# data[].attributes.headline
Purposes of the Male Reproductive System

# data[].attributes.subject
Purposes of the Male Reproductive System

# data[].attributes.body
1. makes semen
2. releases semen into the reproductive system of the female during sexual intercourse
3. produces sex hormones, which help a boy develop into a sexually mature man during puberty

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Listen

Play Stop Volume mp3 Settings Close Player

Larger text size Large text size Regular text size

What Is Reproduction?

Reproduction is the process by which organisms make more organisms like themselves. But even though the reproductive system is essential to keeping a species alive, unlike other body systems, it's not essential to keeping an individual alive.

In the human reproductive process, two kinds of sex cells, or gametes (pronounced: GAH-meetz), are involved. The male gamete, or sperm, and the female gamete, the egg or ovum, meet in the female's reproductive system. When sperm fertilizes (meets) an egg, this fertilized egg is called a zygote (pronounced: ZYE-goat). The zygote goes through a process of becoming an embryo and developing into a fetus.

The male reproductive system and the female reproductive system both are needed for reproduction.

Humans, like other organisms, pass some characteristics of themselves to the next generation. We do this through our genes, the special carriers of human traits. The genes that parents pass along are what make their children similar to others in their family, but also what make each child unique. These genes come from the male's sperm and the female's egg.

What Is the Male Reproductive System?

The male has reproductive organs, or genitals, that are both inside and outside the pelvis. The male genitals include:

the testicles (pronounced: TESS-tih-kulz)

the duct system, which is made up of the epididymis and the vas deferens

the accessory glands, which include the seminal vesicles and prostate gland

the penis

In a guy who has reached sexual maturity, the two oval-shaped testicles, or testes (pronounced: TESS-teez) make and store millions of tiny sperm cells.

The testicles are also part of the endocrine system because they make hormones, including testosterone (pronounced: tess-TOSS-tuh-rone). Testosterone is a major part of puberty in guys. As a guy makes his way through puberty, his testicles produce more and more of it. Testosterone is the hormone that causes boys to develop deeper voices, bigger muscles, and body and facial hair. It also stimulates the production of sperm.

Alongside the testicles are the epididymis and the vas deferens, which transport sperm. The epididymis (pronounced: ep-uh-DID-uh-miss) and the testicles hang in a pouch-like structure outside the pelvis called the scrotum. This bag of skin helps to regulate the temperature of testicles, which need to be kept cooler than body temperature to produce sperm. The scrotum changes size to maintain the right temperature. When the body is cold, the scrotum shrinks and becomes tighter to hold in body heat. When it's warm, it gets larger and floppier to get rid of extra heat. This happens without a guy ever having to think about it. The brain and the nervous system give the scrotum the cue to change size.

The accessory glands, including the seminal vesicles and the prostate gland, provide fluids that lubricate the duct system and nourish the sperm. The urethra (pronounced: yoo-REE-thruh) is the channel that carries the sperm (in fluid called semen) to the outside of the body through the penis. The urethra is also part of the urinary system because it is also the channel through which pee passes as it leaves the bladder and exits the body.

The penis is actually made up of two parts: the shaft and the glans. The shaft is the main part of the penis and the glans is the tip (sometimes called the head). At the end of the glans is a small slit or opening, which is where semen and pee exit the body through the urethra. The inside of the penis is made of a spongy tissue that can expand and contract.

The Male Reproductive System

Like other living things, human beings reproduce. It's what keeps the population going.

The Male Reproductive System

The male and female reproductive systems work together to make a baby. Click through this slideshow to see how the male reproductive system works.

The Male Reproductive System

The penis is made of two parts: the shaft (the main part) and the glans (the tip, sometimes called the head). The scrotum is a pouch-like structure that keeps the testicles at the right temperature.

The Male Reproductive System

The two testicles (or testes) produce sperm and the male sex hormone testosterone.

The Male Reproductive System

Next to each testicle, the epididymis is a tube where sperm is stored. From here, sperm are transported to the vas deferens.

The Male Reproductive System

Also called the ductus deferens, the vas deferens is a thin muscular tube that transports the sperm from the epididymis to the urethra.

The Male Reproductive System

The prostate gland is a walnut-sized gland that surrounds a portion of the urethra and produces some of the fluid in semen.

The Male Reproductive System

Located at the base of the bladder, the two seminal vesicles secrete a thick fluid that nourishes the sperm.

The bladder is the muscular sac that stores urine (pee) until it is released through the urethra.

The Male Reproductive System

The urethra is the tube that carries semen and urine out of the penis.

The Male Reproductive System

When the sperm and an egg meet in the female's reproductive system, the sperm fertilizes the egg, forming a zygote. The zygote becomes an embryo and then develops into a fetus.

The Male Reproductive System

After about 40 weeks, a baby is born.

All boys are born with a foreskin, a fold of skin at the end of the penis covering the glans. Some boys are circumcised, which means that a doctor or clergy member cuts away the foreskin. Circumcision is usually done during a baby boy's first few days of life. It's not medically necessary, but parents who choose to have their sons circumcised often do so based on religious beliefs, concerns about hygiene, or cultural or social reasons. Guys who have circumcised penises and those who don't are no different: All penises work and feel the same, regardless of whether the foreskin has been removed.

How Does the Male Reproductive System Work?

The male reproductive system:

makes semen (pronounced: SEE-mun)

releases semen into the reproductive system of the female during sexual intercourse

produces sex hormones, which help a boy develop into a sexually mature man during puberty

When a baby boy is born, he has all the parts of his reproductive system in place, but it isn't until puberty that he is able to reproduce. When puberty begins, usually between the ages of 9 and 15, the

pituitary gland- located near the brain - secretes hormones that stimulate the testicles to produce testosterone. The production of testosterone brings about many physical changes.

Although the timing of these changes is different for every guy, the stages of puberty generally follow a set sequence:

During the first stage of male puberty, the scrotum and testes grow larger.

Next, the penis becomes longer and the seminal vesicles and prostate gland grow.

Hair begins to grow in the pubic area and later on the face and underarms. During this time, the voice also deepens.

Guys also have a growth spurt during puberty as they reach their adult height and weight.

What Do Sperm Do?

A male who has reached puberty will produce millions of sperm cells every day. Each sperm is extremely small: only 1/600 of an inch (0.05 millimeters long). Sperm develop in the testicles within a system of tiny tubes called the seminiferous tubules. At birth, these tubules contain simple round cells. During puberty, testosterone and other hormones cause these cells to transform into sperm cells. The cells divide and change until they have a head and short tail, like tadpoles. The head contains genetic material (genes). The sperm move into the epididymis, where they complete their development.

The sperm then move to the vas deferens (pronounced: VAS DEF-uh-runz), or sperm duct. The seminal vesicles and prostate gland make a whitish fluid called seminal fluid, which mixes with sperm to form semen when a male is sexually stimulated. The penis, which usually hangs limp, becomes hard when a male is sexually excited. Tissues in the penis fill with blood and it becomes stiff and erect (an erection). The rigidity of the erect penis makes it easier to insert into the female's vagina during sex. When the erect penis is stimulated, muscles around the reproductive organs contract and force the semen through the duct system and urethra. Semen is pushed out of the male's body through his urethra - this process is called ejaculation. Each time a guy ejaculates, it can contain up to 500 million sperm.

What Is Conception?

If semen is ejaculated into a female's vagina, millions of sperm "swim" up from the vagina through the cervix and uterus to meet the egg in the fallopian tube. It takes only one sperm to fertilize the egg.

This fertilized egg is now called a zygote and contains 46 chromosomes - half from the egg and half from the sperm. Genetic material from the male and female combine so that a new individual can be created. The zygote divides again and again as it grows in the female's uterus, maturing over the course of the pregnancy into an embryo, a fetus, and finally a newborn baby.

Date reviewed: September 2023

More on this topic
For Teens

View more

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
What makes up a guy's reproductive system and how does it develop? Find the answers to these questions and more.

# data[].attributes.headline
Purposes of the Female Reproductive System

# data[].attributes.subject
Purposes of the Female Reproductive System

# data[].attributes.body
The vagina serves three purposes:

1. It's where the penis is inserted during sexual intercourse.
2. It's the pathway (the birth canal) through which a baby leaves a woman's body during childbirth.
3. It's the route through which menstrual blood leaves the body during periods.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
What Is Reproduction?

Reproduction is the process by which organisms make more organisms like themselves. But even though the reproductive system is essential to keeping a species alive, unlike other body systems, it's not essential to keeping an individual alive.

In the human reproductive process, two kinds of sex cells, or gametes (GAH-meetz), are involved. The male gamete, or sperm, and the female gamete, the egg or ovum, meet in the female's reproductive system. When sperm fertilizes (meets) an egg, this fertilized egg is called a zygote (pronounced: ZYE-goat). The zygote goes through a process of becoming an embryo and developing into a fetus.

The male reproductive system and the female reproductive system both are needed for reproduction.

Humans, like other organisms, pass some characteristics of themselves to the next generation. We do this through our genes, the special carriers of human traits. The genes that parents pass along are what make their children similar to others in their family, but also what make each child unique. These genes come from the male's sperm and the female's egg.

What Is the Female Reproductive System?

The external part of the female reproductive organs is called the vulva, which means covering. Located between the legs, the vulva covers the opening to the vagina and other reproductive organs inside the body.

The fleshy area located just above the top of the vaginal opening is called the mons pubis. Two pairs of skin flaps called the labia (which means lips) surround the vaginal opening. The clitoris, a small sensory organ, is located toward the front of the vulva where the folds of the labia join. Between the labia are openings to the urethra (the canal that carries pee from the bladder to the outside of the body) and vagina. When girls become sexually mature, the outer labia and the mons pubis are covered by pubic hair.

A female's internal reproductive organs are the vagina, uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries.

The vagina is a muscular, hollow tube that extends from the vaginal opening to the uterus. Because it has muscular walls, the vagina can expand and contract. This ability to become wider or narrower allows the vagina to accommodate something as slim as a tampon and as wide as a baby. The vagina's muscular walls are lined with mucous membranes, which keep it protected and moist.

The vagina serves three purposes:

1. It's where the penis is inserted during sexual intercourse.

2. It's the pathway (the birth canal) through which a baby leaves a woman's body during childbirth.

3. It's the route through which menstrual blood leaves the body during periods.

A very thin piece of skin-like tissue called the hymen partly covers the opening of the vagina. Hymens are often different from female to female. Most women find their hymens have stretched or torn after their first sexual experience, and the hymen may bleed a little (this usually causes little, if any, pain). Some women who have had sex don't have much of a change in their hymens, though. And some women's hymens have already stretched even before they have sex.

The vagina connects with the uterus, or womb, at the cervix (which means neck). The cervix has strong, thick walls. The opening of the cervix is very small (no wider than a straw), which is why a tampon can never get lost inside a girl's body. During childbirth, the cervix can expand to allow a baby to pass.

The uterus is shaped like an upside-down pear, with a thick lining and muscular walls - in fact, the uterus contains some of the strongest muscles in the female body. These muscles are able to expand and contract to accommodate a growing fetus and then help push the baby out during labor. When a woman isn't pregnant, the uterus is only about 3 inches (7.5 centimeters) long and 2 inches (5 centimeters) wide.

At the upper corners of the uterus, the fallopian tubes connect the uterus to the ovaries. The ovaries are two oval-shaped organs that lie to the upper right and left of the uterus. They produce, store, and release eggs into the fallopian tubes in the process called ovulation (pronounced: av-yoo-LAY-shun).

There are two fallopian (pronounced: fuh-LO-pee-un) tubes, each attached to a side of the uterus. Within each tube is a tiny passageway no wider than a sewing needle. At the other end of each fallopian tube is a fringed area that looks like a funnel. This fringed area wraps around the ovary but doesn't completely attach to it. When an egg pops out of an ovary, it enters the fallopian tube. Once the egg is in the fallopian tube, tiny hairs in the tube's lining help push it down the narrow passageway toward the uterus.

The ovaries (pronounced: OH-vuh-reez) are also part of the endocrine system because they produce female sex

hormones such as estrogen (pronounced: ESS-truh-jun) and progesterone (pronounced: pro-JESS-tuh-rone).

How Does the Female Reproductive System Work?

The female reproductive system enables a woman to:

produce eggs (ova)

have sexual intercourse

protect and nourish a fertilized egg until it is fully developed

give birth

Sexual reproduction couldn't happen without the sexual organs called the gonads. Most people think of the gonads as the male testicles. But both sexes have gonads: In females the gonads are the ovaries, which make female gametes (eggs). The male gonads make male gametes (sperm).

When a baby girl is born, her ovaries contain hundreds of thousands of eggs, which remain inactive until puberty begins. At puberty, the pituitary gland (in the central part of the brain) starts making hormones that stimulate the ovaries to make female sex hormones, including estrogen. The secretion of these hormones causes a girl to develop into a sexually mature woman.

Toward the end of puberty, girls begin to release eggs as part of a monthly period called the menstrual cycle. About once a month, during ovulation, an ovary sends a tiny egg into one of the fallopian tubes.

Unless the egg is fertilized by a sperm while in the fallopian tube, the egg leaves the body about 2 weeks later through the uterus - this is menstruation. Blood and tissues from the inner lining of the uterus combine to form the menstrual flow, which in most girls lasts from 3 to 5 days. A girl's first period is called menarche (pronounced: MEH-nar-kee).

It's common for women and girls to have some discomfort in the days leading to their periods. Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) includes both physical and emotional symptoms that many girls and women get right before their periods, such as:

PMS is usually at its worst during the 7 days before a girl's period starts and disappears after it begins.

Many girls also have belly cramps during the first few days of their periods caused by prostaglandins, chemicals in the body that make the smooth muscle in the uterus contract. These involuntary contractions can be dull or sharp and intense.

It can take up to 2 years from menarche for a girl's body to develop a regular menstrual cycle. During that time, her body is adjusting to the hormones puberty brings. On average, the monthly cycle for an adult woman is 28 days, but the range is from 23 to 35 days.

What Happens If an Egg Is Fertilized?

If a female and male have sex within several days of the female's ovulation, fertilization can happen. When the male ejaculates (when semen leaves the penis), a small amount of semen is deposited into the vagina. Millions of sperm are in this small amount of semen, and they "swim" up from the vagina through the cervix and uterus to meet the egg in the fallopian tube. It takes only one sperm to fertilize the egg.

About 5 to 6 days after the sperm fertilizes the egg, the fertilized egg (pronounced: zygote) has become a multicelled blastocyst. A blastocyst (pronounced: BLAS-tuh-sist) is about the size of a pinhead, and it's a hollow ball of cells with fluid inside. The blastocyst burrows itself into the lining of the uterus, called the endometrium. The hormone estrogen causes the endometrium (pronounced: en-doh-MEE-tree-um) to become thick and rich with blood. Progesterone, another hormone released by the ovaries, keeps the endometrium thick with blood so that the blastocyst can attach to the uterus and absorb nutrients from it. This process is called implantation.

As cells from the blastocyst take in nourishment, another stage of development begins. In the embryonic stage, the inner cells form a flattened circular shape called the embryonic disk, which will develop into a baby. The outer cells become thin membranes that form around the baby. The cells multiply thousands of times and move to new positions to eventually become the embryo (pronounced: EM-bree-oh).

After about 8 weeks, the embryo is about the size of a raspberry, but almost all of its parts - the brain and nerves, the heart and blood, the stomach and intestines, and the muscles and skin - have formed.

During the fetal stage, which lasts from 9 weeks after fertilization to birth, development continues as cells multiply, move, and change. The fetus (pronounced: FEE-tis) floats in amniotic (pronounced: am-nee-AH-tik) fluid inside the amniotic sac. The fetus gets oxygen and nourishment from the mother's blood via the placenta (pronounced: pluh-SEN-tuh). This disk-like structure sticks to the inner lining of the uterus and connects to the fetus via the umbilical (pronounced: um-BIL-ih-kul) cord. The amniotic fluid and membrane cushion the fetus against bumps and jolts to the mother's body.

Pregnancy lasts an average of 280 days - about 9 months. When the baby is ready for birth, its head presses on the cervix, which begins to relax and widen to get ready for the baby to pass into and through the vagina. Mucus has formed a plug in the cervix, which now loosesn. It and amniotic fluid come out through the vagina when the mother's water breaks.

When the contractions of labor begin, the walls of the uterus contract as they are stimulated by the pituitary hormone oxytocin (pronounced: ahk-see-TOE-sin). The contractions cause the cervix to widen and begin to open. After several hours of this widening, the cervix is dilated (opened) enough for the baby to come through. The baby is pushed out of the uterus, through the cervix, and along the birth canal. The baby's head usually comes first. The umbilical cord comes out with the baby. It's clamped and cut close to the navel after the baby is delivered.

The last stage of the birth process involves the delivery of the placenta, which at that point is called the afterbirth. After it has separated from the inner lining of the uterus, contractions of the uterus push it out, along with its membranes and fluids.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Reproduction is the process by which organisms make more organisms like themselves. But even though the reproductive system is essential to keeping a species alive, unlike other body systems, it's not essential to keeping an individual alive. In the human reproductive process, two kinds of sex cells, or gametes (GAH-meetz), are involved.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Page ID

17793

1. Offering to the Gods

2. Erectile Dysfunction

1. Causes of Erectile Dysfunction

2. Treatments for Erectile Dysfunction

3. Epididymitis

1. Acute vs. Chronic Epididymitis

1. Acute Epididymitis

2. Chronic Epididymitis

2. Treatment of Epididymitis

4. Male Reproductive Cancers

1. Prostate Cancer

1. How Prostate Cancer Occurs

2. Symptoms of Prostate Cancer

3. Risk Factors for Prostate Cancer

4. Diagnosing Prostate Cancer

5. Treatment of Prostate Cancer

2. Testicular Cancer

1. Signs and Symptoms of Testicular Cancer

2. Diagnosis of Testicular Cancer

3. Treatment of Testicular Cancer

5. Review

6. Explore More

7. Attributions

Offering to the Gods

The marble penis and scrotum depicted in Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\) comes from ancient Rome, during the period from about 200 BCE to 400 CE. During that time, offerings like this were commonly given to the gods by people with health problems, either in the hopes of a cure or as thanks for receiving one. The offerings were generally made in the shape of the afflicted body part. Scholars think this marble penis and scrotum may have been an offering given in hopes of - or thanks for - a cure for impotence, known medically today as erectile dysfunction.

Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): Votive male genitalia, Roman, 200 BCE-400 CE

Erectile Dysfunction

Erectile dysfunction (ED) is sexual dysfunction characterized by the regular and repeated inability of a sexually mature individual to obtain or maintain an erection. It is a common disorder that affects about 40 percent of people with penises.

Causes of Erectile Dysfunction

The penis normally stiffens and becomes erect when the columns of spongy tissue within the shaft of the penis (the corpora cavernosa and corpus spongiosum) become engorged with blood. Anything that hampers normal blood flow to the penis may, therefore, interfere with its potential to fill with blood and become erect. The normal nervous control of sexual arousal or penile engorgement may also fail and lead to problems obtaining or maintaining an erection

Specific causes of ED include both physiological and psychological causes. Physiological causes include the use of therapeutic drugs (such as antidepressants), aging, kidney failure, diseases (such as diabetes or multiple sclerosis), tobacco smoking, and treatments for other disorders (such as prostate cancer). Psychological causes are less common but may include stress, performance anxiety, or mental disorders. The risk of ED may also be greater in people with obesity, cardiovascular disease, poor dietary habits, and overall poor physical health. Having an untreated hernia in the groin may also lead to ED.

Treatments for Erectile Dysfunction

Treatment of ED depends on its cause or contributing factors. For example, for tobacco smokers, smoking cessation may bring significant improvement in ED. Improving overall physical health by losing weight and exercising regularly may also be beneficial. The most common first-line treatment for ED, however, is the use of oral prescription drugs, known by brand names such as Viagra® and Cialis®. These drugs help ED by increasing blood flow to the penis. Other potential treatments include topical creams applied to the penis, injection of drugs into the penis, or the use of a vacuum pump that helps draw blood into the penis by applying negative pressure. More invasive approaches may be used as a last resort if other treatments fail. These usually involve surgery to implant inflatable tubes or rigid rods into the penis.

Ironically, the world's most venomous spider -the Brazilian wandering spider (Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)) - may offer a new treatment for ED. The venom of this spider is known to cause priapism in humans. Priapism is a prolonged erection that may damage the reproductive organs and lead to infertility if it continues too long. Researchers are investigating one of the components of the spider's venom as a possible treatment for ED if taken in minute quantities.

Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\): The venom of a Brazilian wandering spider may be deadly, but one of its components might lead to a new treatment for ED.

Epididymitis

Epididymitis is inflammation of the epididymis. The epididymis is one of the paired organs within the scrotum where sperms mature and are stored. Discomfort or pain and swelling in the scrotum are typical symptoms of epididymitis, which is a relatively common condition, especially in young individuals. In the U.S. alone, more than half a million cases of epididymitis are diagnosed annually between the ages of 18 to 35.

Acute vs. Chronic Epididymitis

Epididymitis may be acute or chronic. Acute diseases are generally short-term conditions, whereas chronic diseases may last years - or even lifelong.

Treatment of Epididymitis

If a bacterial infection is suspected, both acute and chronic epididymitis are generally treated with antibiotics. For chronic epididymitis, antibiotic treatment may be prescribed for as long as four to six weeks to ensure the complete eradication of any possible bacteria. Additional treatments often include anti-inflammatory drugs to reduce inflammation of the tissues and painkillers to control the pain, which may be severe. Physically supporting the scrotum and applying cold compresses may also be recommended to help relieve swelling and pain.

Regardless of symptoms, treatment is important for both acute and chronic epididymitis, because major complications may occur otherwise. Untreated acute epididymitis may lead to an abscess - which is a buildup of pus - or to the infection spreading to other organs. Untreated chronic epididymitis may lead to permanent damage to the epididymis and testis, and it may even cause infertility.

Male Reproductive Cancers

Why does the Brazilian hospital pictured in Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\) have a huge blue mustache on its "face"? The mustache is a symbol of "Movember." This is an international campaign to raise awareness of prostate cancer, as well as money to fund prostate cancer research.

Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\): The mustache is a symbol for "Movember," a campaign against prostate cancer.

Prostate Cancer

The prostate gland is an organ located in the male pelvis. The urethra passes through the prostate gland after it leaves the bladder and before it reaches the penis. The function of the prostate is to secrete zinc and other substances into semen during ejaculation. In the United States, prostate cancer is the most common type of cancer and the second leading cause of cancer death in people carrying prostate gland. About 80 percent of American individuals with the prostate will have cancerous cells in their prostate gland by the age of 80.

Symptoms of Prostate Cancer

Early in the course of prostate cancer, there may be no symptoms. When symptoms do occur, they mainly involve urination, because the urethra passes through the prostate gland. The symptoms typically include frequent urination, difficulty starting and maintaining a steady stream of urine, blood in the urine, and painful urination. Prostate cancer may also cause problems with sexual function, such as difficulty achieving an erection or painful ejaculation.

Risk Factors for Prostate Cancer

Some factors that increase the risk of prostate cancer can be changed, and others cannot.

Risk factors that can be changed include a diet high in meat, a sedentary lifestyle, obesity, and high blood pressure.

Risk factors that cannot be changed include older age, a family history of prostate cancer, and African ancestry. Family history is an important risk factor, so genes are clearly involved. Many different genes have been implicated.

Diagnosing Prostate Cancer

The only definitive test to confirm a diagnosis of prostate cancer is a biopsy. In this procedure, a small piece of the prostate gland is surgically removed and then examined microscopically. A biopsy is done only after less invasive tests have found evidence that a patient may have prostate cancer.

A routine exam by a doctor may find a lump on the prostate, which might be followed by a blood test that detects an elevated level of prostate-specific antigen (PSA). PSA is a protein secreted by the prostate that normally circulates in the blood. Higher-than-normal levels of PSA can be caused by prostate cancer, but they may also have other causes. Ultrasound or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) might also be undertaken to provide images of the prostate gland and additional information about cancer.

Treatment of Prostate Cancer

The average age at which men are diagnosed with prostate cancer is 70. Prostate cancer typically is such a slow-growing cancer that elderly patients may not require treatment. Instead, the patients are watched carefully over the subsequent years to make sure the cancer isn't growing and posing an immediate threat - an approach that is called active surveillance. It is used for at least 50 percent of patients who are expected to die from other causes before their prostate cancer causes symptoms.

Treatment of younger patients - or those with more aggressively growing tumors - may include surgery to remove the prostate, chemotherapy, and/or radiation therapy (such as brachytherapy, see Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\)). All of these treatment options can have significant side effects, such as erectile dysfunction or urinary incontinence. Patients should learn the risks and benefits of the different treatments, and discuss them with their healthcare provider to decide on the best treatment options for their particular case.

Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\): Brachytherapy is a form of radiation therapy for prostate cancer. Radioactive "seeds" like the ones shown here are inserted into the prostate gland. The seeds give off radiation that kills cancer cells.

Testicular Cancer

Reproductive cancer that is rare and most commonly affects young individuals is testicular cancer. The testes are the paired reproductive organs in the scrotum that produce sperm and secrete testosterone. The risk of testicular cancer is about four to five times greater in individuals of European than African ancestry. The cause of this difference is unknown.

Review

1. What is erectile dysfunction? When does it occur?

2. Underlying causes of erectile dysfunction may include physiological and/or psychological factors. Identify some of these factors.

3. Discuss types of treatment for erectile dysfunction.

4. Define epididymitis. What is its most common cause?

5. Identify possible treatments for epididymitis. Why is treatment important, even when there are no symptoms?

6. Rank prostate cancer as a cause of cancer and cause of cancer death in men. What are some of the symptoms of prostate cancer?

7. List risk factors for prostate cancer.

8. How is prostate cancer detected?

9. In many cases, treatment for prostate cancer is unnecessary. Why? When is treatment necessary, and what are treatment options?

10. Testicular cancer is generally rare, but it is the most common cancer in one age group. What age group is it?

11. Identify possible signs and symptoms of testicular cancer.

12. How can testicular cancer be diagnosed?

13. Describe how testicular cancer is typically treated.

14. Which of the following is common in younger individuals (i.e. under age 39)?

1. prostate cancer

2. testicular cancer

3. epididymitis

4. B and C

15. A biopsy is important in cases of suspected:

1. epididymitis

2. testicular cancer

3. prostate cancer

4. B and C

LICENSED UNDER

Back to top

Was this article helpful?

Yes

No

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
22.5: Disorders of the Male Reproductive System

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Erectile dysfunction (ED) is a disorder characterized by the regular and repeated inability of a sexually mature male to obtain and maintain an erection. ED occurs when normal blood flow to the penis ...

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Page ID

17797

1. Cervical Cancer

1. Cervical Cancer Prevalence and Death Rates

2. Symptoms of Cervical Cancer

3. Cervical Cancer Causes and Risk Factors

4. Diagnosis of Cervical Cancer

5. Prevention of Cervical Cancer

6. Treatment of Cervical Cancer

2. Vaginitis

1. Causes of Vaginitis

2. Diagnosis of Vaginitis

3. Prevention of Vaginitis

4. Treatment of Vaginitis

3. Endometriosis

1. Signs and Symptoms of Endometriosis

2. Causes of Endometriosis

3. Diagnosis of Endometriosis

4. Treatment of Endometriosis

4. Summary

5. Review

6. Explore More

7. Attributions

Vaccinating Against Cancer

Can a vaccine prevent cancer? In the case of cervical cancer, it can. Cervical cancer is one of three disorders of the female reproductive system described in detail in this concept. Of the three, only cervical cancer can be prevented with a vaccine.

Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): Getting a vaccine

Cervical Cancer

Cervical cancer occurs when cells of the cervix (neck of the uterus) grow abnormally and develop the ability to invade nearby tissues or spread to other parts of the body, such as the abdomen or lungs. Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\) shows the location of the cervix and the appearance of normal and abnormal cervical cells when examined with a microscope.

Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\): Cancer of the cervix

Cervical Cancer Prevalence and Death Rates

Worldwide, cervical cancer is the second most common type of cancer (after breast cancer) and the fourth most common cause of cancer death. In the United States and other high-income nations, the widespread use of cervical cancer screening has detected many cases of precancerous cervical changes and has dramatically reduced rates of cervical cancer deaths. About three-quarters of cervical cancer cases occur in developing countries, where routine screening is less likely because of cost and other factors. Cervical cancer is also the most common cause of cancer death in low-income countries.

Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\): The presence of HPV may allow cervical cells with mutations to divide, resulting in the formation of a tumor.

Symptoms of Cervical Cancer

Early in the development of cervical cancer, there are typically no symptoms. As the disease progresses, however, symptoms are likely to occur. The symptoms may include abnormal vaginal bleeding, pelvic pain, or pain during sexual intercourse. Unfortunately, by the time symptoms start to occur, cervical cancer has typically progressed to a stage at which treatment is less likely to be successful.

Cervical Cancer Causes and Risk Factors

More than 90 percent of cases of cervical cancer are caused at least in part by human papillomavirus (HPV), which is a sexually transmitted virus that also causes genital warts. Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\) shows how HPV infection can cause cervical cancer by interfering with a normal cell division checkpoint. When HPV is not present, cervical cells containing mutations are not allowed to divide, so the cervix remains healthy. When HPV is present, however, cervical cells with mutations may be allowed to divide, leading to uncontrolled growth of mutated cells and the formation of a tumor.

Other risk factors for cervical cancer include smoking, a weakened immune system (for example, due to HIV infection), use of birth control pills, becoming sexually active at a young age, and having many sexual partners. However, these risk factors are less important than HPV infection. Instead, the risk factors are more likely to increase the risk of cervical cancer in individuals who are already infected with HPV. For example, among HPV-infected, current and former smokers have roughly two to three times the incidence of cervical cancer as non-smokers. Passive smoking is also associated with an increased risk of cervical cancer but to a lesser extent.

Diagnosis of Cervical Cancer

Diagnosis of cervical cancer is typically made by looking for microscopic abnormal cervical cells in a smear of cells scraped off the cervix. This is called a Pap smear. If cancerous cells are detected or suspected in the smear, this test is usually followed up with a biopsy to confirm the Pap smear results. Medical imaging (by CT scan or MRI, for example) is also likely to be done to provide more information, such as whether the cancer has spread.

Prevention of Cervical Cancer

It is now possible to prevent HPV infection with a vaccine. The first HPV vaccine was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration in 2006. The vaccine protects against the strains of HPV that have the greatest risk of causing cervical cancer. It is thought that widespread use of the vaccine will prevent up to 90 percent of cervical cancer cases. Current recommendations are to be given the vaccine between the ages of nine and 26. (All sexes should be vaccinated against HPV, because the virus may also cause cancer of the penis and certain other cancers.) The vaccine is effective only if it is given before HPV infection has occurred. Using condoms during sexual intercourse can also help prevent HPV infection and cervical cancer, in addition to preventing pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections (such as HIV).

Even for those who have received the HPV vaccine, there is still a small risk of developing cervical cancer. Therefore, it is recommended that individuals with cervix continue to be examined with regular Pap smears.

Treatment of Cervical Cancer

Treatment of cervical cancer generally depends on the stage at which the cancer is diagnosed, but it is likely to include some combination of surgery, radiation therapy, and/or chemotherapy. Outcomes of treatment depend largely on how early the cancer is diagnosed and treated. For surgery to cure cervical cancer, the entire tumor must be removed with no cancerous cells found at the margins of the removed tissue on microscopic examination. If cancer is found and treated very early when it is still in the microscopic stage, the five-year survival rate is virtually 100 percent.

Vaginitis

Vaginitis is inflammation of the vagina - and sometimes the vulva, as well. Symptoms may include a discharge that is yellow, gray, or green; itching; pain; and a burning sensation. There may also be a foul vaginal odor and pain or irritation with sexual intercourse.

Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\): The yeast Candida albicans - shown here growing on a culture plate - is one of the most common causes of vaginitis.

Causes of Vaginitis

About 90 percent of cases of vaginitis are caused by infection with microorganisms. Most commonly, vaginal infections are caused by the yeast Candida albicans (Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\)). Such infections are referred to as vaginal candidiasis. Other possible causes of vaginal infections include bacteria, especially Gardnerella vaginalis, and some single-celled parasites, notably the protist parasite Trichomonas vaginalis, which is usually transmitted through vaginal intercourse. The risk of vaginal infections may be greater in those who wear tight clothing, are taking antibiotics for another condition, use birth control pills, or have improper hygiene. Poor hygiene allows organisms that are normally present in the stool (such as yeast) to contaminate the vagina. Most of the remaining cases of vaginitis are due to irritation by - or allergic reactions to - various products. These irritants may include condoms, spermicides, soaps, douches, lubricants, and even semen. Using tampons or soaking in hot tubs may be additional causes of this type of vaginitis.

Diagnosis of Vaginitis

Diagnosis of vaginitis typically begins with symptoms reported by the patient. This may be followed by a microscopic examination or culture of the vaginal discharge in order to identify the specific cause. The color, consistency, acidity, and other characteristics of the discharge may be predictive of the causative agent. For example, infection with Candida albicans may cause a cottage cheese-like discharge with a low pH, whereas infection with Gardnerella vaginalis may cause a discharge with a fish-like odor and a high pH.

Prevention of Vaginitis

Prevention of vaginitis includes wearing loose cotton underwear that helps keep the vulva dry. Yeasts and bacteria that may cause vaginitis tend to grow best in a moist environment. It is also important to avoid the use of perfumed soaps, personal hygiene sprays, and douches, all of which may upset the normal pH and bacterial balance in the vagina. To help avoid vaginitis caused by infection with Trichomonas vaginalis, the use of condoms during sexual intercourse is advised.

Treatment of Vaginitis

The appropriate treatment of vaginitis depends on the cause. In many cases of vaginitis, there is more than one cause, and all of the causes must be treated to ensure a cure.

Yeast infections of the vagina are typically treated with topical anti-fungal medications, which are available over the counter. The medications may be in the form of tablets or creams that are inserted into the vagina. Depending on the particular medication used, treatment may involve one, three, or seven days of application.

Bacterial infections of the vagina are usually treated with antibiotics. These may be taken orally as pills or applied topically to the vagina in creams.

Trichomonas vaginalis infections of the vagina are generally treated with a single dose of an oral antibiotic. Sexual partners should be treated at the same time, and intercourse should be avoided for at least a week until both partners have completed treatment and been followed-up by a physician.

Endometriosis

Endometriosis is a disease in which endometrial tissue, which normally grows inside the uterus, grows outside of the uterus (Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\)). Most often, the endometrial tissue grows around the ovaries, Fallopian tubes, and uterus. In rare instances, the tissue may grow elsewhere in the body. The areas of endometriosis typically bleed each month during the menstrual period, and this often results in inflammation, pain, and scarring. An estimated six to ten percent of individuals with the uterus are believed to have endometriosis. It is most common in their thirties and forties, and only rarely occurs before menarche or after menopause.

Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\): In endometriosis, endometrial tissue may grow outside the uterus and cause health problems such as pain, bleeding, scarring, and infertility

Signs and Symptoms of Endometriosis

The main symptom of endometriosis is pelvic pain, which may range from mild to severe. There appears to be little or no relationship between the amount of endometrial tissue growing outside the uterus and the severity of the pain. For many with the disease, the pain occurs mainly during menstruation. However, nearly half of those affected have chronic pelvic pain. The pain of endometriosis may be caused by bleeding in the pelvis, which triggers inflammation. Pain can also occur from internal scar tissue that binds internal organs to each other.

Another problem often associated with endometriosis is infertility, or the inability to conceive or bear children. Among patients with endometriosis, up to half may experience infertility. Infertility can be related to scar formation or to anatomical distortions due to the abnormal endometrial tissue. Other possible symptoms of endometriosis may include diarrhea or constipation, chronic fatigue, nausea and vomiting, headaches, and heavy or irregular menstrual bleeding.

Figure \(\PageIndex{6}\): Laparoscopy: visually inspecting the abdomen for endometrial growths is the most reliable way to diagnose endometriosis

Causes of Endometriosis

The causes of endometriosis are not known for certain, but several risk factors have been identified, including a family history of endometriosis. People who have a genetic relationship with a person with endometriosis have about six times the normal risk of developing the disease themselves. It has been suggested that endometriosis results from mutations in several genes. It is likely that endometriosis is multifactorial, involving the interplay of several factors.

At the physiological level, the predominant idea for how endometriosis comes about is retrograde menstruation. This happens when some of the endometrial debris from a menstrual flow exits the uterus through the Fallopian tubes, rather than through the vagina. The debris then attaches itself to the outside of organs in the abdominal cavity, or to the lining of the abdominal cavity itself. Retrograde menstruation, however, does not explain all cases of endometriosis, so other factors are apparently involved. Suggestions include environmental toxins and autoimmune responses.

Diagnosis of Endometriosis

Diagnosis of endometriosis is usually based on self-reported symptoms and a physical examination by a doctor, often combined with medical imaging, such as ultrasonography. The only way to definitively diagnose endometriosis, however, is through visual inspection of the endometrial tissue. This can be done with a surgical procedure called laparoscopy, in which a tiny camera is inserted into the abdomen through a small incision (Figure \(\PageIndex{6}\)). The camera allows the physician to visually inspect the area where endometrial tissue is suspected.

Treatment of Endometriosis

The most common treatments for endometriosis are medications to control the pain, and surgery to remove the abnormal tissue. Frequently used pain medications are non-steroidal inflammatory drugs (NSAIDS), such as naproxen. Opiates may be used in cases of severe pain. Laparoscopy can be used to surgically treat endometriosis, as well as to diagnose the condition. In this type of surgery, an additional small incision is made to insert instruments that the surgeon can manipulate externally in order to burn (cauterize) or cut away the endometrial growths. In younger patients who want to have children, surgery is conservative to keep the reproductive organs intact and functional. However, with conservative surgery, endometriosis recurs in 20 to 40 percent of cases within five years of the surgery. In older patients who have completed childbearing, hysterectomy may be undertaken to remove all or part of the internal reproductive organs. This is the only procedure that is likely to cure endometriosis and prevent relapses.

Feature: My Human Body

A Pap smear is a method of cervical cancer screening used to detect potentially pre-cancerous and cancerous cells in the cervix. It is the most widely used screening test for this type of cancer, and it is very effective. The test may also detect vaginal infections and abnormal endometrial cells, but it is not designed for these purposes.

If you are sexually active, you should start receiving routine Pap smears by age 21. Because most cases of cervical cancer are caused by infection with human papillomavirus (HPV), which is a sexually transmitted infection, there is little or no benefit to screening people who have not had vaginal intercourse. Starting at age 21, general guidelines are for Pap smears to be repeated every three years until age 50, and then every five years until age 65. Screening may be discontinued after age 65 if the last three Pap smears were normal. If a person has a complete hysterectomy so they no longer have a cervix, there is also no need for further Pap smears. On the other hand, if a person has had a history of abnormal Pap smears or cancer, they will likely be screened more frequently. Pap smears can be done safely during the first several months of pregnancy and resumed about three months after childbirth. Generally, better results are obtained if Pap smears are not done during menstruation.

If you've never had a Pap smear, knowing what to expect may help prepare you for the procedure. The patient lies on the examining table with their feet in "stirrups" to hold the legs up and apart. An instrument called a speculum is inserted into the vagina to hold back the vaginal walls and give access to the cervix. A tiny amount of tissue is brushed off the cervix and smeared onto a microscope slide. The speculum is then removed, and the procedure is over. The slide is later examined under a microscope for abnormal cells. Some people experience light spotting or mild diarrhea after a Pap smear, but most have no lasting effects.

Pap smears are uncomfortable and may be somewhat painful for some people. there may also be a pelvic exam where doctors insert their fingers into the vagina during the Pap smear test. If you experience pain during a Pap smear, tell your health care provider. Many steps can be taken to minimize the pain, which might include using a smaller speculum, using warm instruments and a lubricant, and applying a topical anesthetic such as lidocaine to the cervix before obtaining the smear. Any pain is generally very brief, and the potential reward is worth it. Pap tests are estimated to reduce up to 80 percent of cervical cancer deaths. One of the lives saved could be your own.

Summary

Cervical cancer occurs when cells of the cervix grow abnormally and develop the ability to invade nearby tissues or spread to other parts of the body. Worldwide, cervical cancer is the second-most common type of cancer and the fourth most common cause of cancer deaths. Early on, cervical cancer often has no symptoms. Later, symptoms (such as abnormal vaginal bleeding and pain) are likely.

Most cases of cervical cancer occur because of infection with human papillomavirus (HPV), so the HPV vaccine is expected to greatly reduce the incidence of the disease. Other risk factors include smoking and a weakened immune system. A Pap smear can diagnose cervical cancer at an early stage. Where Pap smears are done routinely, cervical cancer death rates have fallen dramatically. Treatment of cervical cancer generally includes surgery, which may be followed by radiation therapy or chemotherapy.

Vaginitis is an inflammation of the vagina. A discharge is likely, and there may be itching and pain. About 90 percent of cases of vaginitis are caused by infection with microorganisms, typically by the yeast Candida albicans. A minority of cases are caused by irritants or allergens in soaps, spermicides, or douches.

Diagnosis of vaginitis may be based on characteristics of the discharge, which can be examined microscopically or cultured. Treatment of vaginitis depends on the cause and is usually an oral or topical anti-fungal or antibiotic medication.

Endometriosis is a disease in which endometrial tissue grows outside the uterus. This tissue may bleed during the menstrual period and cause inflammation, pain, and scarring. The main symptom of endometriosis is pelvic pain, which may be severe. Endometriosis may also lead to infertility.

Endometriosis is thought to have multiple causes, including genetic mutations. Retrograde menstruation may be the immediate cause of endometrial tissue escaping the uterus and entering the pelvic cavity. Endometriosis is usually treated with surgery to remove the abnormal tissue and medication for pain. If surgery is more conservative than hysterectomy, endometriosis may recur.

Review

1. What is cervical cancer? Worldwide, how prevalent is it, and how does it rank as a cause of cancer deaths?

2. Identify the symptoms of cervical cancer.

3. What are the causes of - and risk factors for - cervical cancer?

4. What roles can Pap smears and HPV vaccines play in preventing cervical cancer cases and cervical cancer deaths?

5. How is cervical cancer treated?

6. Define vaginitis and identify its symptoms.

7. What are some of the causes of vaginitis? Which cause is responsible for most of the cases?

8. How is vaginitis diagnosed and treated?

9. What is endometriosis, and what are its symptoms?

10. Discuss possible causes of endometriosis.

11. How is endometriosis treated? Which treatment is most likely to prevent the recurrence of the disorder?

12. Which disorder below is the most likely to cause symptoms, specifically during menstruation?

1. endometriosis

2. cervical cancer

3. HPV infection

4. vaginitis

13. True or False: Yeast infections are normally treated with antibiotics.

14. True or False: In the absence of HPV, there are no mutated cells in the cervix.

15. In the case of infection with Trichomonas vaginalis, why is the woman's sexual partner usually treated at the same time?

Explore More

Check out this video to learn about fibroids:

Ovarian cancer has often been called the "silent killer" because by the time it is discovered, it is often in advanced stages. Learn more here:

Back to top

There are no recommended articles.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
22.9: Disorders of the Female Reproductive System

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Page ID 17797 Cervical Cancer Cervical Cancer Prevalence and Death Rates Symptoms of Cervical Cancer Cervical Cancer Causes and Risk Factors Diagnosis of Cervical Cancer Prevention of Cervical Cancer Treatment of Cervical Cancer Vaginitis Causes of Vaginitis Diagnosis of Vaginitis Prevention of Vaginitis Treatment of Vaginitis Endometriosis Signs and Symptoms of Endometriosis Causes of Endometriosis Diagnosis of Endometriosis Treatment of Endometriosis Summary Review Explore More Attributions Vaccinating Against Cancer Can a vaccine prevent cancer?

# data[].attributes.body
Diseases such as Hypospadias, Hydrocele, Varicocele, Cryptorchidism, Benign prostatic hypertrophy (BPH), Transurethral resection of the prostate (TURP), and Prostate Specific Antigen (PSA) can affect the Male reproductive system.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Hypospadias - literally "below the fleshy spike." A condition in which the external urinary meatus (opening) opens anywhere below the tip of the penis rather than at the tip.

Hydrocele - a fluid filled sac partially surrounding the testis. Manifests itself as a swelling on the side of the scrotum. May cause discomfort. Can be surgically corrected. And, who would most likely be doing the surgery? A urologist!

Varicocele - dilated and twisted veins of the testis, sort of "hemorrhoids" of the scrotum! Manifests itself as a swelling on the side of the scrotum which may look and feel like a "bag of worms." May be surgically corrected if causing discomfort. This condition may also cause reduced sperm count and male sterility due to sluggish blood flow elevating testicular temperature.

Cryptorchidism - literally "hidden testicle." A condition of lack of descent of one or both testes into the scrotum. If not corrected, usually by surgery, before puberty, can lead to sterility and increased risk of testicular cancer.

Benign prostatic hypertrophy (BPH) - swelling of the prostate gland which surrounds the base of the male bladder and urethra causing difficulty urinating, dribbling, and nocturia (remember that word? See urinary system). The bane of old men! BPH becomes more common as men age.

Transurethral resection of the prostate (TURP) - the surgical cure for BPH. An instrument inserted through the penile urethra is used to partially cut away the prostate to relieve obstruction of the urinary tract.

Prostate Specific Antigen (PSA) - PSA is a marker protein for prostate cell secretions which can be detected with a lab test. A rising PSA may be an early sign of prostate cancer, although there may be other causes including false positive tests. How often should men get a PSA test? Check in with The Prostate Cancer Foundation.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Male reproductive system diseases | Des Moines University

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Hypospadias - literally "below the fleshy spike." A condition in which the external urinary meatus (opening) opens anywhere below the tip of the p ...

# data[].attributes.body
Diseases such as Endometriosis, Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), and a Prolapsed uterus can affect the Female reproductive system.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Endometriosis - a condition involving colonization of the abdominal/pelvic cavity with islands of endometrial tissue. Endometrium is the lining layer of the uterus which sloughs off with each menstruation. If endometrial tissue flushes up the uterine tube and spills into the abdomen (peritoneal cavity), the clots of endometrial tissue can attach to abdominal organs such as the bladder, rectum, intestinal loops and then cycle along with the uterus in response to monthly changes in ovarian hormones. Bleeding into the abdomen irritates the lining membrane, the peritoneum, and causes abdominal pain.

Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) - although males have a closed abdominal cavity, the female abdominal cavity has a direct anatomical path from the outside world via the female reproductive tract. Bacteria can make their way up the vagina, through the uterus, and traverse the uterine tubes which open into the abdominal cavity. Inflammation of the lining of the abdominal cavity, the peritoneum, causes abdominal pain. Although there are many potential causes of PID, gonorrheal infection is one of them. Chronic Inflammation of the uterine tubes can occlude them resulting in infertility.

Prolapsed uterus - the uterus is almost directly above the vagina. In fact, the cervix, the neck region, of the uterus extends into the upper vagina. Ligaments hold the uterus in proper position so that it does not prolapse or herniate into the vagina. Severe prolapse can result in the uterine cervix protruding from the vaginal opening. Surgical repair is typically required to restore the uterus to its proper anatomical position.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Female reproductive system diseases | Des Moines University

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Endometriosis - a condition involving colonization of the abdominal/pelvic cavity with islands of endometrial tissue. Endometrium is the lining layer of the uterus which sloughs off with each menstruation. If endometrial tissue flushes up the uterine tube and spills into the abdomen (peritoneal ...

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Common Reproductive Health Concerns for Women | Reproductive Health | CDC

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
A woman’s reproductive system is a delicate and complex system in the body. It is important to take steps to protect it from infections and injury, and prevent problems—including some long-term health problems.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Ways on how to take care the reproductive system

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.provider_name
National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Introduction

Reproductive health refers to the condition of male and female reproductive systems during all life stages. These systems are made of organs and hormone-producing glands, including the pituitary gland in the brain. Ovaries in females and testicles in males are reproductive organs, or gonads, that maintain health of their respective systems. They also function as glands because they produce and release hormones.

Reproductive disorders affect millions of Americans each year.

The following clinical trials are currently recruiting:

Female disorders include:

Early or delayed puberty.

Endometriosis, a condition where the tissue that normally lines the inside of the womb, known as the endometrium, grows outside of it.

Inadequate breastmilk supply.

Infertility or reduced fertility (difficulty getting pregnant).

Menstrual problems including heavy or irregular bleeding.

Polycystic ovary syndrome, ovaries produce more male hormones than normal.

Problems during pregnancy.

Uterine fibroids, noncancerous growths in a woman's uterus or womb.

Male disorders include:

Impotence or erectile dysfunction.

Low sperm count.

Scientists believe environmental factors likely play a role in some reproductive disorders. Research shows exposure to environmental factors could affect reproductive health in the following ways:

Exposure to lead is linked to reduced fertility in both men and women.

Mercury exposure has been linked to issues of the nervous system like memory, attention, and fine motor skills.

Exposure to diethylstilbestrol (DES), a drug once prescribed to women during pregnancy, can lead to increased risks in their daughters of cancer, infertility, and pregnancy complications.

Exposure to endocrine-disrupting compounds, chemicals that interfere with the body's hormones, may contribute to problems with puberty, fertility, and pregnancy.

What Is NIEHS Doing?

NIEHS conducts and funds research to understand environmental factors that may affect human reproductive health.

Heavy lifting or shift work and decreased fertility - Two occupational factors for women - lifting heavy loads or working non-daytime schedules - are associated with fewer eggs in their ovaries, which could indicate decreased fertility.

Chemical exposure and assisted reproductive technology - Exposure to high levels of flame retardants and plasticizers may have a negative impact on the outcomes of in vitro fertilization (IVF), a technology used to help people get pregnant. The researchers found that women with higher levels of these chemicals in their urine had lower levels of ovary cells necessary for reproduction, and fewer successful pregnancies and live births.

Chemical exposure and fetal growth - Exposure during pregnancy to phthalates and phenols, chemicals commonly found in plastics, as well as arsenic, a naturally occurring chemical found in food, air, soil, and water, could lead to low birth weight, early onset of puberty, and obesity.

BPA and breastfeeding - Women who had more contact with bisphenol A (BPA), an endocrine-disrupting chemical found in many plastics, were more likely to report that they stopped breastfeeding because they believed they were not producing enough breastmilk.

Phthalates, parabens, and phenols associated with early puberty - The daughters of pregnant women whose bodies had high levels of these chemicals (common in personal care products) started puberty earlier than normal.

Soy formula and menstrual pain - Girls who were fed soy formula as infants are more likely to develop heavy menstrual bleeding, severe menstrual pain, endometriosis, and larger fibroids later in life.

Vitamin D and uterine fibroids - Women with adequate levels of vitamin D are less likely to develop uterine fibroids than those with inadequate levels.

Uterine cancer - Women who used chemical hair-straightening products were at higher risk for uterine cancer compared to women who did not report using these products, according to research from The Sister Study that included more than 33,000 women. The researchers found that women who reported frequent use of hair-straightening products, defined as more than four times in the previous year, were more than twice as likely to go on to develop uterine cancer compared to those who did not use the products. Uterine cancer is relatively rare and accounts for about 3% of all new cancer cases. But it is the most common cancer of the female reproductive system.

NIEHS Research Efforts

Calorie Restriction, Environment, and Fitness: Reproductive Effects Evaluation (CaREFREE) - A study, conducted at NIEHS, that investigates how nutrition, fitness, and environmental factors affect women's menstrual cycles.

Environment and Reproductive Health (EARTH) Study - Conducted by grantees in Massachusetts, analyzes the effects of environmental contaminants on male and female fertility and pregnancy outcomes.

- A pregnancy cohort, led by Brigham and Women's Hospital in Boston, providing samples and data from more than 5,000 pregnancies for research projects such as investigating the association between environmental exposures and spontaneous preterm birth. It is one of the nation's largest pregnancy cohorts and specimen banks.

Pregnancy And Childhood Epigenetics (PACE) - A consortium of researchers at NIEHS, and around the world, that studies how environmental exposures in early life affect pregnancy outcomes and child health.

Reproductive System Disorders - NIEHS supports research that is developing a fuller understanding of the relationship between exposures and risk of reproductive health problems. For example, grantees are studying the effects of arsenic exposure on birth outcomes; ties between dioxin exposure and endometriosis; and the role endocrine disruptors might play in sperm chromosomal abnormalities.

Study of Environment, Lifestyle, and Fibroids (SELF) - A study conducted at NIEHS that uses ultrasound screening to identify risk factors for uterine fibroid development in African-American women.

Further Reading

Stories from the Environmental Factor (NIEHS newsletter)

Press Releases

Additional Resources

Common Reproductive Health Concerns for Women - Information and educational materials for women and health care providers provided by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).

Journal of Women's Health Maternal Morbidity and Mortality - In the U.S., women are more likely to die from complications related to pregnancy or childbirth than in peer nations, and many health inequities are present among those who die. This special issue offers a research road map to help end this public health crisis. It showcases the work of NIH including NIEHS, other federal agencies, and the scientific community.

Polycystic Ovary/Ovarian Syndrome - The NIH Office of Research on Women's Health published an informational booklet on PCOS, an endocrine disease affecting millions of women that is often missed during medical examination.

Related Health Topics

This content is available to use on your website.

Please visit NIEHS Syndication to get started.

The following clinical trials are currently recruiting:

Female disorders include:

Early or delayed puberty.

Endometriosis, a condition where the tissue that normally lines the inside of the womb, known as the endometrium, grows outside of it.

Inadequate breastmilk supply.

Infertility or reduced fertility (difficulty getting pregnant).

Menstrual problems including heavy or irregular bleeding.

Polycystic ovary syndrome, ovaries produce more male hormones than normal.

Problems during pregnancy.

Uterine fibroids, noncancerous growths in a woman's uterus or womb.

Male disorders include:

Impotence or erectile dysfunction.

Low sperm count.

Exposure to lead is linked to reduced fertility in both men and women.

Mercury exposure has been linked to issues of the nervous system like memory, attention, and fine motor skills.

Exposure to diethylstilbestrol (DES), a drug once prescribed to women during pregnancy, can lead to increased risks in their daughters of cancer, infertility, and pregnancy complications.

Exposure to endocrine-disrupting compounds, chemicals that interfere with the body's hormones, may contribute to problems with puberty, fertility, and pregnancy.

Calorie Restriction, Environment, and Fitness: Reproductive Effects Evaluation (CaREFREE) - A study, conducted at NIEHS, that investigates how nutrition, fitness, and environmental factors affect women's menstrual cycles.

Environment and Reproductive Health (EARTH) Study - Conducted by grantees in Massachusetts, analyzes the effects of environmental contaminants on male and female fertility and pregnancy outcomes.

- A pregnancy cohort, led by Brigham and Women's Hospital in Boston, providing samples and data from more than 5,000 pregnancies for research projects such as investigating the association between environmental exposures and spontaneous preterm birth. It is one of the nation's largest pregnancy cohorts and specimen banks.

Pregnancy And Childhood Epigenetics (PACE) - A consortium of researchers at NIEHS, and around the world, that studies how environmental exposures in early life affect pregnancy outcomes and child health.

Reproductive System Disorders - NIEHS supports research that is developing a fuller understanding of the relationship between exposures and risk of reproductive health problems. For example, grantees are studying the effects of arsenic exposure on birth outcomes; ties between dioxin exposure and endometriosis; and the role endocrine disruptors might play in sperm chromosomal abnormalities.

Study of Environment, Lifestyle, and Fibroids (SELF) - A study conducted at NIEHS that uses ultrasound screening to identify risk factors for uterine fibroid development in African-American women.

Common Reproductive Health Concerns for Women - Information and educational materials for women and health care providers provided by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).

Journal of Women's Health Maternal Morbidity and Mortality - In the U.S., women are more likely to die from complications related to pregnancy or childbirth than in peer nations, and many health inequities are present among those who die. This special issue offers a research road map to help end this public health crisis. It showcases the work of NIH including NIEHS, other federal agencies, and the scientific community.

Polycystic Ovary/Ovarian Syndrome - The NIH Office of Research on Women's Health published an informational booklet on PCOS, an endocrine disease affecting millions of women that is often missed during medical examination.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Reproductive health refers to the condition of male and female reproductive systems during all life stages. These systems are made of organs and hormone-producing glands, including the pituitary gland in the brain. Ovaries in females and testicles in males are reproductive organs, or gonads, that maintain health of their respective systems. They also function as glands because they produce and release hormones.

# data[].attributes.body
The reproductive system is a combination of internal and external organs in both males and females that work together to create offspring.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
(Image credit: <a href="http://www.shutterstock.com/gallery-380674p1.html"> Jezper</a>, <a href="http://www.shutterstock.com/index-in.mhtml">Shutterstock</a>)

The reproductive system is a collection of internal and external organs - in both males and females - that work together for the purpose of procreating, according to the Cleveland Clinic. Due to its vital role in the survival of the species, many scientists argue that the reproductive system is among the most important systems in the entire body.

How reproductive systems work

The male reproductive system consists of two major parts: the testes, where sperm are produced, and the penis, according to Merck Manuals. The penis and urethra belong to both the urinary and reproductive systems in males. The testes are carried in an external pouch known as the scrotum, where they normally remain slightly cooler than body temperature to facilitate sperm production.

The external structures of the female reproductive system include the clitoris, labia minora, labia majora and Bartholin's glands, according to the Cleveland Clinic. The major internal organs of the female reproductive system include the vagina and uterus - which act as the receptacle for semen - and the ovaries, which produce the female's ova. The vagina is attached to the uterus through the cervix, while the fallopian tubes connect the uterus to the ovaries. In response to hormonal changes, one ovum, or egg - or more in the case of multiple births - is released and sent down the fallopian tube during ovulation. If not fertilized, this egg is eliminated during menstruation.

(Image credit: National Institute of Health)

Fertilization occurs if a sperm enters the fallopian tube and burrows into the egg. While the fertilization usually occurs in the oviducts, it can also happen in the uterus itself. The egg then becomes implanted in the lining of the uterus, where it begins the processes of embryogenesis (in which the embryo forms) and morphogenesis (in which the fetus begins to take shape). When the fetus is mature enough to survive outside of the womb, the cervix dilates, and contractions of the uterus propel it through the birth canal.

Variations in the reproductive system

Around 49.5 percent of the world's population is female, so there are slightly more men on the planet than women, according to World Bank. A person's sex is determined by what reproductive system the person has, but it isn't always so simple. Some humans are born with parts of both male and female reproductive systems or incomplete reproductive organs of one sex or the other. Those with both male and female reproductive parts are considered intersex. Sometimes children are labeled as male or female, depending on how complete or functional one sexual reproductive system is over the other. Then, the other organs are removed.

Today, many parents are opting to leave both sets of reproductive organs intact with the intent of letting the child decide to keep or remove the various parts when they are older. A baby is born atypical genitalia in one in about 1,500 to 2,000 births, according to Intersex Society of North America.

Females that are born without all of their reproductive system are labeled as having Mayer Rokitansky Kuster Hauser Syndrome. This occurs in one in 5,000 female births, according to the Center for Young Women's Health.

Diseases of the female reproductive system

Many parts of the male and female reproductive systems can be affected by cancer. In females, cancer can attack the uterus, ovaries, breast and cervix, among other organs, according to the American Cancer Society.

Many experts have seen what they refer to as the "Angelina Jolie" effect, where women are taking proactive measures by having breasts and internal reproductive organs removed if they have a family history of cancer before there are signs of the disease. "With better genetic testing and screening, we have seen a number of women who are being more proactive about their reproductive health," said Dr. Shana Wingo, who specializes on gynecologic oncology at Arizona Oncology.

Ovarian cancer tends to have a poorer outcome than other gynecological cancers, Ross noted, because it is not typically diagnosed until it has progressed significantly. "There is no standard screening available for ovarian cancer, so it is very difficult to identify it early."

Tests to detect ovarian cancer, as well as cancer of the fallopian tube, and primary peritoneal cancer are currently being studied, according to the National Cancer Institute.

There are two tests used to screen for cervical cancer. The Pap test screens for cellular changes in the cervix called cytology, while the genital human papillomavirus (HPV) test identifies the presence of infection with high-risk HPV, the strains that are linked to cervical cancer, according to Dr. Charles Dubin, an OB/GYN in Santa Monica, Calif.

A recent study published by Cancer Cytopathology, found that HPV-only screening misses more cervical cancer in women than Pap-only or co-testing, based on approximately 8.6 million women ages 30 to 65. There is approximately a three-fold improvement in the cancer detection rate of co-testing compared to HPV only.

Current guidelines recommend that women first start getting the Pap test alone when they turn 21 and repeat every three years if the test is normal until age 30. A Pap-plus-HPV test, or co-testing, is recommended for women ages 30 to 65, and if both are negative repeated every five years, regardless of whether they have received HPV vaccination. "However, there is compelling scientific evidence that co-testing every three years misses less cases of cancer and pre-cancer than every five-year co-testing," Dubin noted.

While genital HPV is typically associated with females, it is the most common sexually transmitted infection. The majority of sexually active people in the United States - male and female - will have HPV at some time in their lives, but most will not experience any symptoms. In a small portion of women, it can result in cervical cancer and genital warts; in men, it can cause penile and anal cancer and genital warts, according to the NIH.

Both genders can develop sexually transmitted diseases, including genital herpes, gonorrhea and syphilis, according to the National Institutes of Health (NIH). HIV/AIDS, a disease of the immune system, is not exclusively transmitted through sexual contact; sexual activity is one of the ways that the HIV virus is spread.

For females, severe menstrual cramping, or dysmenorrheal, is the most common disease of the reproductive system occurs with a woman's monthly menstrual period, according to Dr. Sheryl Ross, OB/GYN and Women's Health Specialist at Providence Saint John's Health Center.

"Severe pain before or during your period can last anywhere from one to seven days and disrupt your normal day-to-day routines at school, work and socially," Ross noted. Diagnosis is made by the patient's medical history and a pelvic exam. The best treatment includes medications that block the effects of prostaglandins and include ibuprofen and naproxen. The birth control pill also works well in treating dysmenorrhea by decreasing the blood flow, Ross noted.

Another common disorder of the female reproductive system is a vaginal yeast infection, which is caused by a yeast fungus in the vagina. Most can be successfully treated with over-the-counter medications, according to WebMD.

Endometriosis is a condition where that normally lines the inside of your uterus - the endometrium - ends up outside of uterus, most commonly in the ovaries, bowel or the tissue lining your pelvis. The endometrial tissue becomes trapped, causing pain, according to the Mayo Clinic.

Pelvic inflammatory disease can involve an infection of any of the female reproductive organs, including the uterus and ovaries. Sexually transmitted diseases, such as gonorrhea and chlamydia, are typical causes of pelvic inflammatory disease, according to the NIH. "Any of these STIs can cause serious and potentially long term reproductive problems that include chronic pelvic pain and infertility," Ross said.

(Image credit: National Institute of Health)

Diseases of the male reproductive system

Of male-specific diseases of the reproductive system, prostate cancer is the most common, but men can also suffer from testicular and penile cancer, according to the American Cancer Society.

Treatment for prostate cancer depends on the age, severity of the disease and other health conditions of the patient. The usual treatments for prostate cancer are surgery, radiation therapy, watchful waiting, and hormonal treatment, according to the Cleveland Clinic.

Erectile dysfunction is a common condition that affects about one in 10 males on a long-term basis, the Cleveland Clinic noted. It can be linked to vascular disease, neurological disorders such as Multiple Sclerosis, trauma and psychological episodes.

Prostatitis typically involves swelling or inflammation of the prostate gland, according to the Mayo Clinic, and can cause painful or difficult urination and ejaculation. Nearly half of all men experience symptoms of prostatitis at some point during their lives.

Defining and treating infertility

Infertility is defined as a couple's inability to conceive after one year of unprotected intercourse. It can be caused by a condition in one partner or a combination of circumstances, according to the Mayo Clinic.

In males, infertility is a condition in which they produce no sperm cells (azoospermia) or too few sperm cells (oligospermia), or their sperm cells are abnormal or die before they can reach the egg. Causes range from chromosomal defects to hormonal imbalance to tumors. Lifestyle factors, such as drug and alcohol use, can also play role. In rare cases, infertility in men is caused by an inherited condition, such as cystic fibrosis, according to the Mayo Clinic.

In women, infertility is defined as a disorder of the reproductive system that hinders the body's ability to ovulate, conceive, or carry an infant to term.

Reproductive conditions are treated by a variety of specialists. In women, many issues are treated by obstetricians/gynecologists and for males, urologists handle many disorders of their reproductive systems. There are also infertility experts that treat couples who are unable to conceive and endocrinologists who treat hormonal disorders.
Additional reporting by Alina Bradford, Live Science contributor.
Editor's Note: If you'd like more information on this topic, we recommend the following book:

(opens in new tab)

Systems of the human body

Circulatory System: Facts, Function & Diseases

Digestive System: Facts, Function & Diseases

Endocrine System: Facts, Functions and Diseases

Immune System: Diseases, Disorders & Function

Lymphatic System: Facts, Functions & Diseases

Muscular System: Facts, Functions & Diseases

Nervous System: Facts, Function & Diseases

Respiratory System: Facts, Function & Diseases

Skeletal System: Facts, Function & Diseases

Skin: Facts, Diseases & Conditions

Urinary System: Facts, Functions & Diseases

Parts of the human body

Bladder: Facts, Function & Disease

Human Brain: Facts, Anatomy & Mapping Project

Colon (Large Intestine): Facts, Function & Diseases

Ears: Facts, Function & Disease

Esophagus: Facts, Function & Diseases

How the Human Eye Works

Gallbladder: Function, Problems & Healthy Diet

Human Heart: Anatomy, Function & Facts

Kidneys: Facts, Function & Diseases

Liver: Function, Failure & Disease

Lungs: Facts, Function & Diseases

Nose: Facts, Function & Diseases

Pancreas: Function, Location & Diseases

Small Intestine: Function, Length & Problems

Spleen: Function, Location & Problems

Stomach: Facts, Function & Diseases

The Tongue: Facts, Function & Diseases

Additional resources

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Reproductive System: Facts, Functions & Diseases

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
(Image credit: Jezper , Shutterstock ) The reproductive system is a collection of internal and external organs - in both males and females - that work together for the purpose of procreating, according to the Cleveland Clinic.

# data[].attributes.headline
Parts of the Body System and their Functions

# data[].attributes.subject
Parts of the Body System and their Functions

# data[].attributes.body
The male reproductive system consists of the testis, epididymis, sperm duct, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, urethra and the penis. Sperm is produced within the testes. The testes lie within the scrotum, which remains cooler than normal body temperature for the production of sperm.

The female reproductive system consists of the ovary, fallopian tube, uterus, cervix, vagina, and vulva. The ovary estrogen, progesterone and ovum for egg production. The fallopian tubes carry the eggs to the uterus.

# data[].attributes.body
“Many parts of the male and female reproductive systems can be affected by cancer. In females, cancer can attack the uterus, ovaries, breast and cervix, among other organs. Of male-specific diseases of the reproductive system, prostate cancer is the most common, but men can also suffer from testicular and penile cancer, according to the American Cancer Society.”

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
(Image credit: <a href="http://www.shutterstock.com/gallery-380674p1.html"> Jezper</a>, <a href="http://www.shutterstock.com/index-in.mhtml">Shutterstock</a>)

The reproductive system is a collection of internal and external organs - in both males and females - that work together for the purpose of procreating, according to the Cleveland Clinic. Due to its vital role in the survival of the species, many scientists argue that the reproductive system is among the most important systems in the entire body.

How reproductive systems work

The male reproductive system consists of two major parts: the testes, where sperm are produced, and the penis, according to Merck Manuals. The penis and urethra belong to both the urinary and reproductive systems in males. The testes are carried in an external pouch known as the scrotum, where they normally remain slightly cooler than body temperature to facilitate sperm production.

The external structures of the female reproductive system include the clitoris, labia minora, labia majora and Bartholin's glands, according to the Cleveland Clinic. The major internal organs of the female reproductive system include the vagina and uterus - which act as the receptacle for semen - and the ovaries, which produce the female's ova. The vagina is attached to the uterus through the cervix, while the fallopian tubes connect the uterus to the ovaries. In response to hormonal changes, one ovum, or egg - or more in the case of multiple births - is released and sent down the fallopian tube during ovulation. If not fertilized, this egg is eliminated during menstruation.

(Image credit: National Institute of Health)

Fertilization occurs if a sperm enters the fallopian tube and burrows into the egg. While the fertilization usually occurs in the oviducts, it can also happen in the uterus itself. The egg then becomes implanted in the lining of the uterus, where it begins the processes of embryogenesis (in which the embryo forms) and morphogenesis (in which the fetus begins to take shape). When the fetus is mature enough to survive outside of the womb, the cervix dilates, and contractions of the uterus propel it through the birth canal.

Variations in the reproductive system

Around 49.5 percent of the world's population is female, so there are slightly more men on the planet than women, according to World Bank. A person's sex is determined by what reproductive system the person has, but it isn't always so simple. Some humans are born with parts of both male and female reproductive systems or incomplete reproductive organs of one sex or the other. Those with both male and female reproductive parts are considered intersex. Sometimes children are labeled as male or female, depending on how complete or functional one sexual reproductive system is over the other. Then, the other organs are removed.

Today, many parents are opting to leave both sets of reproductive organs intact with the intent of letting the child decide to keep or remove the various parts when they are older. A baby is born atypical genitalia in one in about 1,500 to 2,000 births, according to Intersex Society of North America.

Females that are born without all of their reproductive system are labeled as having Mayer Rokitansky Kuster Hauser Syndrome. This occurs in one in 5,000 female births, according to the Center for Young Women's Health.

Diseases of the female reproductive system

Many parts of the male and female reproductive systems can be affected by cancer. In females, cancer can attack the uterus, ovaries, breast and cervix, among other organs, according to the American Cancer Society.

Many experts have seen what they refer to as the "Angelina Jolie" effect, where women are taking proactive measures by having breasts and internal reproductive organs removed if they have a family history of cancer before there are signs of the disease. "With better genetic testing and screening, we have seen a number of women who are being more proactive about their reproductive health," said Dr. Shana Wingo, who specializes on gynecologic oncology at Arizona Oncology.

Ovarian cancer tends to have a poorer outcome than other gynecological cancers, Ross noted, because it is not typically diagnosed until it has progressed significantly. "There is no standard screening available for ovarian cancer, so it is very difficult to identify it early."

Tests to detect ovarian cancer, as well as cancer of the fallopian tube, and primary peritoneal cancer are currently being studied, according to the National Cancer Institute.

There are two tests used to screen for cervical cancer. The Pap test screens for cellular changes in the cervix called cytology, while the genital human papillomavirus (HPV) test identifies the presence of infection with high-risk HPV, the strains that are linked to cervical cancer, according to Dr. Charles Dubin, an OB/GYN in Santa Monica, Calif.

A recent study published by Cancer Cytopathology, found that HPV-only screening misses more cervical cancer in women than Pap-only or co-testing, based on approximately 8.6 million women ages 30 to 65. There is approximately a three-fold improvement in the cancer detection rate of co-testing compared to HPV only.

Current guidelines recommend that women first start getting the Pap test alone when they turn 21 and repeat every three years if the test is normal until age 30. A Pap-plus-HPV test, or co-testing, is recommended for women ages 30 to 65, and if both are negative repeated every five years, regardless of whether they have received HPV vaccination. "However, there is compelling scientific evidence that co-testing every three years misses less cases of cancer and pre-cancer than every five-year co-testing," Dubin noted.

While genital HPV is typically associated with females, it is the most common sexually transmitted infection. The majority of sexually active people in the United States - male and female - will have HPV at some time in their lives, but most will not experience any symptoms. In a small portion of women, it can result in cervical cancer and genital warts; in men, it can cause penile and anal cancer and genital warts, according to the NIH.

Both genders can develop sexually transmitted diseases, including genital herpes, gonorrhea and syphilis, according to the National Institutes of Health (NIH). HIV/AIDS, a disease of the immune system, is not exclusively transmitted through sexual contact; sexual activity is one of the ways that the HIV virus is spread.

For females, severe menstrual cramping, or dysmenorrheal, is the most common disease of the reproductive system occurs with a woman's monthly menstrual period, according to Dr. Sheryl Ross, OB/GYN and Women's Health Specialist at Providence Saint John's Health Center.

"Severe pain before or during your period can last anywhere from one to seven days and disrupt your normal day-to-day routines at school, work and socially," Ross noted. Diagnosis is made by the patient's medical history and a pelvic exam. The best treatment includes medications that block the effects of prostaglandins and include ibuprofen and naproxen. The birth control pill also works well in treating dysmenorrhea by decreasing the blood flow, Ross noted.

Another common disorder of the female reproductive system is a vaginal yeast infection, which is caused by a yeast fungus in the vagina. Most can be successfully treated with over-the-counter medications, according to WebMD.

Endometriosis is a condition where that normally lines the inside of your uterus - the endometrium - ends up outside of uterus, most commonly in the ovaries, bowel or the tissue lining your pelvis. The endometrial tissue becomes trapped, causing pain, according to the Mayo Clinic.

Pelvic inflammatory disease can involve an infection of any of the female reproductive organs, including the uterus and ovaries. Sexually transmitted diseases, such as gonorrhea and chlamydia, are typical causes of pelvic inflammatory disease, according to the NIH. "Any of these STIs can cause serious and potentially long term reproductive problems that include chronic pelvic pain and infertility," Ross said.

(Image credit: National Institute of Health)

Diseases of the male reproductive system

Of male-specific diseases of the reproductive system, prostate cancer is the most common, but men can also suffer from testicular and penile cancer, according to the American Cancer Society.

Treatment for prostate cancer depends on the age, severity of the disease and other health conditions of the patient. The usual treatments for prostate cancer are surgery, radiation therapy, watchful waiting, and hormonal treatment, according to the Cleveland Clinic.

Erectile dysfunction is a common condition that affects about one in 10 males on a long-term basis, the Cleveland Clinic noted. It can be linked to vascular disease, neurological disorders such as Multiple Sclerosis, trauma and psychological episodes.

Prostatitis typically involves swelling or inflammation of the prostate gland, according to the Mayo Clinic, and can cause painful or difficult urination and ejaculation. Nearly half of all men experience symptoms of prostatitis at some point during their lives.

Defining and treating infertility

Infertility is defined as a couple's inability to conceive after one year of unprotected intercourse. It can be caused by a condition in one partner or a combination of circumstances, according to the Mayo Clinic.

In males, infertility is a condition in which they produce no sperm cells (azoospermia) or too few sperm cells (oligospermia), or their sperm cells are abnormal or die before they can reach the egg. Causes range from chromosomal defects to hormonal imbalance to tumors. Lifestyle factors, such as drug and alcohol use, can also play role. In rare cases, infertility in men is caused by an inherited condition, such as cystic fibrosis, according to the Mayo Clinic.

In women, infertility is defined as a disorder of the reproductive system that hinders the body's ability to ovulate, conceive, or carry an infant to term.

Reproductive conditions are treated by a variety of specialists. In women, many issues are treated by obstetricians/gynecologists and for males, urologists handle many disorders of their reproductive systems. There are also infertility experts that treat couples who are unable to conceive and endocrinologists who treat hormonal disorders.
Additional reporting by Alina Bradford, Live Science contributor.
Editor's Note: If you'd like more information on this topic, we recommend the following book:

(opens in new tab)

Systems of the human body

Circulatory System: Facts, Function & Diseases

Digestive System: Facts, Function & Diseases

Endocrine System: Facts, Functions and Diseases

Immune System: Diseases, Disorders & Function

Lymphatic System: Facts, Functions & Diseases

Muscular System: Facts, Functions & Diseases

Nervous System: Facts, Function & Diseases

Respiratory System: Facts, Function & Diseases

Skeletal System: Facts, Function & Diseases

Skin: Facts, Diseases & Conditions

Urinary System: Facts, Functions & Diseases

Parts of the human body

Bladder: Facts, Function & Disease

Human Brain: Facts, Anatomy & Mapping Project

Colon (Large Intestine): Facts, Function & Diseases

Ears: Facts, Function & Disease

Esophagus: Facts, Function & Diseases

How the Human Eye Works

Gallbladder: Function, Problems & Healthy Diet

Human Heart: Anatomy, Function & Facts

Kidneys: Facts, Function & Diseases

Liver: Function, Failure & Disease

Lungs: Facts, Function & Diseases

Nose: Facts, Function & Diseases

Pancreas: Function, Location & Diseases

Small Intestine: Function, Length & Problems

Spleen: Function, Location & Problems

Stomach: Facts, Function & Diseases

The Tongue: Facts, Function & Diseases

Additional resources

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Reproductive System: Facts, Functions & Diseases

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
(Image credit: Jezper , Shutterstock ) The reproductive system is a collection of internal and external organs - in both males and females - that work together for the purpose of procreating, according to the Cleveland Clinic.

# data[].attributes.headline
How to care and maintain a healthy human body system

# data[].attributes.subject
How to care and maintain a healthy human body system

# data[].attributes.body
Balanced diet

Hydration

Exercise

Sleep

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Discusses ways to keep the reproductive system healthy as well as ways to maintain overall health.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Reproductive System, Part 1 - Female Reproductive System: Crash Course Anatomy & Physiology #40

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Reproductive System, Part 2 - Male Reproductive System: Crash Course Anatomy & Physiology #41