After listening to or reading the sentences once or twice, students can discuss the mental images created by the sentences. Students will likely differ in their descriptions of the scene. For instance, some may picture a small child surrounded by stacks of gifts. Others may imagine an older girl in front of a table piled with presents. There is no single correct answer, and those three simple sentences, though not particularly rich in detail, do offer enough information for the reader or listener to begin to form a mental picture.

Group Activities

Students can work on their visualizing skills as a whole class or in small groups. One way to challenge young students to improve their visualizing is to read a picture book aloud, sharing only portions of the illustrations. Then ask students to create their own illustrations based on the text they heard. More advanced readers might listen to a selection from a novel that the class has been reading and create a picture or written description of a character or setting based on the information in the text.

Independent Reading

Students can also practice their visualization skills as a follow up to independent reading. Ask young students who keep track of their reading in reading logs or journals to respond to prompts regarding the images created by the text they have read: "Does the main character remind you of anyone you know?" "Have you ever been to or seen any place that is like the setting of your book?" Very young students can also draw images in their journals, recording their mental pictures in response to their reading. You can discuss these drawings during one-on-one reading conferences.

Older students who are reading novels can think about questions such as, "If you were going to make a movie based on your book, who would you want to play the main characters?" "What would the scenery look like?" and "Where would you want to do the filming?" These questions get at the imagery created in the mind of the readers and encourage those readers to share their mental pictures in their responses.

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Visualizing refers to our ability to create pictures in our heads based on text we read or words we hear. It is one of many skills that makes reading comprehension possible. Visualizing strengthens reading comprehension skills as students gain a more thorough understanding of the text they are reading by consciously using the words to create mental images.

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This is probably my favorite teaching strategy. We are usually so focused on correcting negative behavior we don't stop to think and congratulate good behavior. This is a tool I use frequently in my child care job. Simply saying, "You guys are doing a great jobs staying on task.", or "That assignment looks very neat", or "Thank you all for remembering to write your names on your papers." This is a great way to remind student of what they should be doing and makes them feel good and affirms their need to do these tasks.

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Catch Them Being Good

A Technique for Handling Disruptive Behavior

"Johnny loves negative attention. I know he does those things to get me upset and make the class laugh. His classmates think he's cute when he does something to distract me from the lesson and I have to call him on it."

Sound familiar? Some children are disruptive because of the attention their disruption receives, whether the attention is from you or from other classmates. Attention can often be in the form of reminders (e.g., "Please stay in your seat and be quiet while I am reading with the Batman reading group"). It can also be in the form of more negative comments (e.g., "Johnny, how many times have I told you not to throw your pencil at Bryan").

In some cases, teachers may make comments to students that are demeaning and draw attention to those students from their classmates. For example, "Barbara, that was the dumbest thing I've ever seen," is certainly demeaning, but it may draw the attention of the rest of the class to Barbara's behavior. Such attention may be appealing to Barbara. She may then see it as a way to get her classmates' attention.

The scenario that follows describes the case of a hypothetical child who is disruptive because his disruptive behavior results in unusual comments from the teacher.

During seat-work assignments, William seems to be constantly involved in some kind of inappropriate and disruptive classroom behavior. Mrs. Rutherford has to constantly remind him to stop disrupting the class and return to his seat. When he is in his seat, William often turns around and teases the student behind him, or he taps the person in front of him and begins talking loudly. When Mrs. Rutherford sees that, she often redirects him back to work with some kind of comment such as, "William, once again you win the motor mouth contest for the day! Stand up and take a bow. Now that you have received your just recognition, please return to work!" Of course William and his friends break up in laughter, which then gets Mrs. Rutherford's "goat."

Sometimes Mrs. Rutherford sends William out into the hall when he is disruptive, and sometimes she sends him to the school principal. Mrs. Rutherford complains to the school student success team that she cannot control William's frequent disruptive classroom behavior. She wants him assessed for possible attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.

Note that in the above scenario the teacher's attention often follows the disruptive behavior. In particular, making a comment about William's disruptive behavior only seems to reinforce such behavior. William and his friends think it is funny to win the "motor mouth" contest of the day. Mrs. Rutherford may be inadvertently encouraging a contest that others may wish to enter as well.

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Catch Them Being Good: A Technique for Handling Disruptive Behavior

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A Technique for Handling Disruptive Behavior "Johnny loves negative attention. I know he does those things to get me upset and make the class laugh. His classmates think he's cute when he does something to distract me from the lesson and I have to call him on it." Sound familiar?

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Something I can be good at, but typically do not do very well. I hope to have an organized classroom, because this helps make students feel secure and not overwhelmed. There will be specific places for everything, such as: late work boxes, extra writing utensils, extra paper/notebooks, extra textbooks, snacks, "quiet area", etc... that way students are not always asking me where things are and therefore saving time. This will also help me stay organized in my lesson plans and cut down on class time transitions within lesson plans.

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One of my goals as a teacher is to also eventually coach middle school girls basketball coach. I coached them in high school and fell in love with helping them learn the basics of basketball and trying to provide them with a good role model. I hope to try and attend any school events my students invite me to. This creates a sense of pride and trust in the students, along with respect.

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Are you looking for a way to stand out among your colleagues? Consider participating in some extracurricular activities. These opportunities will allow you to see another side of your students, while also making a name for yourself within your educational community.

1. Get Involved in an Extracurricular Activity that You Are Passionate About

Look for extracurricular activities and opportunities that match your interests and expertise. For example, if you are passionate about photography, then you might be an ideal candidate to lead a photography club or mentor the yearbook staff. If you are passionate about exercise, consider coaching long-distance running, soccer, or another sport that you particularly enjoyed as a child. Make a list of the experiences and skills you possess that would make you a natural leader for an existing or brand new extracurricular activity.

2. Partner Up

Don't presume that you have to lead an extracurricular activity alone. In fact, partnering with another staff member could prove to be far more fun. Look for another staff member who shares similar interests and skills. Alternatively, you could seek out a fellow staff member who might be able to trade off days and responsibilities with you, so that you wouldn't have to run the entire extracurricular activity on your own.

3. Make It Fun

The whole point of having extracurricular activities at school is to expose students to different experiences and allow them to develop skills that they will need in the real world. At the same time, extracurricular activities allow kids to have fun and practice their social skills at the same time. As a teacher, cultivating an atmosphere of fun and learning via an extracurricular activity allows you to see your students in a different, more casual atmosphere. At the same time, they get to see you - the teacher - having fun and being relaxed. The opportunity to share this type of exchange on a regular basis can foster a deeper type of respect between you and your students, which can spill over into the regular classroom.

4. Create Rules

While extracurricular activities are designed to be fun, it's also important to communicate with your students about your expectations. Can they bring a snack with them? Should they arrive immediately after the school day ends? What will happen if they are late? Also, what are your expectations for how they enter your space? Should they come in peacefully and have all of their supplies with them? And what about being picked up? Do parents have to sign their children out, or can the kids leave on their own and meet their parents outside? Think about these rules ahead of time, and be sure to communicate them to your students and their parents. In addition, make sure that all of your rules comply with your school's student handbook as well.

5. Communicate Your Needs

As a dedicated teacher, it's easy to begin spending your own money, and an exorbitant amount of time, facilitating an extracurricular club. Instead, make sure that you communicate your needs to your building principal or supervisor and, if appropriate, to your students and their parents. There's no need for you to spend the extra money you're earning by sponsoring an extracurricular club on the very things that are needed to run the club. Make sure that you give others a chance to participate and make their own contribution of time and resources.

6. Train Student Leaders

Don't forget to pass your leadership skills on to the participants of the extracurricular activity you are facilitating as well. This will reduce the load that is on your shoulders, while also helping your students to take ownership of the club and their work.

Finally, running an extracurricular activity can allow you to get to know your students on anther level, while also making a positive impression about your dedication to your school and your students on your supervisors and the larger school community.

Schools Offering Curriculum and Instruction Courses:

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Are you looking for a way to stand out among your colleagues? Consider participating in some extracurricular activities. These opportunities will allow you to see another side of your students, while also making a name for yourself within your educational community. Look for extracurricular activities and opportunities that match your interests and expertise.

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If I have learning ANYTHING at all, it would have to be to just be positive. Life throws curveballs, not just for you as a teacher, but also for your students. Everybody will have negative days, and you as a teacher are the role model, so be positive! My life motto is, "Why be the rain when you can be the sunshine?" So basically what I mean is, be the reason that student smiles, or brightens their day a little bit. Make them WANT to learn. BE POSITIVE. Stalk up on corny puns and jokes. Let students have a "CREATE DAY" and let them do their hobbies (play music, draw, color, photography, abstract art, technology design, sewing, etc...)

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There can only be one reason why you're here, you are looking for tips for new teachers. Okay, maybe there could be more. But most likely, you are gearing up for your first big teaching job and you just want everything to be perfect, right?

You don't want to screw anything up, and you are bound and determined to impress your principal and the rest of your school's staff. You want to make friends with your peers and earn the instant respect of your students, right?

Sure... it'll all go exactly as planned.

Are you laughing too? Good!

Now, while it's not funny to be nervous or concerned about your performance as a new teacher, it is okay to have a laugh-especially if you're going into teaching!

Every experienced educator can tell you that one of the first things you learn is that you never know what you're in for on any given day. That's why it's a good thing you're here, and we're excited to talk to you about what you can do to prevent mishaps, create efficiencies, and work smarter as a new teacher.

Many of these tips can be relevant throughout your entire career. So, even if you're an experienced teacher, you might want review the list as well - and provide us any helpful insights we can add to our list.

Before we get too far-a word to those of you who are just thinking about going into teaching...

Many people, from all walks of life and with all types of different experience, decide that becoming a teacher makes sense. So regardless of your history, if you're thinking about being an educator, the first big tip we have for you is this:
Finding the right education degree program can lead you to your desired teaching career outcome.

In addition to helpful advice for first year teachers, information and resources for prospective teachers, at EducationDegree.com, we also have relationships with schools across the United States that offer campus-based and online degrees in education. You can easily use our search methods to locate schools, or browse around for other resources and advice for new educators on our site.

We are here to help you move closer to a successful start to your teaching career.

So, without any further ado...

Here Are Our Tips For New Teachers

Alright, take a deep breath, and just remember: You're human, and we all make mistakes. That said, review these tips for first year teachers carefully. We researched top education organizations, media outlets, and found first-hand accounts of how teachers try to make things a lot easier for themselves, and for their students.

1.) Plan for the year.

Sounds simple, right? You would be surprised at how easy it can be to get caught up in the day-to-day challenges of teaching, and lose track of your long-term goals with your students.

That's why you should start mapping out your game plan for goal setting in August while you're still enjoying the last few weeks of summer break. Give yourself time to assess goals every week or two, and look at your master list of school year goals then. This is no different than a business owner looking at their goals for revenue and growth quarterly. If you're not assessing progress on a regular interval, how can you know if you're truly an effective teacher?

2.) Be positive.

Believe us when we say we know how hard teaching can be! We spend our time focused on helping students find teaching degree programs, and providing tips for new teachers.

But we also know how important it is for teachers to stay positive to remain an inspiration to their students. Your students will also perform better when they are encouraged, and learn to recognize their strengths if you focus on them too, while still improving their weaker areas. You will be the main contributor to their self-esteem while they learn outside of their homes.

Don't take that responsibility lightly. Their futures depend on your kindness and encouragement.

3.) Learn to balance your monitoring and direct teaching methods.

Your students will respond to different methods of learning, and they will need to learn how to work independently, in groups, one-on-one with you, and in other environments. When you design your monthly and year-long curriculum strategies, think about how you will mix it up, in regards to your teaching methods and styles. This advice for first year teachers will help keep your students' minds fresh, and will help develop their ability to work and learn in various ways.

4.) Practice sound classroom management skills.

It can be easy to get frustrated, or let your inner child out; especially when managing a classroom of children. No matter how grown and 'adult' we become, simple stress can make us stoop to a toddler's level.
However, we cannot stress enough how important classroom management is!
So, do whatever it takes-write out your own 10 Commandments, or a list of sayings that remind you how to act towards your students in times of stress. Find ways to remind yourself that you are the adult in the room. Implement meditation, for yourself and your students. Just remember, that no matter how hard it may be sometimes to be an adult, you have to act like it in your classroom.

5.) Tap into your peers for knowledge and insight.

The next time you are working lunch room duty or have time to interact with fellow teachers, make the most of it. Ask questions, share strategies and open up!

These educators are in the same place you are and are trying just as hard to help themselves and their students as you are. This takes a strong support system among faculty and staff to remain good role models and effective educators.

One of the best tips for beginning teachers: Communicate with faculty and participate in your school events to help out as much as you can. Schools need teachers for more than just their classroom skills. It can only benefit your career as well, and will give you insight into how your peers manage teaching!

6.) Address misbehavior as quickly and appropriately as possible.

The last thing you want to do is try to be the 'cool' teacher and let inappropriate behavior slide. This is one of the most critical tips for first year teachers.

It sets a bad precedent and only prolongs the behavior until it escalates too far. If that happens, then your principal will likely hold you accountable for not acknowledging and fixing the problem-not to mention what it does to classroom management. That's why you should be diligent about solving classroom behavior problems as quickly as possible. You also need to make sure to apply the most appropriate solution. That's why it's important to understand the standards and preferred methods for discipline at your school.

7.) Lighten up.

Another essential piece of advice for new educators: Even if you aren't a natural clown or comedian, you can still make learning enjoyable for your students, without completely losing your dignity.

Try to find ways to make learning interactive and engaging for them. Why not turn a history lesson into a competitive game of Jeopardy or Wheel of Fortune? When students forget they are learning because they are having fun, it's a win for everyone.

8.) Set clear expectations with each assignment.

Make sure you review the goals of each new area of your curriculum and for each new assignment. When students have a direction to point their mind's compass, they can go into the lesson with a clear idea of how they should approach or absorb the information.

This will also help students take good notes and start thinking conceptually about the topic as soon as you begin your teaching. Sometimes the best advice for first year teachers can be a simple as setting clear expectations!

9.) Set rules for the classroom.

This can be effective for elementary, middle and high school students-especially if you set expectations early. When it comes to classroom rules, remember to keep them simple, and try to have fun with them.

Kids are used to being told what to do, and have a tendency to roll their eyes when adults go overboard with the lectures. If you can think of ways to incentivize good behavior, then do it. Positive reinforcement is always better than dangling punishment over them to maintain law and order in the classroom. This piece of advice for first year teachers can save you lots of headaches!

10.) Acknowledge every student the first time you see them every day.

Yes, you read that right. Every student. Every day.

It's easy to let some students blend into the crowd when you have your hands full. But don't let the quiet ones pass you by. Say hello to all of your students every day, so they know you are thinking about them and feel comfortable talking to you. This is one of those tips for beginning teachers that will last a lifetime for your students. You see them even more than their parents do many days of the week, so it's critical they trust you and feel seen by you. Teachers and students can form bonds through constant positive communication.

From the first day of school to the last, let them know you're there.

11.) Be caring and empathetic.

No matter what age group you are teaching, students are going through mental growth that can be challenging and frustrating. Be sure to put yourself in their place when you approach your students, while you teach them, and especially if you must discipline them. They are counting on you to help them learn critical thinking skills, as well as interpersonal skills. When you show a child that you care about them and spend time understanding where they are coming from, then you will earn their respect. It will also help build trust, so they know they can come to you for help and mentorship, when they need it.

12.) Create a plan for parents.

This might be one of the hardest tips for first year teachers to execute - but absolutely necessary. Parents are sometimes the elephant in the room when it comes to effectively teaching children. You have hands-on parents and those you may only see at required meeting times.

Make sure you have a plan of action for how you will manage the parents. This is key not only when discipline issues arise, but during regular communication as well. You should set the processes and boundaries from the beginning. Think about it-for every student, you typically have two parents to work with. It may not be as challenging as teaching a class of students, but it can get tough if you aren't efficient with your time and lead the relationship.

13.) Teach respect and stress anti-bullying.

Remember when we said you should take care of discipline issues as soon as they arise to keep them from spiraling out of control? This advice for new educators takes that philosophy one step further. With so much time spent interacting with video games compared to humans, today's young learners need to practice mutual respect with their peers and teachers on a daily basis.

Create exercises that reward diversity and show the ill effects of treating others unfairly. This will help create a culture of respect in your classroom, and help your students learn their own lessons in being empathetic towards others.

14.) Allow free learning time, and free time in general.

It's easy to think that you have to keep kids busy, busy, busy-accounting for each minute of every day. While this philosophy can aid in goal achievement and keep challenging behaviors at bay, it is also stagnating. Give your students a mental break from the routine so they can do something constructive and new. This can be five minutes a day, a half hour each week, a weekly group exercise, or ten minutes of independent journaling once a week.

The point of the assignment would be to give students time to explore their own minds, interests and curiosities. These breaks can also be a great introduction to freeform discussions about current events, creativity, or anything meaningful that your students want to reflect on.

15.) Look for continuing education opportunities.

Even though you already have your degree and you're working 24/7 - or at least, it feels like it - you should keep your ear to the ground in the world of academia. Make sure you join all the relevant teaching organizations, both national and local, that you can find to stay in tune with what's going on.

Education is so connected to our political system that teachers are often engaged and organized to protect their occupational interests. You can also find workshops and educational opportunities through these organizations.

Our advice for first year teachers: Do everything you can to connect and network right away!

16.) Take your professional goals seriously.

When you meet with your principal and other administrators to discuss your job, be sure to discuss your own professional goals. These can be as simple as earning a master's degree, teaching a particular subject, or starting a new club for the students. It will make your principal happy to hear you are committed to your career in education and demonstrates that you want to improve your skillset.

Be sure to ask if they see any strengths you could turn into opportunities to help out more or reach a new goal in teaching.

17.) Try to include technology in your lessons.

Let's face it, students love technology. And who can blame them? We've been dreaming of having all these cool toys since we were kids - so hurry up with our hoverboards already, please! But seriously...

If you can find cool ways to show kids how they can learn to code, or use their artistic skills on the computer, they will be more apt to develop the kinds of versatile skillsets that will be required more and more as we continue to see technology expand.

18.) Plan field trips.

Do you remember finding yourself at home during Winter break with serious cabin fever? Imagine being a child stuck in a classroom for eight hours a day, five days a week. Kids are constantly being told what to do while trying to figure out what the heck is going on in this crazy world. Yeah, it's pretty overwhelming for those students sometimes.

So get them out of the classroom and show them what the real world is actually like. Take them to plays, museums, sporting events and other activities that reflect the curriculum you're teaching. They'll love the opportunity to get out and do something different - and so will you!

19.) Be mindful about sensitive topics.

You have to remember that children come from all walks of life and face many

different challenges. Be sensitive and conscious of anything you might say that could alienate them or make them uncomfortable. This is another one of those tips for new teachers that will make a lasting impact in your students' lives.

That doesn't mean you can just avoid discussing topics that aren't relevant to your curriculum. You just have to do it in a way that is inclusive and objective. You don't want to accidentally make any student feel economically or socially inferior to you or anyone else in the class. When you complete your education degree program, you should look for courses that help you develop strong skills in this area. You will need to apply this same tip to working with parents as well.

20.) Go into it for the right reasons.

Since teaching is such an important, influential role in students' lives, you really need to go into this profession to change lives and inspire students. Teachers can make a fine living, but very few go into it to get rich. Become a teacher because you want to help kids reach their potential and believe in themselves. If you do that, then all you need is the right teaching degree to meet your state requirements to get going.
Do you have some helpful tips for first year teachers who want to be effective leaders and mentors?
If you have additional ideas, experiences or insight that we can share with prospective educators - let us know! We want to hear from you and encourage others to become great teachers.

Do you need to earn your degree, or pursue a graduate level education? We can help you there too! Just use the search functions on this page to narrow your options.

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20 Tips For New Teachers There can only be one reason why you're here, you are looking for tips for new teachers. Okay, maybe there could be more. But most likely, you are gearing up for your first big teaching job and you just want everything to be perfect, right?

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Students DO NOT respond well when a teacher is quick to anger. In fact it will become a game to them if they are able to get under your skin. So, in a sense, "play dumb", act like whatever they say (if it is meant to directly be hurtful toward you), almost doesn't make sense. "This assignment is so dumb, you make the most stupid assignments Miss H." -My response would be something along the lines of, "Well then it should be easy for you to complete." or something else, for example, "This one might be done, but that means that the next one might be better." Put a smile on a move on with your life.

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Edutopia is a free source of information, inspiration, and practical strategies for learning and teaching in preK-12 education. We are published by the George Lucas Educational Foundation, a nonprofit, nonpartisan organization.