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Definition: Incorrect information given to any eyewitness usually after the event (hence the name). It can take many forms such as leading questions and post-event discussion  between co-workers and other people.

Leading questions: a question which ; because of the way it’s phrased suggests a certain answer. For example “was the knife in the left hand?” Leads a person to think where the Knife was.

Post event discussion: PED occurs when there is more than one witness to an event. Witnesses may discuss what they have seen with co-witnesses or with other people. This may influence the accuracy of each witness recall of the event.

Research on leading questions: the wording of the question may influence what answer you give. the PROCEDURE for this is Elizabeth loftus and John Palmer (1974) arranged 45 participants (students) to watch film clips of car accidents and asked them questions about the accident. Participants were asked about how fast the cars were traveling. They used different verbs such as hit, contacted, bumped, collided and smashed in different groups. FINDINGS: the verb “contacted” resulted in a mean estimation speed of 31.8mph for the verb “smashed”  the mean was 40.5mph.

Why do leading questions affect the EWT: it’s suggested that the wording of questions has no real effect on the participants memories but just influences how they decide to answer. When participant gets a verb such as “smashed” it encourages them to choose a higher speed estimate.

Research into post-event discussion: eye witnesses sometimes discuss their experiences and memories with each other. PROCEDURE, Fiona gabbert et al (2003) studied participants in pairs. Each participant watched a video on the same crime but filmed from different points of view. This means some participants saw pieces of information that others didn’t. Eg, someone saw the title of a book carried by a young woman. Both participants then discussed what they saw individually. FINDINGS, 71% of the participants mistakenly recalled aspects of the event that they did not see in the video but picked up in discussion.

Why does post-event discussion effect EWT: when co-witnesses discuss the crime with each other the EWT can become altered. Because they combine mid information from other witnesses with their own. This can be because sometimes people seek social approval because they believe that their information isn’t as accurate as someone else’s. The actual meme out does NOT change.

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Its shown that anxiety can affect the accuracy of recalling events, it has strong physical and emotions effects. however it's not clear whether anxiety has a positive or negative effect overall, research done over the years supports both.
the tunnel theory was presented from the negative effects of anxiety, arguing that peoples memory is based around central events. this central event will most likely be weapon focused, with the eyewitness only being able to recall the weapon effectively and not descriptive details about the criminal's appearance.
the positive effects of anxiety for the accuracy of recall are said to improve memory because our senses may be heightened and we become more aware of cues during the situation.
the inverted U-theory explains that the accuracy of recall will increase to a certain point with stress and anxiety, but will drastically decline when stress levels are very high.

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The multi store memory is the idea in which information is transferred to the sensory register. When given attention it passes to the short term memory and a it moves to the long term memory when you rehearse that piece of information

Sensory register has a large storage of information however it can only be stored there for millieseconds

Short term memory has a very limited amount of capacity about 7 chunks of information and it’s capacity is very short only 18 sec

Long term memory has a capacity of potentially unlimited capacity and it’s duration is potentially a whole lifetime

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Episodic memory
You remember when they happened and they involve specific people, objects or environments. These are the memories you make a conscious effort to remember, such as a wedding or the birth of a child.

Semantic memory
Involves memories that are shared knowledge of the world. This includes things like general knowledge, meanings of words and song lyrics. These memories are less vulnerable to distortion and forgetting than episodic memories.

Procedural memory
This is our memory for actions or skills, such as walking, talking and riding a bike. We can recall these memories without conscious effort and our ability to do this becomes automatic after practice.

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3 separate types of memory stores in multi-store model: sensory register (very large storage of info- capacity/ extremely brief- duration/ codes according to sensory source- coding), short term (very limited- capacity/ very short- duration/ mainly acoustic- coding) and long term memory (potentially unlimited- capacity/ potentially lasts a lifetime- duration/ mainly semantic- coding)

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Misleading information is information that someone gives that may not be entirely true, that can also lead to an incorrect conclusion. It can interfere with eye witness testimonies. This can be during post-event discussions or due to leading questions.

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Some information gets forgotten because we don’t have sufficient cues to enable us to retrieve the information we require from long term memory even though the information may be stored. Cues or triggers that allow us to access information and they are often coded at the time of learning

The encoding specificity principle suggests cues must be present at the time of learning and also at the time of recall. So we are more likely to forget information if the same cues aren’t present when first learning and then retrieving
Context dependent forgetting occurs when we try and fail to recall information in a different environment to which we learned
State dependent forgetting occurs when we try to recall information in a different internal state to the one we were in when we learned it in.

While both Godden and Baddeley and Carter and Cassidys studies give good evidence that forgetting can be due to retrieval failure it could be that the difference in context or state between learning and recalling must be very great to lead to forgetting and there for these studies aren’t generalisable and the research supporting it may lack external validity. In everyday life the differences between learning and recalling nah be subtle and nothing like being or land or in water. Therefor the explanation of forgetting may have limited relevance to everyday life

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Cognitive interview is a proposed process that consists of four phases:

Context reinstatement- recalling how you felt and the context enhance recall which act as cues
Report everything- witness may not realise that certain details are important and therefore skip out on them
Recall from a changed perspective- encourages more retrieval paths
Recall in reverse order- when the events are recalled forward the witness may reconstruct based on their schemas but if put in a different order it may be more accurate

Not all stages may be used due to a lack of funding which causes problems for researchers as there is difficulty in making exact comparisons due to differences in how much of this method is used.

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3 stores
• sensory register
- large storage
- brief
• Short term memory
- limited capacity
-short duration
• Long term memory
- unlimited capacity
- lasts a lifetime

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Sensory register’s coding is from any of the senses, capacity is a large amount of information and duration is millisecond’s
STM’s coding is acoustic, capacity is 7 +/- 2 chunks of information and duration is around 18 seconds
LTM’s coding is thought to be semantic, capacity is unlimited and duration is a lifetime

The study’s are done in a lab, so there’s a lack of external validity as the tasks are artificial as you are less likely to encounter these tasks in real life situations.