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the age of 4. They were compared to 52 British children who were adopted by the age of 6 months. He found that the Romanian children were behind the British children in all aspects, by age 4 the Romanian children who were adopted by the age of 6 months had caught up with the British children. The children adopted after 6 months showed disinhibited attachments and difficulties with peer relationships. This study shows that to escape the effects of institutionalisation the child needs to be adopted as early as possible.

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The Bucharest Early Intervention Project was conducted by Zeanah et al in 2005. They assessed (using Ainsworth's Strange Situation) the attachment of 95 children (12-31mnths) who spent an average 90% of their lives in an institution. This group were compared to a control group who were considered to live in a 'normal family'.
74% of the control group were found to have secure attachments. Whereas only 19% of the institutionalised group were secure. A larger proportion of this group, 65%, were classified as disorganised attachment: displaying inconsistent patterns of behaviour e.g strong attachment to caregiver and then avoiding them altogether.

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Social Releasers and Still Face Experiment

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Social Releasers and Still Face Experiment

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John Bowlby proposed, in his theory of attachment, that humans are ‘hardwired’ to respond to social releasers from infants – they can’t help but respond to an infant’s smiles or cries of distress and this responsiveness is in our genes.

In 1975, Edward Tronick and colleagues first presented the “Still Face Experiment” to colleagues at a meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development. He described a phenomenon in which an infant, after three minutes of “interaction” with a non-responsive expressionless mother, “rapidly sobers and grows wary. He makes repeated attempts to get the interaction into its usual reciprocal pattern. When these attempts fail, the infant withdraws [and] orients his face and body away from his mother with a withdrawn, hopeless facial expression.” It remains one of the most replicated findings in developmental psychology.

Once the phenomenon had been thoroughly tested and replicated, it became a standard method for testing hypotheses about person perception, communication differences as a result of gender or cultural differences, individual differences in attachment style, and the effects of maternal depression on infants. The still-face experiment has also been used to investigate cross-cultural differences, deaf infants, infants with Down syndrome, exposed infants, autistic children, and children of parents with various psychopathologies, especially depression.

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Bowlby's monotropic theory of attachment suggests attachment is important for a child's survival. Attachment behaviors in both babies and their caregivers have evolved through natural selection.This means infants are biologically programmed with innate behaviors that ensure that attachment occurs. There is also the law of accumulated separation is the idea that every separation has an effect. Taking these two theories into consideration it’s important to spend a significant amount of time with your child during their critical period of development but to be careful not to go to extremes.

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Ainsworth developed an experimental procedure in order to observe the variety of attachment forms exhibited between mothers and infants. ‘Sensitive’ mothers are responsive to the child's needs and respond to their moods and feelings correctly. Sensitive mothers are more likely to have securely attached children. However, mothers who are less sensitive towards their child, for example, those who respond to the child’s needs incorrectly or who are impatient or ignore the child, are likely to have insecurely attached children.

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The internal working model is a theory proposed by Bowlby. It is the template for how we form relationships. It is based on the attachment with our primary caregiver. Parents should do their best to form a loving healthy relationship with their children to ensure they continue to form healthy relationships later on in life. It is supported by Hazan and Shaver, who showed that the relationship with their primary care giver influenced their outlook on love and future relationships.

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a period of time defined by Bowlby as the time during which a child must form an attachment to a primary caregiver (2.5 years or 30 months)

Be there for your children in the first couple years, it’s important and they need you :)

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Reciprocity is where an infant responds to the actions of another person. With reciprocity the actions of one person (e.g. the mother) elicits a response from the other (e.g. the infant). This can be used to form healthy attachments with your baby as you can be aware of their actions and therefore provide a response for them. This keeps the baby calm and ensures them they are being listened to and interacted with. It also helps when they become slightly older as they are aware what behaviour will generate a response for things they need, for example, food. This is shown in the still face experiment. Interactional synchrony is where an infant mirrors the actions of another person, for example, their facial expressions and body movements - moving their body in tune with the rhythm of their carer. This can be used to develop healthy attachments as it encourages conversation and learning, it also displays what interactions should be like between people. In conclusion, try to interact with your babies as much as possible in order to develop and maintain a healthy attachment.

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Van ljzendorn and koonenburg cultural variations-   They conducted a large scale meta analysis in which they analysed the results of 32  seperate studies in eight countries which used Ainsworth’s “strange situation”. They found that type B secure attachments are the most common type of attachment across all cultures.Van ljensoorn looked at multiple studies in each culture and found that every study produced different levels of classification. This intra-cultural variation suggests that it is an over simplified to assume all children are bought up in the same  way in particular country. This study suggests that to form a healthy attachment with your baby you should give them a minimum amount of independence to form a secure attachment.

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Operant conditioning is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments. Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence for that behavior. It was done by B.F Skinner.

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Early attachments on later relationships

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Early attachments on later relationships

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Research shows that early childhood attachments affect future adult relationships which means the way a child is raised/treated is very important. Mullis et al (1999) said that late childhood attachments made to peers reflect those made to parents in infancy. This supports the internal working model.

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From Harlow study we can deduce that a mother needs to provide care and comfort as that is just as important to develop as monkeys chose these over pure substance of food. And so a lack of care will lead to serious development problems.

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Bowlby proposed that attachments can be made through 2 laws. The law of continuity is where the primary caregiver is consistent and predictable in their attention to the child. The second law is the law of accumulated separation which is where the primary caregiver is away from the child as little as possible. The shorter the time away is the stronger the attachment.
Robertson and Robertson: Young children in brief separation. They had taken children from mothers for a short time and recorded the effects. They found children go through a PDD model.
P: protest - crying, screaming, clinging to primary caregiver.
D: despair - child appears calmer. Refuses comfort instead self comforts (thumb sucking)
D: detachment - responds to others bit is quite distant and not as trusting. Rejection of the caregiver is common and can be reversed with the laws.

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Fathers have traditionally been seen to play a minor role in the parenting of their children. In the past, children were raised by married couples, with the father going out to work to provide for the family, whilst the mother stayed at home. It is now more common for the mother to go out to work as well as/ instead of the father. This means that men are having a bigger role in parenting than before.
Shaffer and Emerson showed that the primary attachment is much more likely to be made with the mother than the father.
Parental Involvement: Amount of time that fathers spend interacting with, being accessible to, or being directly involved in daily care of their children. This interaction could be influenced by a number of factors:

Cultural Factors: Until recently men were expected to be the breadwinners, limiting their involvement with their children. Fathers may not have been involved in day to day care but were involved in factors like play, instruction and guidance. Hewlett 2004 - In many societies, men spend their time help keeping their children alive. In some cultures (Central African Republic) this involves a considerable amount of care.

Economic Factor: In some parts of the world (e.g. Africa and Asia) men work several hundred miles away from their home. Many others work long hours which limits hands on involvement with their children. Due to the increase in the woman's labour force, both mothers and fathers are able to be active as parents and employees (Presser 1988).

And others.

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According to Bowlby, an internal working model is a mental representation of our relationship with our primary caregiver that becomes a template for future relationships and allows individuals to predict, control and manipulate their environment. Each individual builds working models of the world and of himself in it, with the aid of which he perceives events, forecasts the future, and constructs his plans. In the working models of the world that anyone builds a key feature is his notion of who his attachment figures are, where they may be found, and how they may be expected to respond. Similarly, in the working model of the self that anyone builds a key feature is his notion of how acceptable or unacceptable he himself is in the eyes of his attachment figures. (Bowlby, 1973)

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Classical conditioning is learning by association discovered by Pavlov. His study can be applied to attachment with primary caregivers. An example of this is infants reaction to food. The unconditional stimulus is the food and the unconditional response is the babies happiness when receiving the food. The caregiver is the figure which brings the  the food. The baby associated the UCS with the mother(neutral stimulus) bringing it. The baby associates the mother with the fact their hungers reduced making them happy. The mother become the conditioned stimulus and the babies happiness is the conditioned response. 

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Classical conditioning is learning by association discovered by Pavlov. His study can be applied to attachment with primary caregivers. An example of this is infants reaction to food. The unconditional stimulus is the food and the unconditional response is the babies happiness when receiving the food. The caregiver is the figure which brings the  the food. The baby associated the UCS with the mother(neutral stimulus) bringing it. The baby associates the mother with the fact their hungers reduced making them happy. The mother become the conditioned stimulus and the babies happiness is the conditioned response. 

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Learning theory suggests that hunger is a primary drive and key to forming attachments. In order to form healthy attachments caregivers should accurately respond to the childs needs in which they will learn by association.

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Lorenz states that an infant forms a bond with the first person they see after birth. This shows how an infant needs comfort and love from a mother figure when they're born. Using his study, we can infer that infants keep close contact with the first human they see, this process is irreversible and must occur within the critical period.