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In a small, white warehouse two hours north of Moscow are 56 dead people who hope to live again. Their bodies are upside down, their blood fully drained from their arteries, as they wait, immersed in negative 196-degree Celsius liquid nitrogen for the next 100 years.

What they're waiting for is a new life, or a continuation of the one they already lived. Many of the bodies belong to people who reached the end of their life naturally, usually at an advanced age. They made the decision to be cryopreserved before they died, or in some cases, their family signed the paperwork post-mortem and paid the $36,000 to freeze their loved one's body (or $18,000 for just their head) for the standard term of a century-which can perhaps be extended, to be determined, based on where science leaves us in the 22nd century.

Waiting on research advances is the rationale behind cryopreservation, and more broadly, a worldview known as transhumanism. A person killed by cancer or heart disease could reasonably be revived in a future when such ailments no longer exist. "They believe in the advance of technology," says Giuseppe Nucci, an Italian photographer who visited with transhumanists and toured the facilities of Russia-based cryonics company KrioRus. "They hope that someone will wake them up."

This hope, that the future will vanquish the ills of the present, is as old as the first civilizations that realized that with each passing year life got a little better. The Russian philosopher Nikolai Fedorovich Fedorov helped create an early 20th-century movement known as cosmism that was rooted in the idea that, given enough time, humans could defeat evil and death. If the human life span was too short, then the simple solution was to extend it, even after death, and suspend its decomposition until the world caught up.

More than a century later, Fedorov's cosmism has transformed into transhumanism, the notion that technological advancements can overcome the limitations of modern humans. Twenty-first-century transhumanism tends to be rooted in Russia, but it has tentacles all over the world. Of KrioRus' 56 frozen bodies, almost a quarter are foreigners, including a handful of Italians and Ukrainians, an American, and an Israeli. There are also 22 pets, including dogs, cats, and at least one chinchilla.

"Not everyone who's a transhumanist wants to be cryopreserved, most of them are just interested in the technology," says Nucci. Cryonics, also, is not the sole tool of transhumanism, although it does stand out as the most reliable technology to stop a body from decomposing. James Bedford, the first person to be cryopreserved, succumbed to kidney cancer in 1967. His body remains frozen in an Arizona facility, reportedly unchanged, 51 years later.

Outside the movies, however, there has yet to be a person successfully cryogenically revived, which likely means that the illustrious disease-free utopian future of immortality has yet to arrive, if it does at all. But among the sky-high expectations and hopes that define the movement, Nucci observed that one quality in relatively short supply is impatience. The 56 inverted bodies a KrioRus' frozen purgatory didn't seem to be in any rush.

You can see more of Giuseppe Nucci's work on his website. You can also follow him on Instagram.

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These People Believe Death Is Only Temporary

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In a small, white warehouse two hours north of Moscow are 56 dead people who hope to live again. Their bodies are upside down, their blood fully drained from their arteries, as they wait, immersed in negative 196-degree Celsius liquid nitrogen for the next 100 years.

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This terrifies me.

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Felix Baumgartner Space Jump World Record 2012 Full HD 1080p [FULL]

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А. Леонов, А. Соколов. К звездам!

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В таком широком диапазоне степень научной обоснованности их отдельных работ, естественно, различна. Если картины А. Леонова, созданные под впечатлением его полета и выхода в космос, практически документальны, а работы обоих авторов (как совместные, так и самостоятельные), рассказывающие о недалеком будущем - освоении околоземного пространства и Луны, - в значительной степени обоснованы всей суммой научных знаний человечества, то в случае более далекой перспективы основанием для картины служат проблематичные, часто достаточно "безумные" гипотезы астрофизики и космонавтики.

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Alexey Arkhipovich Leonov ( Russian: Алексе́й Архи́пович Лео́нов, IPA: [ɐlʲɪˈksʲej ɐˈrxʲipəvʲɪtɕ lʲɪˈonəf]; born 30 May 1934) is a retired Soviet/Russian cosmonaut, Air Force Major general, writer and artist. On 18 March 1965, he became the first human to conduct extravehicular activity (EVA), exiting the capsule during the Voskhod 2 mission for a 12-minute spacewalk.

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Off the coast of Monterey, California, and some two miles below the surface of the Pacific Ocean, scientists piloting a remotely-operated submersible saw something no one has ever seen before.

Octopuses. Hundreds of them. Huddled on a rocky outcrop at the base of an underwater mountain.

"We went down the eastern flank of this small hill, and that's when-boom-we just started seeing pockets of dozens here, dozens there, dozens everywhere," says Chad King, chief scientist on the Exploration Vessel Nautilus.

All in all, King estimates that more than 1,000 octopuses known as Muusoctopus robustus were nestled among the rocks, most of which appeared to be inverted, or turned inside out. For this species, that inside-out pose is common among females that are brooding, or protecting their growing young. In some cases, the submersible's camera could even spot tiny embryos cradled within their mothers' arms.

"Out of that 1,000, we might have seen two or three octopuses that were just swimming around," says King, who is also a marine biologist at the Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary. "So I'd say almost 99 percent were brooding."

What's more, the scientists noticed that the water appeared to shimmer in multiple places where the octopuses were concentrated-"kind of like an oasis or a heat wave off the pavement," says King.

This suggests that warm water may be seeping out of the seamount in places, and the octopuses are huddled in those spots. Though the submersible was not equipped with temperature probes on this dive, if the finding is verified, it could mean the octopuses are seeking out such warmth to help incubate their eggs.

"It definitely looked like the octopuses wanted to be there," says King.

Amazingly, the discovery comes just months after scientists reported the only other deep-sea octopus nursery on record - an aggregation of around 100 octopuses along the Dorado Outcrop off Costa Rica. They may even be the same species as those discovered off of California, but no one can say for sure yet.

"I've been working on octopuses since 1982, and I would have sworn that our observations at Dorado Outcrop were a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity," writes Janet Voight, a marine biologist at the Field Museum in Chicago, in an email. "To see these videos 10 months after our paper came out makes me think there are a lot more places like this down there than I ever dared imagine."

There are key differences between the octopus sightings, however.

For starters, the Costa Rican sighting involved far fewer octopuses. Also, Voight and lead author Anne Hartwell were able to confirm that the Costa Rica site did, indeed, have warm fluid billowing up from the seafloor. However, in that case, it appears to have been a bad thing, because none of the eggs the octopuses were incubating seemed to be growing. It may be that the water was actually too hot.

In the new video captured by the Nautilus team, though, Voight sees signs of life. If you look closely at one of the egg cases, you can just make out the eye of a developing embryo.

"Which means that these eggs are developing well," says Voight, "or at least that one is."

While the new footage offers an exciting glimpse into the lives of these creatures, it also reveals how little we know about these octopuses and the environment they inhabit.

For instance, not everyone is convinced that the shimmer means warmth.

According to senior scientist Bruce Robison of the Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute, the geologists who study this region say it's been inactive for millions of years. "Thus it's very unlikely that there is any heat involved," he writes in an email.

If anything, Robison guesses the shimmer could be caused by a seepage of methane gas.

King, however, says they didn't see any of the bacterial mats, clams and other species you'd expect to see with a methane seep. Furthermore, it may not even be the heat the octopuses are attracted to. "Maybe it's just because that's the best rock available," says King.

Adds Voight: "This observation is just further proof that we have no idea of what is going on in the deep sea."

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World's largest deep-sea octopus nursery discovered

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Off the coast of Monterey, California, and some two miles below the surface of the Pacific Ocean, scientists piloting a remotely-operated submersible saw something no one has ever seen before. Octopuses. Hundreds of them. Huddled on a rocky outcrop at the base of an underwater mountain.

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Effect on biological systems[edit]

Different isotopes of chemical elements have slightly different chemical behaviors, but for most elements the differences are far too small to use, or even detect. For hydrogen, however, this is not true. The larger chemical isotope-effects seen between protium (light hydrogen) versus deuterium and tritium manifest because bond energies in chemistry are determined in quantum mechanics by equations in which the quantity of reduced mass of the nucleus and electrons appears. This quantity is altered in heavy-hydrogen compounds (of which deuterium oxide is the most common) more than for heavy-isotope substitution in other chemical elements[why?]. This isotope effect of heavy hydrogen is magnified further in biological systems, which are very sensitive to small changes in the solvent properties of water.

Heavy water is the only known chemical substance that affects the period of circadian oscillations, consistently increasing the length of each cycle. The effect is seen in unicellular organisms, green plants, isopods, insects, birds, mice, and hamsters. The mechanism is unknown.[22]

To perform their tasks, enzymes rely on their finely tuned networks of hydrogen bonds, both in the active center with their substrates, and outside the active center, to stabilize their tertiary structures. As a hydrogen bond with deuterium is slightly stronger[23] than one involving ordinary hydrogen, in a highly deuterated environment, some normal reactions in cells are disrupted.

Particularly hard-hit by heavy water are the delicate assemblies of mitotic spindle formation necessary for cell division in eukaryotes. Plants stop growing and seeds do not germinate when given only heavy water, because heavy water stops eukaryotic cell division.[24][25] The deuterium cell is larger and it is a modification of the direction of division.[26][27] The cell membrane also changes, and it reacts first to the impact of heavy water. In 1972 it was demonstrated that an increase in the percentage content of deuterium in water reduces plant growth.[28] Research conducted on the growth of prokaryote microorganisms in artificial conditions of a heavy hydrogen environment showed that in this environment, all the hydrogen atoms of water could be replaced with deuterium.[29][30][31] Experiments showed that bacteria can live in 98% heavy water.[32] However, all concentrations over 50% of deuterium in the water molecules were found to kill plants.

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Interesting jellyfish factsAs you may have seen, the reproduction in jellyfish is without a doubt, spectacular. This group of animals is full of surprises. For example:		Jellyfish don't have bones, brains or hearts.		The box jellyfish is one of the most dangerous animals in the world, capable of stopping a person's heartbeat in two minutes.		Some jellyfish glow in the dark.		Jellyfish are composed of 95% water and 5% solid material.		Jellyfish can clone themselves through its ability of regeneration.		A Jellyfish stinger moves faster than a bullet shot from a gun.		Some jellyfish are immortal. There is a kind of jellyfish known as the Turritopsis Nutricula, which is able to reverse its aging process. To find out more, take a look at this article about

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Interesting jellyfish factsAs you may have seen, the reproduction in jellyfish is without a doubt, spectacular. This group of animals is full of surprises. For example:		Jellyfish don't have bones, brains or hearts.		The box jellyfish is one of the most dangerous animals in the world, capable of stopping a person's heartbeat in two minutes.		Some jellyfish glow in the dark.		Jellyfish are composed of 95% water and 5% solid material.		Jellyfish can clone themselves through its ability of regeneration.		A Jellyfish stinger moves faster than a bullet shot from a gun.		Some jellyfish are immortal. There is a kind of jellyfish known as the Turritopsis Nutricula, which is able to reverse its aging process. To find out more, take a look at this article about

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Jellyfish characteristicsThe jellyfish belong to the "Cnidaria" phylum, which includes some 10,000 species, of which only 20 are freshwater, and the rest marine. Jellyfish exhibit radial primary symmetry (the division of an animal into similar halves on the longitudinal axis of the body) .The body of a jellyfish is organized as a blind sac with a single hole present the entry of food and waste outlet. Jellyfish have a digestive cavity called "gastrovascular cavity", which acts by digesting food and sending nutrients and oxygen to the rest of the body.Jellyfish don't have a brain or a heart and therefore stand out for having very developed organ senses which are located in its bell. These senses exist so that Jellyfish can sense change and are able to coordinate themselves within their environment. There, you can find their visual organs (ocelli) and static organs (estatocistos). Jellyfish can be predatory or filter feeders. Filter feeding is when they filter the water that surrounds them, thus trapping small food particles to feed on.They also have specialized cells known as "cnidocytes". There are several types of these cells, but the most common is the nematocyst, which is what the jellyfish uses to sting: in order to hunt and defend itself. These stinging nematocysts are present in its tentacles. Another way Jellyfish hunt is with an explosive cell called, Ptychocyst. Ptychocyst is a sticky surface which jellyfish use to catch prey.Another very important characteristic of jellyfish is that they have two corporal forms: the polyp form is generally benthic (lives anchored to the seabed) and colonial. The second corporal form, known as the planktonic form, is when they begin to live in floating in water and usually become solitary. Some species are only made up of the polyp form, while others are made up of both.￼How do Jellyfish feed?Jellyfish, because of their planktonic lifestyle, are predatory animals. In their tentacles we find nematocysts, which are cells that have an internal capsule (cnidocisto) filled with stinging liquid and a filament. These cells are triggered by a contact-sensitive cilium (cnidocilium).When a fish gets too close to a jellyfish and/or lightly touches one of its tentacles, these nematocysts are activated. They are then expelled from their capsules and inserted into the prey's skin, thereby immobilizing it. Once the prey is completely immobilized, the jellyfish moves it with its testicles towards its mouth, from where it passes to the digestive cavity.The reproduction of jellyfish and polypsTo understand how these animals reproduce, we must first know where jellyfish live. All cnidarians live in either a salt of fresh water aquatic environment. In this type of medium, internal fertilization (the union of the ovum and sperm) is not common. Therefore, cnidarians experience external fertilization. This means that females and males release ovules and sperm outside of the body. In hermaphroditic species, an individual will release both eggs and sperm.As we mentioned earlier in the article, there are species that only have the polyp form, while other jellyfish species experience both forms. Most jellyfish species are hermaphrodites. Other species are dioic and have separated sexes, but not easily distinguished.In a Jellyfish reproduction cycle, jellyfish go through both a sexual and asexual phase. First, males release gametes (sperm) through its mouth into surrounding water, which swim to the female and enter her central cavity, finally reaching her eggs.This fertilization however depends on the species. In some female species, she keeps her eggs in brood pouches and are fertilized them by swimming through the male's sperm. Once fertilized, the eggs hatch into larvae, which once released from the female, ground themselves onto the bottom of the ocean bed. This asexual larva later forms into a polyp and releases more polyps. This usually results in a polyp colony. This polyp colony then releases young jellyfish, known as Ephyra.This process highlights the evolution from the ground polyp form to a free-swimming jellyfish, I.e: Evolution of the Benthic to Plankton form.￼

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Jellyfish characteristicsThe jellyfish belong to the "Cnidaria" phylum, which includes some 10,000 species, of which only 20 are freshwater, and the rest marine. Jellyfish exhibit radial primary symmetry (the division of an animal into similar halves on the longitudinal axis of the body) .The body of a jellyfish is organized as a blind sac with a single hole present the entry of food and waste outlet. Jellyfish have a digestive cavity called "gastrovascular cavity", which acts by digesting food and sending nutrients and oxygen to the rest of the body.Jellyfish don't have a brain or a heart and therefore stand out for having very developed organ senses which are located in its bell. These senses exist so that Jellyfish can sense change and are able to coordinate themselves within their environment. There, you can find their visual organs (ocelli) and static organs (estatocistos). Jellyfish can be predatory or filter feeders. Filter feeding is when they filter the water that surrounds them, thus trapping small food particles to feed on.They also have specialized cells known as "cnidocytes". There are several types of these cells, but the most common is the nematocyst, which is what the jellyfish uses to sting: in order to hunt and defend itself. These stinging nematocysts are present in its tentacles. Another way Jellyfish hunt is with an explosive cell called, Ptychocyst. Ptychocyst is a sticky surface which jellyfish use to catch prey.Another very important characteristic of jellyfish is that they have two corporal forms: the polyp form is generally benthic (lives anchored to the seabed) and colonial. The second corporal form, known as the planktonic form, is when they begin to live in floating in water and usually become solitary. Some species are only made up of the polyp form, while others are made up of both.￼How do Jellyfish feed?Jellyfish, because of their planktonic lifestyle, are predatory animals. In their tentacles we find nematocysts, which are cells that have an internal capsule (cnidocisto) filled with stinging liquid and a filament. These cells are triggered by a contact-sensitive cilium (cnidocilium).When a fish gets too close to a jellyfish and/or lightly touches one of its tentacles, these nematocysts are activated. They are then expelled from their capsules and inserted into the prey's skin, thereby immobilizing it. Once the prey is completely immobilized, the jellyfish moves it with its testicles towards its mouth, from where it passes to the digestive cavity.The reproduction of jellyfish and polypsTo understand how these animals reproduce, we must first know where jellyfish live. All cnidarians live in either a salt of fresh water aquatic environment. In this type of medium, internal fertilization (the union of the ovum and sperm) is not common. Therefore, cnidarians experience external fertilization. This means that females and males release ovules and sperm outside of the body. In hermaphroditic species, an individual will release both eggs and sperm.As we mentioned earlier in the article, there are species that only have the polyp form, while other jellyfish species experience both forms. Most jellyfish species are hermaphrodites. Other species are dioic and have separated sexes, but not easily distinguished.In a Jellyfish reproduction cycle, jellyfish go through both a sexual and asexual phase. First, males release gametes (sperm) through its mouth into surrounding water, which swim to the female and enter her central cavity, finally reaching her eggs.This fertilization however depends on the species. In some female species, she keeps her eggs in brood pouches and are fertilized them by swimming through the male's sperm. Once fertilized, the eggs hatch into larvae, which once released from the female, ground themselves onto the bottom of the ocean bed. This asexual larva later forms into a polyp and releases more polyps. This usually results in a polyp colony. This polyp colony then releases young jellyfish, known as Ephyra.This process highlights the evolution from the ground polyp form to a free-swimming jellyfish, I.e: Evolution of the Benthic to Plankton form.￼

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THE ANDROMEDA STRAIN - 71 Split Diopter Shots

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FULL ARTICLE: http://vashivisuals.com/the-split-diopter-shots-in-the-andromeda-strain/ 

SPLIT DIOPTER shots are most often attributed to Brian De Palma but director Robert Wise incorporated them into many of his films as a visual style and storytelling device, often using them more than 100 times in one film.

Wise's split diopter shots became an integral part of the story and not just a stand-alone visual trick. In THE ANDROMEDA STRAIN, Robert Wise used 206 split diopter shots...the most in any feature film I've researched.

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Nasa has released a striking photo of a rectangular iceberg floating in the Weddell Sea off Antarctica.

The US space agency said the object's sharp angles and flat surface suggested it had recently broken away from an ice shelf.

The edges are still pointed, and have not yet been worn down by the ocean waves.

The picture was taken last week by scientists on a Nasa research plane.

Such objects are not unknown, however, and even have a name - tabular icebergs.

These are flat and long and form by splitting away from the edges of ice shelves.

Kelly Brunt, a glaciologist with Nasa and the University of Maryland, said the process of formation was a bit like a fingernail growing too long and cracking off at the end.

They were often geometrically-shaped as a result, she said.

"What makes this one a bit unusual is that it looks almost like a square," she added.

This particular 'berg came from the crumbling Larsen C ice shelf on the Antarctic Peninsula.

It's difficult to tell exactly how big the iceberg is from the photo, but experts said it was probably more than 1.6km (1 mile) across.

And, as with all icebergs, the part visible on the surface comprises just a small fraction of the object's mass - in this case about 10%.

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Nasa has released a striking photo of a rectangular iceberg floating in the Weddell Sea off Antarctica. The US space agency said the object's sharp angles and flat surface suggested it had recently broken away from an ice shelf. The edges are still pointed, and have not yet been worn down by the ocean waves.

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I'd like to attempt something like this amazing work.

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Houdini FEM solver for the ball and the octopus.

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A server room of the future. Evenly spaced white blocks, each with a circular pool sunk into them, contain mutant jellyfish, of the type 4E version. Each one handles yottabytes of data, in a constantly variable quantum state.

The world's data systems run on jellyfish, which provide a quantum bridge to an alternate dimension.

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An Aquanaut is sent down to investigate a malfunctioning underwater data centre.All robots sent into the area have died.By following the undersea cables he finds the data centre.There is a massive jellyfish bloom surrounding it.He relays his pictures and lidar scans to the surface.When the suit brought to the surface and t opened up, it is found to be empty.

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An Aquanaut is sent down to investigate a malfunctioning underwater data centre.All robots sent into the area have died.By following the undersea cables he finds the data centre.There is a massive jellyfish bloom surrounding it.He relays his pictures and lidar scans to the surface.When the suit brought to the surface and t opened up, it is found to be empty.

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This, obviously will have to be part of it.

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as our story develops, one idea that cross my mind is that because the special powers of jellyfishes they people will make many objects, structures, installations ,elements they imitate the shape and the colors of them
it will be also a jellyfish cult or sect

What about a scene at a Gallery opening?
For some reason the artist is obsessed with jellyfish.
A bit 'meta', but who cares? In David Cronenberg's 'Scanners', there are scenes like this. It featured Cronenberg's own sculptures, i think.

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password jellyfish.
This is the system I'll use. You can see the potential for plastic fun as well as organic simulation.

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A sermon delivered from the pulpit condemning Transdifferentiation.
Futuristic catholicism combined with TEDtalk.

The priest makes full use of holographic /Lidar/ pointcloud type visualization technologies to get the message across.
This could be a good setup scene, which, together with the Exorcism, could bookend the film.

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haha! I think it has already begun as you can see in some of the pictures i have collected!

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I was searching if they have designed jellyfishes because in Greece i didnt see this model and i found one ( see the picture)

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perhaps It could be a scene at the beginning that the people are not afraid very much the jellyfishes because they are many but  small, the toys increase the artificial feeling especially if the landscape is not very natural

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perhaps It could be a scene at the beginning that the people are not afraid very much the jellyfishes because they are many but  small, the toys increase the artificial feeling especially if the landscape is not very natural

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at sure you dont want to swim next to the lion jellyfish

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at sure you dont want to swim next to the lion jellyfish

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one of my gods wants to say hello to you!!!!!

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the plastic toys were everywhere in Halkidiki making the beaches looked really weirdas people were trying to have fun…at sure these pool floats in such a size they were not made for children but for their dull and fat parentsIn our story i think it could be interesting to have few of themthey are scary and stupid together

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the plastic toys were everywhere in Halkidiki making the beaches looked really weirdas people were trying to have fun…at sure these pool floats in such a size they were not made for children but for their dull and fat parentsIn our story i think it could be interesting to have few of themthey are scary and stupid together

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it is old i made it in 2006
I have visited many of this kind of hotels
https://vimeo.com/81993747
code:shotbyshot

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When I was with my friend Mia in Halkidiki she told me a story while we were going to the beach.
-I was 4 years old since the last time i was in Greece with my parents. I remember a small inflated flamingo toy, they have bought for me….
Before to complete her last words we were already at the beach and we saw a huge, family size pink flamingo in front of us… Mia said: -Ah! It is amazing how much it grew up after 43 years!

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in front of the radion hotel it is a amusement park

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in front of the radion hotel it is a amusement park

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saving the last natural river in Japan

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f

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iceland

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this is in greece and closed to loutraki

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the landscape and the time…i was searching for dams or other structures in the water(the collection of pictures i am publishing are not from Greece)in what period of time our story is happening?I don’t really know but i will describe to you what pictures i have in my mindI think the landscape should be an hybrid.. a frankenstein collage of several landscapeswe can use the followings -rocky volcanic Greek islands ( the difference with the tropic islands is that the they are dry with very minimal flora…the colors because of the sun they have hard contrast)- because of the floods they have built dams in some places or huge bridges-better to not have the traditional beach with sand but swimming pools next to the water or inside the water in different highs and platforms- the traditional renovated spa building could be protected and part of the complex. How many different landscapes we need? 

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the landscape and the time…i was searching for dams or other structures in the water(the collection of pictures i am publishing are not from Greece)in what period of time our story is happening?I don’t really know but i will describe to you what pictures i have in my mindI think the landscape should be an hybrid.. a frankenstein collage of several landscapeswe can use the followings -rocky volcanic Greek islands ( the difference with the tropic islands is that the they are dry with very minimal flora…the colors because of the sun they have hard contrast)- because of the floods they have built dams in some places or huge bridges-better to not have the traditional beach with sand but swimming pools next to the water or inside the water in different highs and platforms- the traditional renovated spa building could be protected and part of the complex. How many different landscapes we need? 

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SUBMARINE SPRAWL Many industries, such as shipping, drilling and aquaculture, build docks, oil platforms and other structures in the water—sometimes referred to as “ocean sprawl"—which can serve as nurseries for jellyfish. To undergo their polyp stage, jellyfish need solid surfaces to settle upon. It’s much easier for jellyfish polyps to attach to man-made structures made of wood, brick and concrete than sand. Ocean sprawl provides more and better habitat for jellyfish to reproduce and complete their lifecycles.

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SUBMARINE SPRAWL Many industries, such as shipping, drilling and aquaculture, build docks, oil platforms and other structures in the water—sometimes referred to as “ocean sprawl"—which can serve as nurseries for jellyfish. To undergo their polyp stage, jellyfish need solid surfaces to settle upon. It’s much easier for jellyfish polyps to attach to man-made structures made of wood, brick and concrete than sand. Ocean sprawl provides more and better habitat for jellyfish to reproduce and complete their lifecycles.

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1. Home

2. Ocean Life

3. Invertebrates

4. http://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/invertebrates/jellyfish-and-comb-jellies Jellyfish and Comb Jellies

Jellyfish and comb jellies are gelatinous animals that drift through the ocean's water column around the world. They are both beautiful-the jellyfish with their pulsating bells and long, trailing tentacles, and the comb jellies with their paddling combs generating rainbow-like colors. Yet though they look similar in some ways, jellyfish and comb jellies are not very close relatives (being in different phyla-Cnidaria and Ctenophora, respectively) and have very different life histories.

Both groups are ancient animals, having roamed the seas for at least 500 million years. And, in the modern age, they are having similar effects on ecosystems. As seawater temperature rises, predators of jellies are removed by fishing, more structures are built in seawater, and more nutrients flow into the ocean, some types of jellyfish and comb jellies may be finding it easier to grow and survive. Whatever the reason, huge explosions in jelly numbers (a jelly bloom) can disrupt fisheries, make for unpleasant swimming, or foul up the works of power plants that use seawater for cooling. Invasive jellies have also wreaked havoc in some parts of the world.

A Simple Body Plan

While jellyfish and comb jellies have several anatomical differences, the basics are the same. Both have two major cell layers: the external epidermis and the internal gastrodermis. (Ctenophores also have musculature in their in-between layer, the mesoderm, but it likely evolved separately from the mesoderm found in bilaterians like people.)

The gastrodermis lines the all-purpose gut and an opening where food enters and reproductive cells are released and taken in. Jellies have no need for a stomach, intestine, or lungs: nutrients and oxygen slip in and out of their cell walls through the gastrodermis or even their bodies' outer cells. The outer cells that make up the epidermis contain a loose network of nerves called the "nerve net." This is the most basic nervous system known in a multicellular animal. (See Brains of Jelly? for more.)

Between these layers is a gelatinous material called mesoglea, which makes up most of their bodies. (Although some small species have very thin mesoglea.) Jellyfish and comb jellies are 95 percent water and so, rightly, mesoglea is mostly water! It also contains some structural proteins, muscle cells, and nerve cells, forming a kind of internal skeleton.

Comb Jellies' Unique Features

Comb jellies are named for their unique feature: plates of giant fused cilia, known as combs, which run in eight rows up and down their bodies. The combs act like tiny oars, propelling the comb jelly through the water. Many microscopic organisms, such as bacteria, also use cilia to swim-but comb jellies are the largest known animals to do so. The comb-rows often produce a rainbow effect. This is not bioluminescence, but occurs when light is scattered in different directions by the moving cilia.

Until 2015 scientists believed that comb jellies removed their waste via their "mouth," or what was believed to be the one hole in their body plan. A new study showed that comb jellies in fact release indigestible particles through pores on the rear end of the animal. This discovery adds another piece to the evolutionary puzzle of when animals evolved to have anuses.

Many comb jellies have a single pair of tentacles (often each tentacle is branched, giving the illusion of many tentacles) that they use like fishing lines to catch prey. They are armed with sticky cells (colloblasts) and unlike jellyfish, the tentacles of comb jellies don't sting. (See The Stings: Nematocysts and Colloblasts for more.)

Jellyfishes' Unique Features

(K. Raskoff, Monterey Peninsula College, Hidden Ocean 2005, NOAA.)

Jellyfish transition between two different body forms throughout their lives. The familiar body plan that looks like an upside down bell with tentacles hanging down from the inside is called the medusa. The polyp, the other cnidarian body plan, is the opposite, with the mouth and tentacles above, like a sea anemone. (See more in Reproduction & Lifecycle.)

Jellyfish also have a stinging adaptation that is unique to them and their close relatives (including sea anemones and hydras): nematocysts, or stinging cells. (See The Stings: Nematocysts and Colloblasts for more.)

Size

Jellyfish and comb jellies vary greatly in size depending on the species. Most jellies range from less than half an inch (1 cm) wide to about 16 inches (40 cm), though the smallest are just one millimeter wide! The largest jellies are the Lion's Mane Jellyfish (Cyanea capillata), which can be almost 6 feet wide (1.8 m) with tentacles over 49 feet (15 m) long. Larger individuals have been seen, but they are not typical. Venus's girdle (Cestum veneris), a belt shaped comb jelly, can be 40 inches (1 meter) long.

The Nervous System

Brains of Jelly?

Jellies don't have brains as we typically think of them: rather, they have a network of neurons ("nerve net") that allows jellies to sense their environments, such as changes in water chemistry indicating food or the touch of another animal. The nerve net has some specialized structures such as statocysts, which are balance sensors that help jellies know whether they are facing up or down, and light-sensing organs called ocelli, which can sense the presence and absence of light.

Additionally, some jellyfish have sensory structures called rhopalia, which contain receptors to detect light, chemicals and movement. One group of jellyfish, the cubozoan jellyfish, have complex eyes with lenses, corneas and retinas in their rhopalia. Although they respond to visual stimuli, scientists don't know how the jellyfish interpret the images created by their eyes since they don't have a brain with which to process them. Their nerve ring, a ring-shaped concentration of nerves found in jellyfish, seems to be involved, however.

A 2017 study of the upside-down jellyfish, Cassiopea, found that a brain is not required to experience sleep. At night Cassiopea enters a sleep-like state where it pulses less frequently than during the day and is slow to respond to disturbances. When kept awake throughout the night, the next day the jellyfish appear to be tired-their pulsing was noticeably slower than if they had a solid night of sleep. It is the first time an animal without a brain was observed sleeping. The discovery suggests sleep among all animals is an ancient characteristic with a shared evolutionary beginning, considering the neural network of jellyfish evolved before centralized nervous systems like a brain.

Diversity

Types of Jellyfish

Jellies are found in oceans worldwide, in shallow and deep water, and a few can even be found living in freshwater. They have been found floating in the deepest parts of the ocean, like at the bottom of the Mariana trench.

All jellyfish are Cnidaria, an animal phylum that contains jellies, sea anemones, and corals, among others. There are more than 10,000 species of Cnidaria, and less than 4,000 of these are Medusazoa-those animals we think of as jellyfish. Those 4,000 jellyfish can be divided into four different groups.

SCYPHOZOA are the most familiar jellyfish, including most of the bigger and more colorful jellies that interact with humans, and are sometimes called "true jellyfish" for this reason. Scyphozoa spend most of their lives in the medusa body form, and there are at least 200 species.

HYDROZOA are jellyfish look-alikes but not in the same group as the "true jellyfish." The swimming medusa stages of this group are often small and inconspicuous, whereas the bottom-dwelling polyps, or hydroids, usually take the form of large colonies. (See Reproduction & Lifecycle.) In the water column, the colonial siphonophores may be quite spectacular. These include the notorious Portuguese Man-o-Wars and many deep-sea forms, some of which stretch out up to 50 meters in length like giant fishing nets. Colonial siphonophores are composed of many specialized individuals called zooids that are genetically identical because they all come from a single fertilized egg. In 2016, researchers discovered what they believe to be a new hydrozoan species of Crossota, 12,140 feet (3,700 meters) deep within the Mariana Trench. Floating in the water column like a glowing spaceship, this Crossota jellyfish is an exception to most hydrozoans and will spend the majority of its life as a large medusa. There are around 3,700 species of Hydrozoa.

CUBOZOA are the box jellyfish, named for their box-like bells. Some cubozoans, such as the sea wasp (Chironex fleckeri), produce some of the most potent venom known. Cubozoan jellyfish also have a more developed nervous system than other jellyfish, including complex eyes with lenses, corneas and retinas. Some even engage in elaborate (for a jellyfish) courtship behavior! There are at least 36 species. In 2011, Allen Collins, a jellyfish expert at the Smithsonian, discovered a new species, which was named Tamoya ohboya in a public naming contest. (Listen to a podcast about box jellies.)

STAUROZOA are the stalked jellyfishes, which don't float through the water like other jellies, but rather live attached to rocks or seaweed. They are trumpet-shaped, and mostly live in cold water. There are around 50 staurozoan species, many notable for their unique combination of beauty and camouflage.

Types of Comb Jellies

Compared to jellyfish, there are far fewer species of ctenophores: only 100-150 species have been found, but quite a few are out there yet to be discovered and fully documented. The best-known comb jellies are those found close to shore because, there, they are most likely to run into people. Those can be roughly divided into three groups.

CYDIPPIDS all have rounded bodies-some spherical, some oval-with branched tentacles. (This means that their tentacles are fringed with smaller tentacles.) These tentacles can be withdrawn into the jelly's body into special sheaths or pouches on either side of their mouths.

LOBATES are defined by two flattened lobes that extend from the typical rounded ctenophore body down below their mouths. They also have short tentacles and tend to grow larger than cydippids.

BEROIDS (also known as "nuda") are sack-shaped and have no tentacles at all-but they do have a very large mouth, which they can zip shut very tightly.

Open ocean ctenophores are much less known. They tend to be very fragile because they don't have to endure rough coastal waves; many of them are so fragile that they cannot be collected by submersibles and are known only by photographs. They come in a great diversity of forms. Some are shaped like belts (Cestida), while others don't float in the water column at all, but live on the seafloor! (These are known as benthic ctenophores.)

Comb jellies live throughout the world's ocean, although most species prefer warmer water.

Evolution

How Closely Related?

Jellyfish and comb jellies are in different phyla, but scientists have long argued over whether they have an especially close relationship apart from the rest of the animal kingdom. To distinguish them, all Cnidaria and Ctenophora were once described as Coelenterata-but that term is no longer commonly used.

To this day, some researchers believe they are sister groups, while others think they are not closely related. Some argue that a new fossil from the Chengjiang fossil site in China and a peculiar fossil in the Burgess Shale are similar enough to jellyfish that they might be ancient comb jellies that had recently split from the jellyfish lineage. Either way, there are still plenty of other questions to argue about, such as how long ago the two groups diverged, and even whether ctenophores might be the most ancient group of animals, diverging even earlier than sponges in the animal tree of life. These arguments continue because, as some of the simplest animals alive today, understanding their place in the tree of life helps people understand how all other animals-including people-evolved.

Fossil Jellies

Whichever came first, comb jellies and jellyfish (and other Cnidarians) made an important step in evolutionary history: they are the earliest known animals to have organized tissues-their epidermis and gastrodermis-and a nervous system. They're also the first animals known to swim using muscles instead of drifting with the whims of the waves.

The oldest ancestors of modern day jellies lived at least 500 million years ago, and maybe as long as 700 million years ago. That makes jellyfish three-times as old as the first dinosaurs!

Because jellies have no bones or other hard parts, finding jellyfish fossils is rare. But in 2007, a group of scientists including Allen Collins from the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, discovered some beautifully-preserved jellyfish fossils buried in Utah from 505 million years ago. From around the same period, scientists have also found well-preserved comb jelly fossils in the Burgess Shale.

Fossils described in 2019 from the Quingjiang site in southern China are some of the best preserved Cambrian fossils ever found, with the cilia and plates easily visible. Scientists are optimistic this discovery will help tease out the relationship between jellyfish and comb jellies.

Predators and Prey

Jellyfish and ctenophores are carnivorous, and will eat just about anything they run into! Most jellies primarily eat plankton, tiny organisms that drift along in the water, although larger ones may also eat crustaceans, fish and even other jellyfish and comb jellies. Some jellyfish sit upside down on the bottom and have symbiotic algae (zooxanthellae) in their tissues, which photosynthesize, and so get much of their energy the way plants do.

While their nematocysts and colloblasts do help them defend themselves, plenty of animals manage to catch and eat jellies: more than 150 animal species are known to eat jellies, including fish, sea turtles, crustaceans, and even other jellyfish. Jellies are the favorite food of the ocean sunfish ( Mola mola) and endangered leatherback turtle ( Dermochelys coriacea), which will migrate thousands of miles for the gelatinous delicacy. Young jellyfish are small enough to be part of the general zooplankton population and are eaten by many animals.

Humans also eat jellyfish: people have fished for jellies for at least 1700 years off the coast of China. Some 425,000 tons (more than 900 million pounds) of jellyfish are caught each year by fisheries in 15 countries, and most are consumed in Southeast Asia. Eating jellyfish may become more common around the world as we overfish more preferable fish species.

Feeding Adaptations

The Stings: Nematocysts and Colloblasts

Jellyfish and ctenophores both have tentacles with specialized cells to capture prey: nematocysts and colloblasts, respectively. Jellyfishes' nematocysts are organelles within special cells (cnidocytes) that contain venom-bearing harpoons. The cell is activated upon touch or chemical cue, causing the harpoon to shoot out of the cell and spear the prey or enemy, releasing toxin-a process that takes only 700 nanoseconds. A small number of jellyfish are very toxic to humans, such as the box jellyfish ( Chironex fleckeri) and Irukandji jellyfish ( Carukia barnesi), which can cause severe reactions and even death in some people.

Many comb jellies have colloblasts lining their tentacles, which work like nematocysts but release glue instead of venom. Upon touch, a spiral filament automatically bursts out of colloblast cells that releases the sticky glue. Once an item is stuck, the comb jelly reels in its tentacle and brings the food into its mouth. One species of ctenophore ( Haeckelia rubra) recycles nematocysts from hydrozoan jellyfish it consumes and uses these to stun and kill prey.

Many Ctenophores, Many Ways to Feed

Comb jellies come in many shapes and sizes, and so within the group there are many ways to feed. The rounded and tentacled cydippids have branched tentacles lined with colloblasts that they use, in the traditional jelly style, like a fishing line to trap food and bring it to their mouths.

The lobate ctenophores have two flattened lobes that reach below their mouths. Special cilia waving between the lobes generate a current to pull planktonic food between the lobes and into the jelly's mouth, allowing them to feed on plankton continuously. They also use colloblast-lined tentacles to catch food.

The tentacle-less beroids depend on their large mouths. Instead of catching food with colloblasts, they swallow their prey (often other ctenophores!) whole and then clamp their mouths shut, giving them no escape route. Inside their mouths they have small cilia that act as teeth, pulling food apart, which also direct the food into the comb jelly's gut.

Defense Adaptations

Color and Bioluminescence

Many jellyfish and comb jellies are able to produce light-an ability known as bioluminescence. They have proteins in some tissues that undergo a chemical reaction to produce blue or green light in response to stimuli such as touch. No one's quite sure why jellies bioluminesce, but it seems to be mainly a defense tactic. A bright enough flash could be enough to startle a predator-or to attract an even bigger predator to make the jelly's predator into prey.

Jellies have also adapted their body color to camouflage in the darkness. Most are nearly colorless and transparent, so they can be difficult for predators to see. However, some deep sea jellyfish and comb jellies are a bright red or orange color. Why would they be red instead of black to blend in with the dark water? Red cannot be seen in dark water (deeper than 200 meters), so there's no greater protection from black than red. But red is preferred to black because pigment is easier for animals to produce. Some deep sea jellies just have dark red guts, possibly serving to mask luminescent prey from other larger predators with eyes.

Jellyfish: Medusa and Polyp Switch-Off

Jellyfish have a complex life cycle: a single jellyfish reproduces both sexually and asexually during its lifetime, and takes on two different body forms.

An adult jellyfish is called a medusa, which is the familiar umbrella-shaped form that we see in the water. Medusa jellyfish reproduce sexually by spawning-the mass release of eggs and sperm into the open ocean-with entire populations sometimes spawning all together. Male and female jellyfish (there aren't many hermaphrodites) release the sperm and eggs from their mouths. In most species, fertilization takes place in the water; in others, the sperm swim up into the female's mouth and fertilize the eggs within.

The fertilized eggs then develop into planulae (singular: planula), which are ciliated free-swimming larvae shaped a bit like a miniature flattened pear. After several days of development, the planulae attach to a firm surface and transform into flower-like polyps. The polyps have a mouth and tentacles that are used to feed on zooplankton.

Polyps reproduce asexually by budding-when a polyp divides roughly in half to produce a new genetically identical polyp-or they can produce or transform into medusae, depending on the type of jellyfish. Hydrozoan polyps bud medusae from their sides; cubozoan polyps each transform into a medusa.

In schyphozoans, a process called strobilation takes place (shown in video and in diagram). During strobilation, a polyp splits into 10-15 plate-like segments stacked atop one another in a tower called a strobila. After a segment separates from the strobila, it is called an ephyra, a juvenile jellyfish. Ephyrae mature into the medusa form.

Most jellyfish are short lived. Medusa or adult jellyfish typically live for a few months, depending on the species, although some species can live for 2-3 years in captivity. Polyps can live and reproduce asexually for several years, or even decades.

One jellyfish species is almost immortal. Turritopsis nutricula, a small hydrozoan, can revert back to the polyp stage after reaching adult medusa stage through a process called transdifferentiation. This is the only animal known to do so.

Comb Jellies

In comparison to the jellyfish, comb jellies have a very simple lifecycle. Most species are hermaphroditic and able to release both eggs and sperm into the water, which drift with the waves until they find other gametes. Because most species have both male and female gametes, it's thought that they can self-fertilize as well.

This method may not seem very efficient, since it's likely that most of the gametes never find a match. But ctenophores make up for this by releasing them every day. If they run out of food while producing so many eggs and sperm, they can shrink and hunker down until they run into more food and can start reproducing again.

Once eggs and sperm find each other, the embryo develops into a larva that looks just like a small adult ctenophore-and, from there, all it has to do is grow up.

One species ( Mertensia ovum) can reproduce even when it is still larva, and scientists think other species are also able to reproduce at a young age. This means that comb jelly populations can grow very fast under certain conditions.

Jellyfish Blooms

Around the world, vast aggregations of jellyfish and comb jellies seem to be more common. These aggregations are known as "jellyfish blooms" or "jellyfish outbreaks," which can cause a wide array of problems. Too many jellies in the water can be a danger to swimmers, forcing towns to close their beaches. Jellies have clogged up machinery at coastal power plants, causing power outages. They can interfere with fisheries by eating fish larvae, and fisherman catch jellies instead of the fish they want. Where they occur, blooms of jellyfish even change seawater chemistry. Scientists hope to address this problem through the discovery of a practical application for jellyfish, like substituting jellyfish for the fish used in aquaculture feed. Jellyfish mucus, which has been shown to bind to microplastics, may even one day be used in water treatment facilities to help combat the world's growing plastic problem.

Why are jellies becoming more common around the world? It seems likely that their spread is human-caused, although some scientists have argued that the blooms are part of a natural cycle. If the blooms are human-caused, there are several probable culprits.

OVERFISHING Over the past two decades, between 100 and 120 million tons of marine life have been removed from the ocean by fisheries each year on average. A lot of these marine species, including fish and invertebrates such as squid, eat some of the same food that jellies do: mainly, zooplankton. As these other predators of plankton are fished from the sea, jellies have less competition for food, and are able to grow and reproduce with fewer limits.

NUTRIENTS When fertilizers runoff from the rivers to the seas, they can create dead zones: areas of ocean where little life survives. The nitrogen and phosphorus in fertilizer helps phytoplankton grow very quickly, and there can be so many of these single-celled plant-like animals that they deplete oxygen from the water. Most animals can't survive in these conditions, but many jellies can better tolerate low-oxygen environments.

CLIMATE CHANGE The ocean is warming, and this might give some jellies a boost. The warmer water could help jelly embryos and larvae develop more quickly, allowing their populations to grow more quickly. And jellies that prefer warmer water will have more area to live in. However, this could also hurt some species as cold-water jelly species see their habitat shrink.

SUBMARINE SPRAWL Many industries, such as shipping, drilling and aquaculture, build docks, oil platforms and other structures in the water-sometimes referred to as "ocean sprawl"-which can serve as nurseries for jellyfish. To undergo their polyp stage, jellyfish need solid surfaces to settle upon. It's much easier for jellyfish polyps to attach to man-made structures made of wood, brick and concrete than sand. Ocean sprawl provides more and better habitat for jellyfish to reproduce and complete their lifecycles.

Invasive Species & Fisheries

(Marco Faasse, World Register of Marine Species)

Jellies are very good at surviving: they have broad diets, reproduce quickly, can shrink down if food runs out and then revive, and tolerate low-oxygen water. So, as you can imagine, they are also very good at thriving in new ecosystems once they arrive.

In the 1980s, the sea walnut (Mnemiopsis leidyi), a type of comb jelly, was brought to the Black Sea in ship ballast water. It reproduced and spread quickly, gobbling up zooplankton and leaving little behind for the larvae of commercial fish species, including anchovy, scad and sprat. Within a decade, the comb jellies took over the Black Sea and many of the fish populations collapsed, bringing local fisheries down with them. In a stroke of accidental luck, a different species of comb jelly ( Beroe ovum)-a predator of the sea walnut-was brought over in a ship, and it's helping to bring down the population. A similar story of fishery collapse coinciding with jellyfish blooms is playing out off the coast of Japan.

However, the collapse of a fishery doesn't always end in jellyfish. A crash in the pollock and walleye fishery in the Bering Sea left an opening for jellyfish but, after reigning for a few years, the jellies gave up their crown as the fish returned. And when the Peruvian anchovy fishery collapsed in the 1970s, no jellyfish swarmed in to take their place.

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Home Ocean Life Invertebrates http://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/invertebrates/jellyfish-and-comb-jellies Jellyfish and Comb Jellies Jellyfish and comb jellies are gelatinous animals that drift through the ocean's water column around the world. They are both beautiful-the jellyfish with their pulsating bells and long, trailing tentacles, and the comb jellies with their paddling combs generating rainbow-like colors.

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Human beings might have to cope with an increasing amount of venomous bites, stings, and other brush ups with poison due to climate change. That's according to a new study, coming at the same time that the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) released a report warning that negative impacts from a warming world are coming faster than expected.

According to a massive new analysis of poisonous or venomous aquatic animals, dangerous species might become increasingly common in new ranges. Species whose ranges might shift polewards due to warmer water include lionfish, sea snakes, crown-of-thorns starfish and a number of different types of venomous jellies.

"These species have human interest because they're poisonous but they reflect the broader patterns that we're seeing-range shifts, abundance changes, either declines or increases-and that is upsetting the balance of what we would normally see in the ecosystem," says Isabelle Neylan, a PhD student in marine sciences at the University of California, Davis and a coauthor of the study recently published in Wilderness and Environment Medicine.

She and her coauthors scoured medical, environmental and ecological research on the effect of climate change on poisonous and venomous creatures as well as various modeling studies and poison center data. The recent paper actually represents the second part of the research-the first study published earlier this year focused on the effect climate change might have on poisonous and venomous land creatures.

She says that most species may not necessarily see an increase in abundance, but will see their ranges shift as waters become too warm closer to the equator, pushing them northwards or southwards following their ideal temperature niches. However, not all species will experience this evenly as some will not be able to cope with these range shifts.

"The big pattern is that there isn't necessarily a pattern," says Neylan, who conducted these studies while she was a research technician at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, adding that each species may experience unique challenges in terms of changes in distribution or population.

Lions, jellies, and starfish oh my

One group of animals that are most likely to increase both in range and abundance due to warmer waters and changes in the acidity level of the ocean are jellyfish. These include the deadly irukandji and box jellyfish, which have been responsible for increasing amounts of deaths in Australia and may be moving southwards into more populated areas as the climate warms.

"Box jellyfish are very venomous-possibly the most venomous in the world pound-for-pound," says Timothy Erickson, a physician at Brigham and Women's Hospital at Harvard University and a coauthor of the study with Neylan.

Jennifer Purcell, a research associate at Western Washington University, has studied the spread of jellyfish but was not involved in this recent study. She says that the reproduction of jellies increases in warmer waters.

"It's not just a couple [species]-it's really the majority of jellyfish that have been looked at which increase their abundance," she says.

She agrees that jellyfish might be a problem due to climate change, but adds that other factors may be at play in the spread of these species such as humans releasing or moving them around, either on purpose or inadvertently.

"The jellyfish is maybe their strongest case but I do worry that they picked out some sensational species to try to make an important sounding story," she says.

While they initially spread to Florida due to their release by pet owners, lionfish have begun to spread up the Atlantic coast to Georgia and the Carolinas. These fish, which apparently actually taste quite good themselves, can decimate small fish and marine creature populations and pack a painful sting for humans who encounter them.

Crown-of-thorns starfish have begun spreading from their traditional range in the Indo-Pacific waters southwards into the Great Barrier Reef off the coast of Australia due to an increase in temperature in those waters. These voracious toxic starfish can eat through entire reef systems. For the people who accidentally run into them while swimming or other activities, they can cause pain, inflammation, and infection.

Other fish like porcupinefish have also been sighted in new areas, but the authors note a lack of data on how climate change is affecting the range or abundance of one of the fish which humans have the most run ins- stingrays. They call for more research into the ranges and effects of shifting weather patterns on stingrays, stonefish, and blue-ringed octopus in order to understand potential problems in the future.

Not all toxic aquatic species will fare well due to climate change. While sea snakes have also been found in new ranges or in increasing abundance in South Korea, California, and Hawai'i, the researchers report that the abundance of some of the most poisonous snakes in the world on land or water is decreasing worldwide.

Poison frogs may fare the worst due to their sensitivity to temperature shifts. And it's not just a drop in abundance. Neylan also notes that some species are going extinct due to a combination of climate change and pathogens like the chytrid fungus, which is also spreading due to climate change.

"Diversity is going down overall and that's a bad thing," Neylan says, adding that when species like lionfish move into new ranges with little or no predators, they can negatively impact ecosystems.

"Any change in the ecosystem has rippling effects," Neylan says.

Erickson says that with the spread of poisonous creatures into new ranges, hospitals and health care systems may not know how to cope with the influx of potential sting or bite victims.

This could lead to increasing costs of health care. "Some of the antidotes are very expensive," Erickson says, adding that these problems will likely strike poorer countries even harder as a result.

Where possible, he says that hospitals may have to have better plans in place for getting the antidotes they lack. He also notes the need for better public information about what kind of immediate steps to take, such as putting vinegar on jellyfish stings or hot water for stingray and lionfish stings.

According to the researchers, the problem is only going to be exacerbated in the future as more and more people move into coastal areas. They note that by the end of the century, 50 percent of the world's population will be living within 60 miles of a coastline.

"There are more and more people going in the water," Purcell agrees.

"We are a part of our environment and our ecosystem. Changes affect us and we change what's happening in our ecosystem," Neylan says.

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Venomous sea creatures on the rise thanks to climate change

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Human beings might have to cope with an increasing amount of venomous bites, stings, and other brush ups with poison due to climate change. That's according to a new study, coming at the same time that the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) released a report warning that negative impacts from a warming world are coming faster than expected.

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I'm reading the Homo Deus book you gave me. All the stuff about immortality ties in with these themal spas

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I'm reading the Homo Deus book you gave me. All the stuff about immortality ties in with these themal spas

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First the spa is reopened as a temporary laboratory, but then is converted into a life extension clinic by Kozmoz.

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In Australia the sea is full of very dangerous species because the jellyfishes are deadly they used to swim in pools next to the beach I found interesting the idea of pools in different shapes.

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In Australia the sea is full of very dangerous species because the jellyfishes are deadly they used to swim in pools next to the beach I found interesting the idea of pools in different shapes.

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old photo of the thermal spa in Loutraki

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old photo of the thermal spa in Loutraki

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old photo of the  luxury hotel radion in Kamena Vourla now it is abandoned the water has radio

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old photo of the  luxury hotel radion in Kamena Vourla now it is abandoned the water has radio

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renovated thermal spa building in Methana
the water is milky blue because of the sulfur

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The transparent, transformed human 'jelloids' communicate solely though symbols and images.
Their nervous systems have absorbed the billions of uploaded memories from the servers.

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Our 'evil corporation' could be a cosmetics conglomerate rather than the usual arms / pharma/ robot company.

'COSMOS' seeks to leverage the Transdifferential power of the Jellyfish, and re-opens an abandoned coastal resort as a rejuvenation clinic, despite opposition from the church, who remain steadfastly opposed to Transdifferentiation.

They believe the jellyfish to be agents the of the Devil.

'Kozmoz'
maybe that sounds more Greek?

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Jellyfish = Information age allegory

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An emergency evacuation of a coastal area is initiated after warnings that an seaborne mass of what might be pollution, oil slick or chemical spill is approaching.

A search for two missing adults ends in mystery, as two unconscious children are found instead.

Discarded adult clothing is found nearby. The children are rushed to hospital for observation.

They appear to be in a deep coma, and their skin is beginning to exhibit a strange transparency. Brain activity is near zero, while neurological activity throughout the body is vastly increased.

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Jellyfish properties.

Jellyfish have the ability to rejuvenate. This process is known as Transdifferentiation. This property attracts immediate scientific and commercial interest

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Possible cause.

The jellyfish are attracted to the vast undersea cables of the internet, and the heat generated by the gigantic, subaquatic data centres. Somehow, they absorb the data and images deposited there. They become living image processors.

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Members of the species can reverse the aging process so that instead of expiring, they reconstitute themselves as juveniles.
Scientists call the near-miraculous process transdifferentiation.

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This story appears in the October 2018 issue ofNational Geographic magazine.

Moon jellies, which are found in shallow bays around the world, look like small, not entirely friendly ghosts.

They have translucent bells fringed with pale tentacles, and as they pulse along, it almost seems as if the water itself has come alive. At the National Aquarium in Baltimore, when visitors are invited to touch moon jellies, their first reaction is usually fear. Assured the jellies won't hurt them, the visitors roll up their sleeves and hesitantly reach into the tank.

"They're squishy!" I hear one boy squeal.

"They're cool!" a girl exclaims.

"I think they're just mesmerizing," Jennie Janssen, the assistant curator who oversees the care of the aquarium's jellyfish, tells me. "They don't have a brain, and yet they're able to survive-to thrive-generation after generation."

Scary, squishy, cool, brainless, mesmerizing-jellyfish are all of these and a whole lot more. Anatomically they're relatively simple animals; they lack not just brains, but also blood and bones, and possess only rudimentary sense organs. Despite their name, jellyfish aren't, of course, fish. In fact they aren't any one thing.

Many of the creatures lumped together as jellyfish are no more closely related than, say, horseflies are to horses. Not only do they occupy disparate branches of the animal family tree, but they also live in different habitats; some like the ocean surface, others the depths, and a few prefer freshwater. What unites them is that they've converged on a similarly successful strategy for floating through life: Their bodies are gelatinous.

Not surprisingly, given their diverse evolutionary history, jellies exhibit a fantastic range of shapes, sizes, and behaviors. When it comes to reproduction, they're some of the most versatile creatures on the planet. Jellyfish can produce offspring both sexually and asexually; depending on the species, they may be able to create copies of themselves by dividing in two, or laying down little pods of cells, or spinning off tiny snowflake-shaped clones in a process known as strobilation. Most astonishing of all, some jellies seem able to reproduce from beyond the grave.

The so-called immortal jellyfish resembles a tiny, hairy thimble and lives in the Mediterranean Sea and also off Japan. Members of the species can reverse the aging process so that instead of expiring, they reconstitute themselves as juveniles. The juvenile then starts the jellyfish's life cycle all over again. It's as if a frog, say, were to revert to a tadpole or a butterfly to a caterpillar. Scientists call the near-miraculous process transdifferentiation.

Moon jellies and their cousins, which include lion's mane jellies and sea nettles, are known as true jellies. They belong to the class Scyphozoa, in the phylum Cnidaria, which also includes corals. (A phylum is such a broad taxonomic category that humans, fish, snakes, frogs, and all other animals with a backbone belong to the same one-the chordates-as do salps, which are sometimes lumped with jellies.) As adults, true jellies are shaped like upside-down saucers or billowing parachutes. They propel themselves through the water by contracting the muscles of their bells, and their tentacles are equipped with stinging cells that shoot out tiny barbed tubes to harpoon floating prey. To reel it into their mouths, they use streamer-like appendages known as oral arms. In some species the oral arms have mouths of their own.

Jellyfish like the dreaded Portuguese man-of-war are also related to corals, but they're part of a different subgroup, the siphonophores, which practice an unusual form of collective living. What looks like a single man-of-war is technically a colony that developed from the same embryo. Instead of simply growing larger, the embryo sprouts new "bodies," which take on different functions. Some develop into tentacles, for example; others become reproductive organs.

"In the human life cycle, our body, when we're born, has all the pieces that are going to be there as an adult," observes Casey Dunn, a professor of evolutionary biology at Yale University. "The really cool thing about siphonophores is they've gone about things in a very different way."

Then there are the ctenophores (pronounced TEH-nuh-fores), which are such oddballs they've been placed in a phylum of their own. Also known as comb jellies, for the comblike rows of tiny paddles they use to swim, they tend to be small, delicate, and hard to study. They come in an array of weird body types: Some are flat and ribbonlike; others look more like pockets or little crowns. Most use an adhesive to nab their prey. "They have what's like exploding glue packets embedded in their tentacles," explains Steve Haddock, a senior scientist at the Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute.

In recent decades jellyfish populations in some parts of the world have boomed. In the 1980s a comb jelly that's known formally as Mnemiopsis leidyi and informally as the sea walnut showed up in the Black Sea. A native of the western Atlantic, it presumably had been transported in a ship's ballast water and then been discharged. In the Black Sea it reproduced so prolifically that by 1989 it had reached densities of up to 11 per cubic foot of water. Fish couldn't compete with the jellies for food-sea walnuts eat as much as 10 times their body weight a day-and many fish became food for the jellies. Local fisheries collapsed.

In other parts of the world, swarms of jellyfish have menaced swimmers and clogged fishing nets. In 2006, beaches in Italy and Spain were closed because of a bloom of jellyfish known as mauve stingers. In 2013 a Swedish nuclear plant temporarily shut down because moon jellies were blocking its intake pipes.

Situations like these led to a spate of reports that jellyfish were taking over the seas. One website warned of the " attack of the blob." Another predicted " goomageddon."

But scientists say the situation is more complicated than such headlines suggest. Jellyfish populations fluctuate naturally, and people tend to notice only the boom part of the cycle.

"A big jellyfish bloom makes the headlines, while a lack of a jellyfish bloom isn't even worth reporting," says Lucas Brotz, a marine zoologist at the University of British Columbia. While some jellyfish species seem to thrive on human disturbance-off the coast of Namibia, for example, overfishing may have tipped the ecosystem into a new state dominated by compass and crystal jellyfish-other more finicky species appear to be declining. Researchers in a couple parts of the world have reported a drop in the number of jellyfish species they are encountering.

Meanwhile, if people are having more unpleasant encounters with jellyfish, is it because they're taking over the seas or because we are?

"Anytime we have an adverse encounter with jellyfish, it's because humans have invaded the oceans," Haddock says. "We're the ones who are encroaching into their habitat." Jellyfish are only doing what they've been doing generation after generation for hundreds of millions of years-just pulsing along, silently, brainlessly, and, seen in the right light, gorgeously.

Elizabeth Kolbert's bookThe Sixth Extinction won a Pulitzer Prize; she wrote aboutrace and genetics in the April issue.David Liittschwager, the Richard Avedon of obscure but beautiful creatures, has shot 13 features for the magazine.

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Scary, Squishy, Brainless, Beautiful: Inside the World of Jellyfish

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This story appears in the October 2018 issue ofNational Geographic magazine. Moon jellies, which are found in shallow bays around the world, look like small, not entirely friendly ghosts. They have translucent bells fringed with pale tentacles, and as they pulse along, it almost seems as if the water itself has come alive.

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Mothra's egg