# data[].attributes.body
Xiaoqian Cheng, Wen Wang, Tao Yu, Zhuyan Ren, “Damage Analysis of 12 May 2008 Sichuan Earthquake With Satellite Data,” SPIE 6, (2008) https://www.spiedigitallibrary.org/conference-proceedings-of-spie/7154/71540B/Damage-analysis-of-12-May-2008-Sichuan-earthquake-with-satellite/10.1117/12.804843.short#_=_.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Damage analysis of 12 May 2008 Sichuan earthquake with satellite data

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The devastating earthquake (Ms=8.0) of 12 May 2008 in Sichuan, China struck the whole world. To detect the large
damaged area in less time and identify seismogenic structure, remote sensing technology is strongly recommended. This
paper attempts to focus on seismic area to analyze the earthquake damage from different aspects. Firstly, pre- and
post-earthquake Landsat TM/ETM images, CBERS-02B CCD images, DEM and relating data is used to observe ground
changes. The analysis assumption is testified by the Tangjia Mountain dammed lake in Beichuan county and landslide in
Anxian county in relative news and reports. Furthermore, Radarsat data is used to complement the analysis, since it
could provide the seismic area surface deformation and a better 3-D vision. Also specific information of local fault,
landslide and sub-block features in seismic area could be observed and got, which helps to perfect the damage analysis.
All these analysis results could be useful for improving and revising the interpretations of geological, geodetic and
seismological data. Finally, the possibility of estimating and inducing earthquake damage using remote sensing data is
discussed.

# data[].attributes.body
<citation>

first name, last name, "article name",Journal name*Vol#*,no.*ed.#*(pub.yr.):pg#,url.

Gregory S. Paul, "JSTOR," Bio Science 39, no.3(1989), 162-172: https://www.jstor.org/journal/bioscience

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Giant Meteor Impacts and Great Eruptions: Dinosaur Killers? on JSTOR

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Gregory S. Paul, Giant Meteor Impacts and Great Eruptions: Dinosaur Killers?, BioScience, Vol. 39, No. 3 (Mar., 1989), pp. 162-172

# data[].attributes.body
Spanish flu 1918

Patrick Berche, "The Spanish Flu," Science Direct Vol 51, Ed: 3, (2022): https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0755498222000203

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
About ScienceDirect
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2011 Tohoku Earthquake Tsunami

Shunichi Koshimura,

Satomi Hayash,

and Hideomi Gokon,

"The impact of the 2011 Tohoku Earthquake Tsunami Disaster and Implications to the Reconstruction" Science Direct Vol 54, Ed #4 (July 24, 2012): pg 560-572, url: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S003808061400064X#s0005

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Open Archive in partnership with Japanese Geotechnical Society

Abstract

The authors conducted a comprehensive study to identify the impact of the 2011 Tohoku tsunami disaster and to understand the lessons towards the reconstruction of Tohoku to build tsunami-resilient community. First, the authors identified the extent of tsunami inundation zone by field measurement and satellite remote sensing. A specific index for optical satellite images was applied for the extraction of tsunami inland penetration calibrated with the ground truth data (field survey data). Second, an integrated investigation of field measurement and aerial photo and video inspections with spatial information sciences was performed to understand the hydrodynamic aspect of tsunami inland penetration with a form of tsunami flow velocity and hydrodynamic force, and the preliminary results lead to new understandings of structural vulnerability against the 2011 tsunami with a form of tsunami fragility curve and an implication for land use management and relocation planning to reconstruct resilient coastal communities.

View Abstract

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The impact of the 2011 Tohoku earthquake tsunami disaster and implications to the reconstruction

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Open Archive in partnership with Japanese Geotechnical Society The authors conducted a comprehensive study to identify the impact of the 2011 Tohoku tsunami disaster and to understand the lessons towards the reconstruction of Tohoku to build tsunami-resilient community. First, the authors identified the extent of tsunami inundation zone by field measurement and satellite remote sensing.

# data[].attributes.body
Yang, L., Liu, S., Liu, J. et al, "COVID-19: immunopathogenesis and Immunotherapeutics.," Sig Transduct Target 5, 128, 2020 , https://www.nature.com/articles/s41392-020-00243-2#citeas

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
COVID-19: immunopathogenesis and Immunotherapeutics - Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy - COVID-19: immunopathogenesis and Immunotherapeutics

# data[].attributes.body
The Great Black Death

<Citation>

A.R. Bridbury , "The Black Death" The Economic History Review 26, No.4, (1973):577-592

https://www.jstor.org/stable/2593699

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
A. R. Bridbury, The Black Death, The Economic History Review, Vol. 26, No. 4 (1973), pp. 577-592

# data[].attributes.body
Hurricane Sandy

Amanda Hunt, John Manuel, "Hurricane Sandy and Her Lasting Environmental Impacts," Earth Jurisprudence & Envtl. Just. J. 6 (2016): 82

https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/earjujo6&div=4&id=&page=

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
About | HeinOnline

Law Journal Library | HeinOnline

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6 Earth Jurisprudence & Envtl. Just. J. 82 (2016)
Hurricane Sandy and Her Lasting Environmental Impacts

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profiles profiles most

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.keywords[]
hurricane sandy and her lasting
              environmental impacts

                           *amanda hunt

                         i. introduction

     more than three years have passed since hurricane sandy;
estimated to be nearly 900 to 1

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.keywords[]
made landfall along the
u.s. mid-atlantic and northeast coasts on october 29

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.keywords[]
filling
even subway stations in new york city with saltwater.2 in new york
city and new jersey alone

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.keywords[]
the storm damaged or destroyed more than
375

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.keywords[]
000 housing units.3 strong winds knocked over trees and roughly
4.5 million people were left without power in new york city and new
jersey alone.4 the total damage was estimated to be around $65 billion

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.keywords[]
which makes it the second costliest storm to hit the united states.5
     killing nearly 117 people in the united states alone

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.keywords[]
hurricane
sandy was the deadliest of the 2012 atlantic hurricane season.6 to aid
in response and recovery of hurricane sandy's aftermath

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the obama
administration requested $60.4 billion.7 roughly $3 billion of the


*amanda hunt

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.keywords[]
this date in science: hurricane sandy hits u.s. northeast

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.keywords[]
http://earthsky.org/earth/this-date-in-science-hurricane-sandy-hits-u-s-
northeast.
    2 id.
    3  john manuel

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the long road to recovery: environmental health impacts of
hurricane sandy

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.keywords[]
environmental health perspectives (may     1

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.keywords[]
supra note 1.
    5 id.
    6  josh siegel

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home is where the heartache is: hurricane sandy victims still
not    recovered

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hurricane sandy: disaster aid request too big

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.keywords[]
the
heritage         foundation          (dec.         13

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Learn about HeinOnline, a premier online research platform providing access to multidisciplinary current and historical documents.

# data[].attributes.body
The Ice Age

<Citation>

W. Richard Peltier, "Ice Age Paleotopography" Science 265, no. 5169 (1994): 195-201https://www.science.org/doi/abs/10.1126/science.265.5169.195

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.provider_name
American Association for the Advancement of Science

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
A gravitationally self-consistent theory of postglacial relative sea level change is used to infer the variation of surface ice and water cover since the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). The results show that LGM ice volume was approximately 35 percent…

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The Bubonic Plague

<Citation>

Colin McEvedy, "The Bubonic Plague" Scientific American Vol. 258, No. 2 (FEBRUARY 1988): pp. 118-123 (6 pages) https://www.jstor.org/stable/24988987

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The Bubonic Plague

https://www. jstor .org/stable/24988987

Scientific American is the authority on science and technology for a general audience, with coverage that explains how research changes our understanding of the world and shapes our lives. First published in 1845, Scientific American is the longest continuously published magazine in the US. The magazine has published articles by more than 150 Nobel Prize-winning scientists and built a loyal following of influential and forward thinking readers. The archives of Scientific American include articles penned by Albert Einstein, Thomas Edison, Jonas Salk, Marie Curie, Stephen Hawking, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Stephen Jay Gould, Bill Gates, and more.

Founded in 1845, Scientific American is the oldest continuously published magazine in the US and the leading authoritative publication for science and technology in the general media. Scientific American is published by Springer Nature, a leading global research, educational and professional publisher, home to an array of respected and trusted brands providing quality content through a range of innovative products and services. Springer Nature was formed in 2015 through the merger of Nature Publishing Group, Palgrave Macmillan, Macmillan Education and Springer Science+Business Media.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Bubonic Plague https://www. jstor .org/stable/24988987 Scientific American is the authority on science and technology for a general audience, with coverage that explains how research changes our understanding of the world and shapes our lives. First published in 1845, Scientific American is the longest continuously published magazine in the US.

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Benjamin Lindquist, “The Art of Text-to-Speech,” Critical Inquiry 50, no. 2 (2023): 230, https://doi.org/10.1086/727651.

Zhang, Ziyang, Tricia A. Stadnyk, and Donald H. Burn. “Identification of a Preferred Statistical Distribution for At-Site Flood Frequency Analysis in Canada.” Canadian Water Resources Journal / Revue Canadienne Des Ressources Hydriques 45 (2019): 43–58. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/07011784.2019.1691942.

# data[].attributes.body
Akitune Imamura," Volcanoes Driving Volcanic Dust Abundantly to an Extraordinary Altitude," Proceedings of the Japan Academy 23, no. 1-11 (1947):105-110,https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/pjab1945/23/1-11/23_1-11_105/_article/-char/ja/

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Volcanoes Driving Volcanic Dust Abundantly to an Extraordinary Altitude

# data[].attributes.body
Bubonic Plague

Alexandre Yersin, "Bubonic Pleague symptom", #, no. #2(1835):Page#, url

https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/21590-bubonic-plague

# data[].attributes.body
Lisetta Giacomelli, Annamaria Perrotta, Roberto Scandone, Claudio Scarpati, “The eruption of Vesuvius of 79 AD and its impact on human environment in Pompeii,” Episodes, Vol. 2, no. 3 (2003): 234, https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/34400709/episodes-libre.pdf?1407541034=&response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DThe_eruption_of_Vesuvius_of_79_AD_and_it.pdf&Expires=1724946003&Signature=Lt59gEKWhBkp4aPttUnm7qGDhNoFDkyQHT0ZLZ5S~kSF0P0hunea6ooMgshJZyRTpIz1hgdgJaZQ0YcNpzTfmCH6q~GiUvKS2OdS~zYlNzzpagaS03XDg-TPAMwAkQpTrzGhOY2U8HGdqvhBG6FBfuiZN5FdqPwAriJMA~1yOBTI5PM8wl-bVcpkBqf9T6GfODImZNjjLqtX6-fY3cQhBRs6tgYIXhE0-Q6Ig7ZuREtMYsZj0epZMOHWQQe2axR6Usp41y7a9BKEMg3Y1zAhfi7FZ1knGA0kjQK1A-Rm0eMWQWwr~oujU-ZdH1dHt4eBQAjinqGfMPwRYNhtknFZig__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA.

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Hurricane Harvey was a Devastating hurricane that was one of the most deadliest cyclone ever and costing billions.

David J. Frame, Michael F. Wehner,Ilan Noy,Suzanne M. Rosier,"The economic costs of Hurricane Harvey attributable to climate change," Climatic Change,"no.#160(2020):Page 271-281,https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10584-020-02692-8?trk=public_post_comment-text#auth-Ilan-Noy-Aff3.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The economic costs of Hurricane Harvey attributable to climate change - Climatic Change

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Hurricane Harvey is one of the costliest tropical cyclones in history. In this paper, we use a probabilistic event attribution framework to estimate the costs associated with Hurricane Harvey that are attributable to anthropogenic influence on the climate system. Results indicate that the “fraction of attributable risk” for the rainfall from Harvey was likely about at least a third with a preferable/best estimate of three quarters. With an average estimate of damages from Harvey assessed at about US$90bn, applying this fraction gives a best estimate of US$67bn, with a likely lower bound of at least US$30bn, of these damages that are attributable to the human influence on climate. This “bottom-up” event-based estimate of climate change damages contrasts sharply with the more “top-down” approach using integrated assessment models (IAMs) or global macroeconometric estimates: one IAM estimates annual climate change damages in the USA to be in the region of US$21.3bn. While the two approaches are not easily comparable, it is noteworthy that our “bottom-up” results estimate that one single extreme weather event contributes more to climate change damages in the USA than an entire year by the “top-down” method. Given that the “top-down” approach, at best, parameterizes but does not resolve the effects of extreme weather events, our findings suggest that the “bottom-up” approach is a useful avenue to pursue in future attempts to refine estimates of climate change damages.

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https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=4836c829ab68f37d744a70642bb6f6b45968693e

David Cline, "Noah's Flood,"

Faith And Thought 100, no 2 (1972):128-142.

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Fahad Mohammed, Hermann M. Fritz, Jeseon Yoo, "Lituya Bay Landslide Impact Generated Mega-Tsunami 50th Anniversary," in Tsunami Science Four Years after the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami (Birkhäuser Basel, 2009): 153-175, https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-0346-0064-4_9

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The Lake Nyos Eruption

Samuel J. Freeth, "The Lake Nyos Disaster," Natural Disasters in West and Central Africa, Vieweg+Teubner Verlag, Wiesbaden, 1992).

# data[].attributes.body
June 30th, 1908, a huge explosion took place in Podkamennaya Tunguska River. thousands of tree's and bushes were burnt in the explosion. Some people consider this explosion in the atmosphere.

https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-540-32711-0_18

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In the early morning of 30th June 1908, a powerful explosion over the basin of the Podkamennaya Tunguska River (Central Siberia), devastated 2 150 ± 50 km2 of Siberian taiga. Eighty millions trees were flattened, a great number of trees and bushes were burnt in…

# data[].attributes.body
Rhoda Margesson and Maureen Taft-Morales, “Haiti Earthquake: Crisis and Response,” Congressional Research Service, (2010): 1-68, https://www.everycrsreport.com/files/20100308_R41023_ef960f2289f3fff5c83e5c956e08a84e9f45f747.pdf.

# data[].attributes.body
Alexa R. Van Eaton, Cassandra M. Smith,

Michael Pavolonis, and

Ryan Said, “Eruption dynamics leading to a volcanic thunderstorm—The January 2020 eruption of Taal Volcano, Philippines" Geology 50, no. 2 (2022): 491-495, https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article-abstract/50/4/491/610898/Eruption-dynamics-leading-to-a-volcanic

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Eruption dynamics leading to a volcanic thunderstorm—The January 2020 eruption of Taal volcano, Philippines | Geology | GeoScienceWorld

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Abstract. Advances in global lightning detection have provided novel ways to characterize explosive volcanism. However, researchers are still at the early

# data[].attributes.body
Dr. María del Rocío García Sánchez,

Dr Noemi Ascencio López,

Dr Joaquín Reyes Añorve,

Mtra Guadalupe Godínez Alarcón.

International Journal of Scientific Research and Management (IJSRM) , Vol. 12 No. 07 (2024)

# data[].attributes.body
https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/34400709/episodes-libre.pdf?1407541034=&response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DThe_eruption_of_Vesuvius_of_79_AD_and_it.pdf&Expires=1724945315&Signature=Dp0xtfydEkHqvg6VicBAKeS9s17jHOmr6zHy173TTHCJH3PQ9zMUneHCYLDp12T40ntu-lVgqn~Dpska6OBi-PEZH5x04flPG5xJScNmBrztT8ALYDcGdNXCj9sfWQusHJ4Dp6GYL4pxX1ks6imjQsGHaeYc5-Lqi0gYYaZaVDG2-F27hlJ9RVeDtC0jyr2-8jWh61JXz527chHTAMf12wK-m63bQR0SgRyTNoawDqvZMlCml6eHqPf70Q12FP-n2e29dr6AYCYZFnUbwJnu80TTjjV0Cent0IrDzIx-sQq-LwZ3Wk~SWRvYdwX5LhTMLy3GjQDL4QsNpdJL3W8cuA__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA

Lisetta Giacomelli, Annamaria Perrotta, Roberto Scandone, and Claudio Scarpati, "The Eruption of Vesuvius of 79 AD and its Impact on Human Environment in Pompeii," Episodes-Newsmagazine of the International Union of Geological Sciences 26, no. 3 (2003): 235-238.

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hurricane otis was a hurricane that when it hit nobody was ready or prepared for it so it made it way more fatal and it distoroyed many buildings and fancy homes and apartments along with many other things

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Affections of Hurricane OTIS and Its Impact on Human Rights | Valley International Journal Digital Library

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The fury of Hurricane OTIS on October 24, 2023 exposed pre-existing social inequalities and inequities in Acapulco, Guerrero, Mexico. OTIS also evidenced the omissions before the hurricane, the abandonment during the hurricane and the inabilities after the hurricane of the authorities in charge of protecting society. The actions of the three levels of government were reprehensible before and after the impact of the hurricane. First, because there was no timely warning plan, the places of refuge were not made known, much less the level of destruction that the hurricane would cause. And after the hurricane, there was no response plan or protocols to respond to the most basic needs and protect citizens. This work was carried out under an inductive-deductive method in which a documentary review of national and international legislation was carried out, as well as literature related to the topic of research on natural disasters and human rights after Hurricane OTIS in Acapulco, Guerrero. , Mexico. The problems that subsequently prevailed and that affected the human rights of citizens were primarily the lack of prevention, safety and security, health, work, housing, public services, pollution and unequal access in the provision of aid. Definitely, aid in an emergency situation due to a natural disaster must be based on the perspective of human rights in order to provide relevant and effective assistance that fully meets all the basic needs of the victims for their prompt recovery and reconstruction.

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There is an extinction happening right now and you probably have never even heard of it it is called the silent extinction. You way have heard of people trying to keep animals from going extinct but conservation efforts do not work for bugs they are currently dying out this will be a catastrophic event ending in the death of most animals including us. Bugs are needed to keep all ecosystems going.

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The Lake Nyos Eruption killed over 1250 people and over 30000 livestock. This event was caused by the release of a toxic aerosol of water and carbon dioxide.Raising carbon dioxide rich water started to release gas as the hydrostatic pressure decreased.

://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-663-05239-5_8

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The Lake Nyos disaster, which killed an estimated 1250 people on the 21st August 1986, was caused by the release of a toxic aerosol of water and carbon dioxide.

Lake Nyos is stable, under normal circumstances, despite being highly charged with carbon dioxide, as it was both before and, to a lesser extent, after the disaster. This is a consequence of an increase in water density with depth, due to dissolved carbon dioxide (and other solutes), which is greater than the density decrease due to the thermal gradient.

During each wet season a slightly dense but metastable layer of cold water builds up on the lake surface and the prevailing winds can cause this layer to migrate and thicken towards the southern part of the lake. What disturbed the lake's stable stratification in 1986 can never be known, for certain, but if the winds were more steady and persistent than usual it is possible that the surface layer thickened more than usual, became unstable, and sank. A large volume of cold water sinking in the southern part of the lake could have created a circulation cell within the upper part of the lake and cause gas-rich water to rise in the north-eastern part of the lake.

Raising carbon dioxide rich water started to release gas as the hydrostatic pressure decreased. As the exsolved bubbles rose, they increased the convective flow and helped to drag more gas oversaturated water towards the surface. The rising water was cooled, partly by the exsolution of gas and partly by the adiabatic expansion of that gas, and sank to progressively greater depths as the rate of gas release, and consequent cooling, increased. The sequence thus fed on itself and led rapidly to a runaway degassing of part of the lake. At the surface the vigorous release of gas generated a wave of water which swept into the valleys to the south. The gas itself was not only cold, when it was released, but some of the water accompanying it was transformed into a fine mist, thus generating the cold dense aerosol of water and carbon dioxide which swept down the valleys to the north, through Nyos and on to Subum, Cha and Fang, leaving death and devastation in its wake.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Lake Nyos disaster, which killed an estimated 1250 people on the 21st August 1986, was caused by the release of a toxic aerosol of water and carbon dioxide. Lake Nyos is stable, under normal circumstances, despite being highly charged with carbon dioxide, as it...

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The silent extinction

Fonseca, C.R, "The Silent Mass Extinction of Insect Herbivores in Biodiversity Hotspots," Conservation Biology, 23 (2009): 1507-1515. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2009.01327.x

Carlos Roberto Fonseca

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Volcanoes Driving Volcanic Dust Abundantly to an Extraordinary Altitude

# data[].attributes.body
In the year 1918 the virus spread throughout Europe,North America, and Asia in a 12 month s about 500 million infected and around 50-100 million killed due to the virus worldwide. This virus's name is Influenza. Due to its rapid growths in the 1918's we were able to study the virus and we are now ready for further pandemics into the future.

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In the year 1918 the virus spread throughout Europe,North America, and Asia in a 12 month s about 500 million infected and around 50-100 million killed due to the virus world wide

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General influenza epidemiology

It is postulated that 10% of the worldwide population is infected by an influenza virus each year, resulting in a total economic burden of $87.1 billion USD [ 7, 8]. As a testament to the significant toll posed by influenza on public health and healthcare systems, the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimated that from 2010 to 2015, influenza infections resulted in 9.23-35.6 million illnesses and 139,000-707,000 hospitalizations annually in the US alone [ 9]. It has been suggested that children are likely the primary transmitters of influenza [ 10]. Lethal influenza infections are primarily associated with high risk populations, including infants (< 1 year), the elderly (> 65 years), and individuals with pre-existing comorbidities, including chronic respiratory abnormalities, cardiac disease, immunodeficiency, and pregnancy [ 11, 12]. Mortality in children and young adults is generally low [ 3]. Symptoms manifest as a sudden high fever, headache, pharyngitis, cough, myalgia, nausea, vomiting, and fatigue, which generally resolve within 7 days in healthy adults [ 11, 13]. Severe and/or lethal disease is typically associated with viral pneumonia or secondary bacterial infections in the lower respiratory tract [ 3].

A history of influenza pandemics

To be considered a pandemic, an influenza virus must: i) spread globally from a distinct location with high rates of infectivity resulting in increased mortality; and ii) the hemagglutinin (HA) cannot be related to influenza strains circulating prior to the outbreak nor have resulted from mutation [ 14, 15]. It should also be appreciated that prior to the first isolation of a human influenza virus in 1933, the cause of influenza outbreaks and pandemics could only be inferred based on physiological symptoms of disease, along with the speed and breadth at which illness was spread [ 15].

As early as 412 BC, Hippocrates, the father of modern medicine, described the first known account of an influenza-like illness in his sixth "Book of Epidemics" [ 16, 17]. Here, he recounted an annual recurring upper respiratory tract infection characterized by pharyngitis, coryza, and myalgia which peaked around the winter solstice [ 18]. This seasonal epidemic occurred in Perinthus, a northern port town located in what is now Turkey, and is referred to as the "Cough of Perinthus" [ 16]. It has been suggested that potential pandemics may have occurred in 1510 and 1557; however, it is unanimously agreed that the first documented influenza pandemic occurred in 1580, resulting in high morbidity [ 15, 19]. The virus originated in Asia, before spreading to Africa, and then simultaneously spreading from both continents to Europe. It reportedly spread across the entire European continent within 6 months, before eventually reaching the Americas [ 19, 20]. Two pandemics were recorded in the eighteenth century. The first began in Russia in 1729, eventually moving across the entirety of Europe within 6 months and, ultimately, across the known world over the following 3 years [ 20, 21, 22, 23]. The second pandemic began in China in 1781, before spreading to Russia and, subsequently, across all of Europe. Interestingly, this second pandemic had a high proclivity for young adults [ 24]. Two major pandemics also occurred throughout the nineteenth century. The first began in 1830 in China, with subsequent spread to Southeast Asia, Russia, Europe, and North America and had a low overall mortality rate [ 15, 19, 20, 23]. A second pandemic emerged in Russia in 1889 and spread rapidly to Europe and North America, circumnavigating the globe in just 4 months [ 25, 26]. The virus, suggested to be of subtype H3N8, reappeared at least 3 more times in successive years resulting in an estimated 1 million global fatalities [ 20, 23, 26, 27].

Four influenza pandemics have occurred over the past century (Fig. 1). The 1918-1919 Spanish flu pandemic, subtype H1N1, resulted in an estimated 50-100 million deaths worldwide and will be discussed in detail in the following sections. The 1957-1958 Asian flu pandemic, subtype H2N2, originated in China in February 1957 and spread throughout Asia and then globally by the summer. Case fatality rates were approximately 0.67% with 1-2 million deaths worldwide [ 20, 28, 29, 30, 31]. Just a decade later, the 1968-1970 Hong Kong flu pandemic, subtype H3N2, emerged in China in July 1968 and spread throughout Europe, North America, and Australia by early 1969 [ 25]. Although mortality rates were low, the pandemic would ultimately claim between 500,000 and 2 million lives [ 25]. In April 2009, the 2009-2010 swine flu pandemic, subtype H1N1, began with nearly simultaneous outbreaks in Mexico and the US, before spreading globally over the next 6 weeks. While the 2009-2010 pandemic had a low associated case fatality rate, resulting in 284,000 deaths worldwide, it had devastating effects on global economies and healthcare networks [ 25, 32]. Conventionally, influenza pandemics result in the extinction of previously circulating virus strains; however, this view was complicated by events in 1977. Although H1N1 was replaced by H2N2 as the circulating strain following the 1957-1958 Asian flu pandemic, a descendant of the 1918 virus "re-emerged" suspiciously in 1977, likely as a result of a man-made event, and established itself as a co-circulating strain, along with the reassortant H3N2 virus (following the 1968-1970 Hong Kong flu pandemic) [ 4, 33]. The suspicious "re-emergence" of a descendant of the 1918 virus in 1977 has been postulated to have been the result of a man-made event. This hypothesis has gained traction, as both the HA and NA of the re-emerged virus show incredible similarity to a 1950 reference virus, and it is unlikely that this strain was maintained in an animal reservoir for almost two decades without having undergone detectable mutation [ 33]. In 2009, a triple reassortment (made up of avian, swine, and human influenza genes) pandemic H1N1 jumped from pigs to humans, resulting in the co-circulation of three influenza strains [ 34].

Timeline of Influenza Pandemics from 1918 Onwards. Four pandemics have occurred over the last century (1918, 1957, 1968 and 2009). Circulation of H1N1 was reinitiated in 1977 and has therefore been added to this timeline. Grey arrows designate the circulating or co-circulating strains during the interpandemic periods

The first wave of the 1918 pandemic

One hundred years following its emergence, the origin of the 1918 pandemic influenza virus remains shrouded in mystery. The 1918 pandemic began early in the final year of the First World War. Whereas prior pandemics had spread largely along trade routes, the global context of the war enabled greater viral spread facilitated by the mass mobilisation of military personnel and civilians [ 25, 35]. This was further augmented by the poor health and sanitation conditions found within trenches along the frontlines of the War, facilitating disease transmission [ 36]. Public knowledge regarding the severity of the pandemic was hindered, as many news agencies were barred from writing about the global health threat, instead reporting solely on morale boosting subjects [ 37]. However, as Spain was a neutral party in the War, newspapers were able to report on the devastating effects that the 1918 pandemic virus was exhibiting in Spain. Thus, it was generally perceived that this devastating illness originated in Spain, resulting in the pandemic being incorrectly labeled as "the Spanish flu" [ 37].

A century following its emergence, there remains a relative paucity of knowledge regarding the ancestry and regional origin of the 1918 virus. Sequence analysis suggests that the virus was derived from an avian-like influenza virus and that all eight gene segments likely evolved in parallel [ 34, 38]. Analyses of influenza virus genome sequences also suggest that the initial entry of the 1918 precursor virus into human circulation began in 1915 and did not appear to have jumped directly from an avian source [ 4, 38, 39]. However, improved understanding regarding the emergence of the 1918 virus, as well as factors (biological, social, environmental) that contributed to viral transmission and pathogenesis, have been vital to the development of current epidemic and pandemic influenza outbreak response efforts. Descendants of the 1918 pandemic influenza virus strain have been the cause of almost every seasonal influenza A infection worldwide over the past century [ 4]. Additionally, each of the pandemics occurring in 1957, 1968, and 2009 were caused by descendants of the 1918 pandemic influenza virus strain, earning the 1918 viral strain the nickname "The Mother of all Pandemics" [ 4].

Investigations concerning the origins of the first wave of the pandemic, beginning in March 1918, have primarily focused on the US and China, though recently it has been suggested that the origin may have been an outbreak of a respiratory disease misidentified as pneumonic plague in China [ 15, 36, 40]. Humphries suggests that the dissemination of labourers from China to assist Allied war efforts during this outbreak resulted in the inadvertent spread of the virus to Europe [ 36]. From 1916 to 1918, the route of travel to Europe for the labourers included checkpoints in Singapore, Durban, Cape Town, North Africa, and Canada. Additional reports of the first wave of the virus in the spring of 1918 suggest that the pandemic originated with Chinese workers at Camp Funston, Kansas, where the workers began suffering from 2 to 3 day fevers, gastrointestinal symptoms, and general weakness [ 37, 41]. Within 3 weeks 1100 soldiers had been hospitalized, and thousands more had received out-patient treatment [ 41]. The illness was able to spread to other military camps within the US, before traversing the Atlantic Ocean via soldiers supporting Allied operations in Europe. The US Army reported that from March-May 1918, 11.8% of US soldiers were hospitalized due to this unidentified respiratory illness [ 41]. While illness rates were high during this initial wave, mortality rates were largely similar to seasonal outbreaks of influenza. Spain reported that the mortality rates for pneumonia and influenza was only 0.065% [ 37]. Although there was some acceptance that this new illness was indeed influenza, this was not generally accepted [ 37]. Radusin reported that although the physiological symptoms were similar to influenza, the illness was too mild and short-lasting with minimal complications for it to be influenza [ 37]. Infections began to subside in many regions by the early summer [ 41]. The generally accepted lines of spread of the first and second waves of the 1918 virus are provided in Fig. 2.

The First and Second Waves of the 1918-1919 Pandemic. First outbreaks and foci of second waves of the pandemic are labeled as red and purple circles, respectively. The lines of spread of the first and second waves of the pandemic are labeled as purple dashed lines and red solid lines, respectively. Map images were derived and/or modified from Servier Medical Arts under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. Adapted from Nicholson et al. [ 80]

The second and third waves of the pandemic

In mid-August of 1918, reports suggesting a second wave of this severe illness began to surface [ 35]. In some regions, primarily Northern Europe, the period between the end of the first wave and the beginning of the second wave was incredibly short, making the two waves almost indistinguishable [ 4, 42]. This second wave, occurring from September-November 1918, was responsible for the majority of illnesses and fatalities associated with the pandemic. Although the origins of the first wave continue to be debated, the origin of the second wave is generally agreed to be the harbour town of Plymouth in Southern England, which allowed the pandemic influenza virus strain to easily spread to the rest of the world [ 25]. Ships from Plymouth were dispatched to Freetown, Sierra Leone in August 1918, which allowed the virus to spread across the African continent [ 25]. New Zealand soldiers, who stopped in Freetown on their way to and from the war front in Europe, facilitated transfer of the pandemic virus to New Zealand [ 25]. From Plymouth, the virus also spread to Boston, from which it was able to disseminate across the rest of North America resulting in > 1 million fatalities over the ensuing four months [ 5, 25]. This second wave spread globally throughout the fall of 1918 with illness seen first amongst military personnel and, subsequently, within the general population [ 25, 35].

The second wave of the 1918 pandemic differed from the first in that much higher morbidity and mortality rates were reported, with the majority of all fatalities associated with the pandemic occurring during this wave [ 4]. Ultimately, the pandemic would result in an estimated 500 million infections worldwide (~ 1/3 of the world's population at the time) and a case fatality rate > 2.5%, more than 25 times higher than any other pandemic [ 4, 37]. As a testament to the severity of this second wave, during the fall of 1918, the first 4-5 pages of Spanish newspapers were filled with obituaries of those who had succumbed to the pandemic virus [ 35]. Further, reports from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania stated that across 31 hospitals in the city, every hospital bed was occupied by patients with influenza [ 35]. The pandemic was especially problematic in highly isolated communities where many individuals had limited contact with prior influenza strains, thus lacking any pre-existing immunity. For example, some Inuit settlements reported case mortality rates as high as 70%, while certain communities in Africa were completely decimated [ 35]. Interestingly, individuals who had been infected throughout the first wave seemed to be protected against this secondary wave, and recent analyses have suggested that these individuals had up to 94% protection throughout the fall wave [ 4, 41].

A third and final wave of the pandemic appeared in most of the world in the early months of 1919 [ 4, 5, 35]. This final wave generally overlapped the first wave in terms of regional distribution; however, it seemed to spare areas where the second wave had been especially severe. Overall, morbidity rates were lower throughout this final influenza wave; however, mortality rates are believed to have been just as severe as the second wave [ 4, 35]. Three successive annual winter post-pandemic recurrences occurred following the third wave of the pandemic with continually decreasing mortality rates, in particular within those 20-40 years of age [ 43].

Pathophysiology of the 1918 pandemic influenza virus

Classically, fatal influenza infections are primarily associated with the very young (< 5 years) and the elderly (> 65 years) resulting in a characteristic "U"-shaped mortality curve (Fig. 3). Interestingly, however, the 1918-1919 H1N1 influenza pandemic mortality curve exhibits a "W"-shape due to excess mortality in young adults 20-40 years of age due to influenza-related illness. It has been postulated that the increased disease severity in young adults was likely associated with immune status due to the lack of pre-existing immunity in this population [ 44]. Further, more than 99% of fatal infections occurred in those < 65 years of age and nearly 50% of all influenza-related deaths during the 1918 pandemic were in those aged 20-40 years [ 4]. Influenza and pneumonia fatality rates in those aged 15-34 years were more than 20 times higher than in previous years and absolute risk of influenza-related death was higher in those < 65 years of age than those > 65 years old [ 4]. It is still not fully understood why this occurred, but it is possible that an antigenically similar influenza strain circulated prior to 1889, providing a level of protection against the novel H1N1 pandemic strain to those born prior to 1889 [ 4]. Additionally, archaeserological and epidemiological evidence have shown that an H3 subtype influenza virus may have been responsible for the 1889 influenza pandemic, which circulated until the emergence of the 1918 pandemic virus, leaving those individuals who had not been exposed to an H1 subtype virus highly susceptible to the pandemic virus [ 34]. It has also been suggested that the generation of an excessive inflammatory response ("cytokine storm") in healthy, young adults infected with the 1918 virus may have contributed to the excess mortality seen within this age group [ 34]. Recent in vivo studies with the 1918 virus have shown a marked upregulation of inflammatory cytokines, along with the suppression of important antiviral immune responses [ 34, 45]. In addition, other influenza strains, such as fatal H5N1 infections in humans, have also been associated with the deleterious consequences of an excessive inflammatory response [ 46]. Ultimately, the case fatality rate was so severe in young adults during the 1918-1919 pandemic that the average life expectancy rate in the US dropped by ~ 12 years [ 47].

Association of Age with Influenza Mortality Prior to and During the 1918-1919 pandemic. Influenza- and pneumonia-specific mortality in the United States is plotted for 1911-1917 (blue line) and for 1918 (red line) [ 81, 82]. Means with standard deviations are presented for the pre-pandemic mortality curve. Adapted from Taubenberger and Morens [ 4]

Physiological symptoms of the 1918 pandemic virus generally lasted for 7 days and were described as feeling cold, shivering, high fever, weakness, nausea, loss of appetite, pharyngitis, cough, and bloodshot eyes [ 35]. In some patients, a short "rebound" to normal health would occur that was followed by an aggressive recrudescence of disease and, ultimately, death [ 35]. Similar to the 1889 pandemic, the majority of fatal infections resulted from respiratory complications. However, it has also been demonstrated that excess influenza fatalities during the 1918-1919 pandemic were associated with an acute aggressive bronchopneumonia (including epithelial and vascular necrosis, hemorrhage, edema, and bacterial-associated variant pathology within the lungs) and a severe acute respiratory distress-like syndrome associated with severe facial cyanosis [ 43].

Autopsies performed on preserved lung tissues in the modern era have revealed acute pulmonary hemorrhage and secondary bacterial infections associated with pulmonary lesions in nearly all the fatal cases examined [ 41, 43, 47]. Streptococcus pneumoniae was present in many cases; however, Staphylococcus aureus, Haemophilus influenzae, and Streptococcus pyogenes also appeared to complicate fatal cases [ 48, 49]. Neutrophilic pulmonary infiltration was seen in cases of pneumococcal pneumonia, while cases of staphylococcal pneumonia were marked by multiple microabscesses infiltrated by neutrophils [ 48]. However, alveolar cell damage was seen in each case along with pulmonary repair and remodelling [ 48]. Tissues from each of the fatal cases examined had similar pathologic presentation, independent of which pandemic wave they were associated with. Despite the difference in mortality rates, each wave showed similar cellular tropism, infecting both type I and type II pneumocytes, as well as the bronchiolar respiratory epithelium [ 48].

The rise of vaccines and antivirals following the 1918-1919 pandemic

A multitude of scientific and technological advances have occurred over the past century, allowing for a greater understanding of the dynamic relationship between the host and influenza viruses during infection. These advances, along with access to autopsy samples and the reconstitution of the 1918 pandemic virus, have facilitated a greater understanding of how the pandemic virus differs from other seasonal and pandemic influenza virus strains. Moreover, technological advancements following the 1918-1919 influenza pandemic virus have facilitated the development of preventative measures, including vaccines and antivirals, to limit widespread illness due to influenza infections.

The determination of the genomic sequence of the 1918 pandemic virus, and the subsequent reconstruction of the virus, has provided us with the opportunity to decipher the viral- and host-specific properties that contributed to the severity of the 1918-1919 pandemic. It has been demonstrated that in contrast to other influenza viruses, the 1918 pandemic virus is highly virulent and pathogenic in multiple animal species without prior adaptation [ 45, 50]. While obvious knowledge gaps remain, in particular with respect to the origin of the virus and the molecular mechanisms (host and/or viral) underlying differential pathogenesis as compared to other influenza viruses, there have been considerable advances in our understanding of the 1918 pandemic virus.

Since the isolation of the first human influenza virus in 1933, researchers have worked to develop an effective influenza vaccine [ 16]. Current influenza vaccines are reformulated seasonally and provide protection against circulating influenza A and B viruses [ 13]. The World Health Organization conducts worldwide surveillance studies throughout the year on currently circulating influenza strains, and thus recommends which strains should be included in each influenza vaccine [ 13]. While the seasonal influenza vaccine is approximately 60% effective, this protection is dependent on the characteristics of the individual being vaccinated, including age and overall health, as well as the match between the strains included in the vaccine formulation and currently circulating strains [ 13]. Individuals who have been vaccinated are generally protected from illness and provide a measure of protection for those who are not able to be vaccinated due to their age or other health issues through herd immunity [ 13]. There has also been increasing interest in the development of "universal" influenza vaccines designed to provide protection against a wide range of antigenically-distinct influenza viruses, including those currently in circulation and those that may emerge in the future [ 51]. These will not be discussed in detail as recent reviews have provided excellent discussions of this topic [ 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57].

Two major classes of antivirals have emerged for therapeutic treatment of severe influenza virus infections. Adamantane antivirals target the matrix-2 (M2) surface protein, while neuraminidase (NA) inhibitors target the NA viral surface protein. Adamantane compounds were the first licensed influenza antivirals and block the M2 ion channel protein from properly functioning, thus effectively blocking membrane fusion [ 58, 59]. Unfortunately, adamantane antivirals are only able to target influenza A viruses limiting their application for influenza B virus infections [ 58]. Further, more than 90% of influenza A viruses are resistant to this class of drugs due to the high mutation rate of the virus [ 58, 60]. Thus, the use of NA inhibitors is recommended [ 60]. NA inhibitors block the NA surface protein and prevent the release of progeny virus and infection of additional cells [ 60]. While resistance to NA inhibitors has been observed in some influenza virus strains, they are still highly effective in the majority of patients [ 60]. Studies have shown that both adamantane antivirals and NA inhibitors provide protection against the 1918 virus [ 50].

Although outside the auspice of this commentary, it should be mentioned that advances in mechanical ventilation modalities, including non-invasive positive pressure ventilation, from the 1950s onwards, have provided an additional support mechanism for treatment of severely ill patients [ 34]. The routine clinical use of antibiotics in the early twentieth century also heralded a new era for combating influenza viruses. As a testament to this, excess influenza mortality declined significantly from 1942 to 1951 onwards [ 61, 62, 63]. However, the widespread general administration of antibiotics has resulted in an escalating public health crisis due to multi-drug resistance. This has impacted the treatment of severe influenza infections, as methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) is the most frequently isolated bacteria from patients with severe influenza-bacterial co-infections in the US [ 64, 65] and complicated up to 55% of fatalities during the 2009 pandemic [ 66, 67, 68, 69].

Influenza preparedness and lessons for the future

Although it has now been a century since the start of the Spanish flu pandemic, lessons from this global health catastrophe continue to inform modern-day pandemic preparedness. Investigations of the pandemic, including those with the reconstructed virus, have allowed researchers, as well as the global public, to understand the mechanisms that underlie pandemic emergence and escalation to public health crisis. It also allows researchers to predict the potential public health risks which may be caused by new pandemic viruses. For example, sequencing of the 1918 pandemic virus revealed similarities in the H1 protein of the 2009 pandemic virus, allowing researchers to predict that a lack of protection, and thus a high mortality rate may be seen in healthy, young adults throughout the 2009 H1N1 pandemic [ 45]. Thus, when vaccines were limited during the early stages of the 2009 pandemic, young adults were prioritized over the elderly, who demonstrated some degree of protection to this influenza strain, resulting in a lower mortality rate in young, healthy adults [ 45]. The average age for laboratory-confirmed fatalities during the 2009 pandemic was 37 years in the US, supporting this vaccine prioritization initiative [ 70]. Additionally, the awareness of the complications caused by secondary bacterial co-infections from the 1918 pandemic ensured that the medical community was aware of this threat throughout the 2009 pandemic, likely resulting in a reduced mortality rate due to severe influenza infections with complications [ 45].

However, the 2009 pandemic, albeit milder than previous pandemics in terms of overall mortality, resulted in significant strains on global healthcare networks and economies [ 25]. In Canada, direct healthcare costs (including hospitalizations, outpatient visits, and therapeutics) related to the 2009 pandemic have been estimated at $2 billion CAD, with $250 million CAD related directly to hospital care [ 71]. A computational modeling study by Smith and colleagues suggested that direct costs related to illness would be between 0.5-4.3% of GDP in the UK for pandemics ranging from low to extreme [ 72]. Further, the 2002-2004 severe acute respiratory syndrome outbreak resulted in ~$1 billion total GDP loss in Toronto alone [ 73]. This highlights the importance of pandemic preparedness beyond a healthcare-centric approach to one that also includes downstream economic effects.

The 1918-1919 pandemic resulted in incredible improvements to public health as well as scientific advances. However, our current understanding of influenza viruses, and their ability to cause illness in humans is still in its infancy in many aspects, and further underlines our inherent need for continued influenza research. The identification of key molecular determinants involved in the pathophysiology of severe influenza infections will also assist drug discovery and development strategies, including insights on appropriate timing for administration of antivirals and/or antibiotics. The development of efficacious broader-spectrum or "universal" influenza vaccines is also of incredible importance. The emergence of novel highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) viruses, including H5 and H7 subtypes, are of particular concern due to their pandemic potential. Circulating HPAI viruses are of potential concern to global public health [ 74]. Asian lineage avian influenza A (H5N1), which circulates in fowl, is rarely found in humans but has resulted in life-threatening cases when able to establish stable lineages [ 74] and H7N9 has resulted in sporadic human infections in China resulting in > 1500 infections with an estimated 39% case fatality rate since 2013 [ 75]. Because HPAI viruses can arise from previously known low-pathogenicity viruses with only minor mutations, it is important to be vigilant concerning these potential pandemic viruses [ 76, 77].

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A year of terror and a century of reflection: perspectives on the great influenza pandemic of 1918-1919 - BMC Infectious Diseases

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Background In the spring of 1918, the "War to End All Wars", which would ultimately claim more than 37 million lives, had entered into its final year and would change the global political and economic landscape forever. At the same time, a new global threat was emerging and would become one of the most devastating global health crises in recorded history.

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Nickol, Michaela  E, and Jason Kindrachuk. “A Year of Terror and a Century of Reflection: Perspectives on the Great Influenza Pandemic of 1918–1919 - BMC Infectious Diseases.” SpringerLink, February 6, 2019. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12879-019-3750-8.

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A year of terror and a century of reflection: perspectives on the great influenza pandemic of 1918–1919 - BMC Infectious Diseases

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Background In the spring of 1918, the “War to End All Wars”, which would ultimately claim more than 37 million lives, had entered into its final year and would change the global political and economic landscape forever. At the same time, a new global threat was emerging and would become one of the most devastating global health crises in recorded history. Main text The 1918 H1N1 pandemic virus spread across Europe, North America, and Asia over a 12-month period resulting in an estimated 500 million infections and 50–100 million deaths worldwide, of which ~ 50% of these occurred within the fall of 1918 (Emerg Infect Dis 12:15-22, 2006, Bull Hist Med 76:105-115, 2002). However, the molecular factors that contributed to the emergence of, and subsequent public health catastrophe associated with, the 1918 pandemic virus remained largely unknown until 2005, when the characterization of the reconstructed pandemic virus was announced heralding a new era of advanced molecular investigations (Science 310:77-80, 2005). In the century following the emergence of the 1918 pandemic virus we have landed on the Moon, developed the electronic computer (and a global internet), and have eradicated smallpox. In contrast, we have a largely remedial knowledge and understanding of one of the greatest scourges in recorded history. Conclusion Here, we reflect on the 1918 influenza pandemic, including its emergence and subsequent rapid global spread. In addition, we discuss the pathophysiology associated with the 1918 virus and its predilection for the young and healthy, the rise of influenza therapeutic research following the pandemic, and, finally, our level of preparedness for future pandemics.

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Covid 19

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COVID-19: immunopathogenesis and Immunotherapeutics - Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy

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Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy - COVID-19: immunopathogenesis and Immunotherapeutics

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Spanish Flu 1918

Patrick Berche

"Spanish Flu"

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The Black Death was a global epidemic that occurred in the mid-1300's that killed more than 20 million people, which was one-third of the population in Europe. Twelve ships from The Black Sea docked at the Sicilian port of Messina. The sailors were discovered either dead or extremely ill. The Black Death spread quickly as it was really contagious and could kill a healthy person over night.

https://www.jstor.org/stable/2593699

Bridburry, A. R., "The Black Death", The Economic History Review 26, no. 4. (1973): 577-592.

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This is about Hurricane Harvey and the damage it cost.

David J. Frame,

Michael F. Wehner,

Ilan Noy &

Suzanne M. Rosier

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The economic costs of Hurricane Harvey attributable to climate change - Climatic Change

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Hurricane Harvey is one of the costliest tropical cyclones in history. In this paper, we use a probabilistic event attribution framework to estimate the costs associated with Hurricane Harvey that are attributable to anthropogenic influence on the climate system. Results indicate that the “fraction of attributable risk” for the rainfall from Harvey was likely about at least a third with a preferable/best estimate of three quarters. With an average estimate of damages from Harvey assessed at about US$90bn, applying this fraction gives a best estimate of US$67bn, with a likely lower bound of at least US$30bn, of these damages that are attributable to the human influence on climate. This “bottom-up” event-based estimate of climate change damages contrasts sharply with the more “top-down” approach using integrated assessment models (IAMs) or global macroeconometric estimates: one IAM estimates annual climate change damages in the USA to be in the region of US$21.3bn. While the two approaches are not easily comparable, it is noteworthy that our “bottom-up” results estimate that one single extreme weather event contributes more to climate change damages in the USA than an entire year by the “top-down” method. Given that the “top-down” approach, at best, parameterizes but does not resolve the effects of extreme weather events, our findings suggest that the “bottom-up” approach is a useful avenue to pursue in future attempts to refine estimates of climate change damages.

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Sep 9th in 1989

by The National Hurricane Center (NHC)

They discovered Hurricane Maria when it was first developed in African Eastern wave.

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Lessons learned from 2017’s Hurricane Maria in Puerto Rico

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Eyewitness accounts to the catastrophic Hurricane Maria, revealing the commitment to service, devotion to duty and willingness to make sacrifices that characterize the Coast Guard and the Coast Guard

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The eruption of Pompeii

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Elias Loomis, “On Two Storms Which Were Experienced throughout the United States,” , no. 1 (1982): https://www.jstor.org/stable/1005217?seq=7.

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On Two Storms Which Were Experienced throughout the United States, in the Month of February, 1842 on JSTOR

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Elias Loomis, On Two Storms Which Were Experienced throughout the United States, in the Month of February, 1842, Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. 9, No. 2 (1845), pp. 161-184

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The Great Black Death

Citation

M. Mickiask, The fourteenth century, 1307-1399 (Oxford 1959) Page 497.

J. Saltmarsh 'Plauge And Economic Decline In England In The Later Middle Ages', Cambridge Historical Journal, VII (1941)

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A. R. Bridbury, The Black Death, The Economic History Review, Vol. 26, No. 4 (1973), pp. 577-592

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the Taal eruption

<citation>

Alexa R. Van Eaton;

Cassandra M. Smith;

Michael Pavolonis;

Ryan said

"Eruption dynamics leading to a volcanic thunderstorm—The January 2020 eruption of Taal volcano, Philippines"

Geology (2022) 50 (4): 491–495

https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article-abstract/50/4/491/610898/Eruption-dynamics-leading-to-a-volcanic

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Eruption dynamics leading to a volcanic thunderstorm—The January 2020 eruption of Taal volcano, Philippines | Geology | GeoScienceWorld

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Abstract. Advances in global lightning detection have provided novel ways to characterize explosive volcanism. However, researchers are still at the early

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<Citation>

Shunichi Koshimura;

Satomi Hayashi;

and Hideomi Gokon

"The impact of the 2011 Tohoku earthquake tsunami disaster and implications to the reconstruction"

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Open Archive in partnership with Japanese Geotechnical Society

Abstract

The authors conducted a comprehensive study to identify the impact of the 2011 Tohoku tsunami disaster and to understand the lessons towards the reconstruction of Tohoku to build tsunami-resilient community. First, the authors identified the extent of tsunami inundation zone by field measurement and satellite remote sensing. A specific index for optical satellite images was applied for the extraction of tsunami inland penetration calibrated with the ground truth data (field survey data). Second, an integrated investigation of field measurement and aerial photo and video inspections with spatial information sciences was performed to understand the hydrodynamic aspect of tsunami inland penetration with a form of tsunami flow velocity and hydrodynamic force, and the preliminary results lead to new understandings of structural vulnerability against the 2011 tsunami with a form of tsunami fragility curve and an implication for land use management and relocation planning to reconstruct resilient coastal communities.

View Abstract

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The impact of the 2011 Tohoku earthquake tsunami disaster and implications to the reconstruction

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Open Archive in partnership with Japanese Geotechnical Society The authors conducted a comprehensive study to identify the impact of the 2011 Tohoku tsunami disaster and to understand the lessons towards the reconstruction of Tohoku to build tsunami-resilient community. First, the authors identified the extent of tsunami inundation zone by field measurement and satellite remote sensing.

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Mount St. Helens Eruptions.

Peter J. Baxter, MD; Roy Ing, MD; Henry Falk, MD. JAMA

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Mount St Helens Eruptions, May 18 to June 12, 1980

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Thirty-five known deaths were caused by the landslide and lateral blast of the May 18 eruption of Mount St Helens and at least 23 persons are missing. In 18 of 23 cases that reached autopsy, asphyxiation from ash inhalation was the cause of death. A rapidly established hospital surveillance system…

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Peter J. Baxter, Roy Ing, and Henry Falk, “Mount St Helens Eruptions, May 18 to June 12, 1980An Overview of the Acute Health Impact," JAMA 246, no. 22. https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/article-abstract/365060

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Mount St Helens Eruptions, May 18 to June 12, 1980

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Thirty-five known deaths were caused by the landslide and lateral blast of the May 18 eruption of Mount St Helens and at least 23 persons are missing. In 18 of 23 cases that reached autopsy, asphyxiation from ash inhalation was the cause of death. A rapidly established hospital surveillance system…

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Tsunami of Lituya Bay 1958

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Lituya Bay Landslide Impact Generated Mega-Tsunami 50th Anniversary

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On July 10, 1958, an earthquake Mw 8.3 along the Fairweather fault triggered a major subaerial landslide into Gilbert Inlet at the head of Lituya Bay on the southern coast of Alaska. The landslide impacted the water at high speed generating a giant tsunami and the…

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Galveston hurricane

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Deccan Traps

<Citation>

C. Mitchell and M. Widdowson, "A geological map of the Southern Deccan Traps, India and its structural implications,." Journal of the Geologic Society 148 , no. 3 (May 1991): 495 - 505, https://www.lyellcollection.org/doi/abs/10.1144/gsjgs.148.3.0495

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Great Black Death

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the ice age.

<Citation> W. Richard Peltier, Ice Age Paleotopography,

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American Association for the Advancement of Science

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A gravitationally self-consistent theory of postglacial relative sea level change is used to infer the variation of surface ice and water cover since the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). The results show that LGM ice volume was approximately 35 percent…

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1970 Bhola Cyclone

Sravani Biswas, and Patrick Daly,"'Cyclone Not Above Politics': East Pakistan, disaster politics, and the 1970 Bhola Cyclone," vol#5, ed#4 Published September 23 2020: 1382-1410,

https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/modern-asian-studies/article/cyclone-not-above-politics-east-pakistan-disaster-politics-and-the-1970-bhola-cyclone/08E3F02666C89C041F57933C0C1B447E

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‘Cyclone Not Above Politics’ : East Pakistan, disaster politics, and the 1970 Bhola Cyclone | Modern Asian Studies | Cambridge Core

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‘Cyclone Not Above Politics’ : East Pakistan, disaster politics, and the 1970 Bhola Cyclone - Volume 55 Issue 4

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2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami

Shunichi Koshimura, Satomi Hayashi, and Hideomi Gokon

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monkey pox

Ali Alshahrani, "The expected economic burden on the healthcare system because of quarantining patients with monkeypox virus," Saudi Med J 44, no.3 (2023):231-236

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10043895/

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The expected economic burden on the healthcare system because of quarantining patients with monkeypox virus

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Quarantine is a common public health intervention that is often used to curb pandemics of infectious diseases. Quarantine is the intentional separation of people who are either suspected or confirmed to be infected with a contagious virus from the uninfected…

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Hurricane Sandy

Amanda Hunt, John Manuel "Hurricane Sandy and Her Lasting Environmental Impacts," 6 Earth Jurisprudence & Envtl. Just. J,(2016): 82, https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/earjujo6&div=4&id=&page=

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About | HeinOnline

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6 Earth Jurisprudence & Envtl. Just. J. 82 (2016)
Hurricane Sandy and Her Lasting Environmental Impacts

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hurricane sandy and her lasting
              environmental impacts

                           *amanda hunt

                         i. introduction

     more than three years have passed since hurricane sandy;
estimated to be nearly 900 to 1

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made landfall along the
u.s. mid-atlantic and northeast coasts on october 29

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filling
even subway stations in new york city with saltwater.2 in new york
city and new jersey alone

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the storm damaged or destroyed more than
375

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000 housing units.3 strong winds knocked over trees and roughly
4.5 million people were left without power in new york city and new
jersey alone.4 the total damage was estimated to be around $65 billion

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which makes it the second costliest storm to hit the united states.5
     killing nearly 117 people in the united states alone

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hurricane
sandy was the deadliest of the 2012 atlantic hurricane season.6 to aid
in response and recovery of hurricane sandy's aftermath

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the obama
administration requested $60.4 billion.7 roughly $3 billion of the


*amanda hunt

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this date in science: hurricane sandy hits u.s. northeast

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http://earthsky.org/earth/this-date-in-science-hurricane-sandy-hits-u-s-
northeast.
    2 id.
    3  john manuel

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the long road to recovery: environmental health impacts of
hurricane sandy

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environmental health perspectives (may     1

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supra note 1.
    5 id.
    6  josh siegel

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home is where the heartache is: hurricane sandy victims still
not    recovered

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hurricane sandy: disaster aid request too big

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the
heritage         foundation          (dec.         13

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Learn about HeinOnline, a premier online research platform providing access to multidisciplinary current and historical documents.

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1840 Natchez Tornado

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The meteor that wiped out the dinosaurs

<citation>

Gregory S. Paul, bio science, Vol. 39, No.3, BY oxford university press

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Giant Meteor Impacts and Great Eruptions: Dinosaur Killers? on JSTOR

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Gregory S. Paul, Giant Meteor Impacts and Great Eruptions: Dinosaur Killers?, BioScience, Vol. 39, No. 3 (Mar., 1989), pp. 162-172

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2008 Sichuan earthquake

<Citation

Xiaoqian Cheng, Wen Wang, Tao Yu, Zhuyan Ren, “Damage analysis of 12 May 2008 Sichuan earthquake with satellite data,” Pro SPIE 7154c. Environment VI, 71540B (2 December 2008 https://www.spiedigitallibrary.org/conference-proceedings-of-spie/7154/71540B/Damage-analysis-of-12-May-2008-Sichuan-earthquake-with-satellite/10.1117/12.804843.short#_=_.

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2 December 2008 Damage analysis of 12 May 2008 Sichuan earthquake with satellite data

Xiaoqian Cheng, Wen Wang, Tao Yu, Zhuyan Ren

The devastating earthquake (Ms=8.0) of 12 May 2008 in Sichuan, China struck the whole world. To detect the large damaged area in less time and identify seismogenic structure, remote sensing technology is strongly recommended. This paper attempts to focus on seismic area to analyze the earthquake damage from different aspects. Firstly, pre- and post-earthquake Landsat TM/ETM images, CBERS-02B CCD images, DEM and relating data is used to observe ground changes. The analysis assumption is testified by the Tangjia Mountain dammed lake in Beichuan county and landslide in Anxian county in relative news and reports. Furthermore, Radarsat data is used to complement the analysis, since it could provide the seismic area surface deformation and a better 3-D vision. Also specific information of local fault, landslide and sub-block features in seismic area could be observed and got, which helps to perfect the damage analysis. All these analysis results could be useful for improving and revising the interpretations of geological, geodetic and seismological data. Finally, the possibility of estimating and inducing earthquake damage using remote sensing data is discussed.

© (2008) COPYRIGHT Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE). Downloading of the abstract is permitted for personal use only.

Xiaoqian Cheng, Wen Wang, Tao Yu , and Zhuyan Ren "Damage analysis of 12 May 2008 Sichuan earthquake with satellite data", Proc. SPIE 7154, Microwave Remote Sensing of the Atmosphere and Environment VI, 71540B (2 December 2008); https://doi.org/10.1117/12.804843

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# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Damage analysis of 12 May 2008 Sichuan earthquake with satellite data

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The devastating earthquake (Ms=8.0) of 12 May 2008 in Sichuan, China struck the whole world. To detect the large damaged area in less time and identify seismogenic structure, remote sensing technology is strongly recommended. This paper attempts to focus on seismic area to analyze the earthquake damage from different aspects.

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covid 19

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Bubonic plague

<Citation>

Colin McEvedy "The Bubonic Plague" Scientific American Vol.258, No.2 (February 1988), pp. 118-123 (6 pages)

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The Bubonic Plague

https://www. jstor .org/stable/24988987

Scientific American is the authority on science and technology for a general audience, with coverage that explains how research changes our understanding of the world and shapes our lives. First published in 1845, Scientific American is the longest continuously published magazine in the US. The magazine has published articles by more than 150 Nobel Prize-winning scientists and built a loyal following of influential and forward thinking readers. The archives of Scientific American include articles penned by Albert Einstein, Thomas Edison, Jonas Salk, Marie Curie, Stephen Hawking, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Stephen Jay Gould, Bill Gates, and more.

Founded in 1845, Scientific American is the oldest continuously published magazine in the US and the leading authoritative publication for science and technology in the general media. Scientific American is published by Springer Nature, a leading global research, educational and professional publisher, home to an array of respected and trusted brands providing quality content through a range of innovative products and services. Springer Nature was formed in 2015 through the merger of Nature Publishing Group, Palgrave Macmillan, Macmillan Education and Springer Science+Business Media.

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The Bubonic Plague https://www. jstor .org/stable/24988987 Scientific American is the authority on science and technology for a general audience, with coverage that explains how research changes our understanding of the world and shapes our lives. First published in 1845, Scientific American is the longest continuously published magazine in the US.

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hurricane harvey

Rongshui Qin, Nima Khakzad, and Jiping Zhu,

"An overview of the impact of Hurricane Harvy on chemical and process facilities in Texas," International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction 45,(2020).

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Hurricane Maria

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Mt. St. Helens

JH Shore, EL Tatum, WM Vollmer, “Evaluation of Mental Effects of Disaster, Mount St. Helens Eruption.," American Journal of Public Health 76, no. Suppl, (March 1, 1986), url:https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/abs/10.2105/AJPH.76.Suppl.76

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Hurricane Katrina

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EVENT NAME

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haiti earthquake -- Rhoda Margesson, Maureen Taft-Morales. Haiti Earthquake: Crisis and Response. ( Congressional Research Service, 2010), 1-64 https://www.everycrsreport.com/files/20100308_R41023_ef960f2289f3fff5c83e5c956e08a84e9f45f747.pdf. Margesson, Taft-Morales, 1-64

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Ziyang Zhang, Tricia A. Stadnyk & Donald H. Burn. (2020) Identification of a preferred statistical distribution for at-site flood frequency analysis in Canada. Canadian Water Resources Journal / Revue canadienne des ressources hydriques 45:1, pages 43-58.

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Lisetta Giacomelli, Annamaria Perrotta, Roberto Scandone, and Claudio Scarpati, "The Eruption of Vesuvius of 79 AD and its Impact on Human Environment in Pompeii," Episodes-Newsmagazine of the International Union of Geological Sciences 26, no. 3 (2003): 235-238.

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Try to cite it in Chicago Style