# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Studio Enjoy: Supaman - 'Prayer Loop Song'

# data[].attributes.body
Rapper: Supaman.

He is from Montana-- "from the Apsáalooke Nation; (the name Crow Nation is the [European] mistranslation of our people.)"

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Biden becomes first president to mark Indigenous Peoples' Day

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Between the Revolutionary War and the aftermath of the Civil War, over the course of almost a century, the United States and Native American nations signed some 368 treaties that would define their relationship for centuries to come.

The treaties keyed off the fundamental idea that each tribal group was an independent nation, with their own right to self-determination and self-rule. But as white settlers began moving onto Native American lands, this idea came into conflict with the relentless pace of westward expansion -resulting in many broken promises on the part of the U.S. government.

Treaty With the Delawares/Treaty of Fort Pitt - 1778

In September 1778, representatives of the newly formed Continental Congress signed a treaty with the Lenape (Delaware) at Fort Pitt, Pennsylvania. In the first official peace treaty between the new United States and a Native American nation, both sides agreed to maintain friendship and support each other against the British.

But mutual suspicion continued, especially after Pennsylvania militiamen killed nearly 100 Lenape (most of them women and children) at the village of Gnadenhutten in March 1782, mistakenly believing they were responsible for attacks against white settlers. After the American victory, more and more white settlers moved onto Lenape territory, until the Treaty of Greeneville in 1795 forced them and other Ohio Country Native Americans to surrender most of their lands.

Treaty of Hopewell - 1785-86

In the years following the Revolutionary War, Andrew Pickens and other commissioners of the new U.S. government concluded three highly similar treaties with the Cherokee, Choctaw and Cherokee Nations at Hopewell, Pickens' plantation home in northwestern South Carolina.

Collectively known as the Treaty of Hopewell, these agreements extended the friendship and "protection" of the United States to the southern Native American tribes; all three ended with the same sentence: "The hatchet shall be forever buried, and peace given by the United States of America."

Despite this sentiment, white settlers were already moving onto the lands designated for the Cherokee, leading to more conflict and the Treaty of Holston (1791), in which the Cherokee forfeited still more land.

Treaty of Canandaigua/Pickering Treaty/Calico Treaty - 1794

Seeking to improve relations between his government and the Haudenosaunee Confederacy, a powerful group of six Iroquois-speaking tribes (the Mohawk, Cayuga, Onondaga, Oneida, Seneca and Tuscarora Nations), President George Washington sent his postmaster general, Timothy Pickering, to negotiate a treaty at Canandaigua, New York.

The treaty restored more than 1 million acres of land to the Seneca that had been ceded by treaty 10 years earlier and recognized the sovereignty of the Six Nations to govern themselves and set laws. It also promised an annual payment by the United States to the Haudenosaunee of $4,500 in goods, including calico cloth.

Over the years, as the Six Nations' territory was further reduced, the Onondaga, Seneca, Tuscarora and some Oneida remained in New York on reservations, while the Mohawk and Cayuga left for Canada and the Oneida settled in Wisconsin and Ontario.

Treaty of Greeneville - 1795

As more white settlers moved west into the Great Lake region, a Native American confederacy including the Shawnee and Delaware, who had already been driven westward by U.S. expansion, as well as the Miami, Ottawa, Ojibwa and Potawatomi, mounted an armed resistance beginning in the late 1780s.

After U.S. troops under General "Mad" Anthony Wayne defeated them in the Battle of Fallen Timbers, Miami chief Little Turtle and other Native leaders ceded large parts of what would become Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois and Wisconsin in the Greeneville Treaty.

But the treaty provided only short term resolution, as continued U.S. expansion quickly nullified its effect. By 1808, Shawnee war chief Tecumseh had organized a Native confederacy to mount armed resistance to continued U.S. seizure of Native American lands.

Treaty of Fort Wayne - 1809

In this treaty, negotiated by William Henry Harrison, then governor of Indiana Territory, with Native tribes including the Delaware, Potawatomi, Miami and Eel River tribes, the United States acquired 2.5 million acres of land in what is now Michigan, Indiana, Illinois and Ohio, for the equivalent of about two cents per acre. Tecumseh and others argued that the treaty's signers had no authority to sell the land and warned Americans not to settle there.

In 1811, Harrison led an attack on a Native American camp on the Tippecanoe River, beginning a new U.S.-Native conflict that would last through the War of 1812. After Tecumseh's death in battle in 1813, his confederacy dissolved, along with his dream of Native American independence.

Andrew Jackson & Indian Removal Act - 1830

Over the decade (1814-24) that Andrew Jackson served as a federal commissioner, he negotiated nine out of 11 treaties signed with Native American tribes in the Southeast, including the Choctaws, Chickasaws, Creeks, Seminoles and Cherokees, in which the tribes gave up a total of some 50 million acres of land in Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Tennessee, Mississippi, Kentucky and North Carolina.

Elected president in 1828, Jackson spearheaded the Indian Removal Act (1830) through Congress, by which the U.S. government granted land west of the Mississippi River to Native tribes who agreed to give up their homelands.

Though removal was supposed to be voluntary, in practice Jackson used threats of withheld payments and legal and military action to conclude nearly 70 removal treaties over the course of his presidency, opening up some 25 million acres of land in the South to white settlement, and slavery.

Treaty of New Echota - 1835

Many Cherokee resisted removal from their ancestral lands in the Southeast, bringing their struggle all the way to the U.S. Supreme Court. But despite the Court's ruling in Worcester v. Georgia (1832) that the Cherokee and other tribes were "sovereign nations," the removal continued. In 1835, U.S. government met with a group of Cherokee representatives at New Echota, Georgia, to sign a treaty that traded all 7 million acres of Cherokee land for $5 million and land in Indian Territory.

The majority of Cherokee opposed the treaty, but Congress ratified it anyway, and in 1838 the federal government sent 7,000 U.S. soldiers to enforce the removal of the Cherokees. An estimated 10 to 25 percent of Cherokee would die during the 1,200-mile trek to Oklahoma, later known as the " Trail of Tears."

Fort Laramie Treaty - 1868

In this treaty, signed at Fort Laramie and other military posts in what is now Wyoming, the U.S. government recognized the Black Hills of Dakota as the Great Sioux Reservation, the exclusive territory of the Sioux (Dakota, Lakota and Nakota) and Arapaho people. But after gold was discovered in the Black Hills, miners and settlers began moving onto the land en masse.

Native resistance to the treaty's violation culminated in the Battle of the Little Bighorn in 1876, after which government troops flooded the region. By that time, Congress had ended the nearly 100-year-old practice of making treaties with individual Native American tribes, declaring in 1871 that "henceforth, no Indian nation or tribe...shall be acknowledged or recognized as an independent nation, tribe or power with whom the United States may contract by treaty."

In 1980, the Supreme Court ruled that the Black Hills were illegally confiscated, and awarded the Sioux more than $100 million in reparations. Sioux leaders rejected the payment, saying the land had never been for sale. Controversy continues over the sacred land -as well as other broken treaties.

Fact Check

We strive for accuracy and fairness. But if you see something that doesn't look right, click here to contact us! HISTORY reviews and updates its content regularly to ensure it is complete and accurate.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Broken Treaties With Native American Tribes: Timeline | HISTORY

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
See a timeline of treaties signed and then broken by the U.S. government with various Indigenous peoples across the North American continent.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Rock and roll was born in the United States, and it makes sense that some of its forerunners would be the original Americans. The people are the land and the music comes from the land. Iconic artists like Charley Patton, Mildred Bailey, Jimi Hendrix, Robbie Robertson, and Redbone were among the first to express this Native perspective through popular music. We can connect the dots from Patton, the "Father of the Delta Blues," on through a musical narrative that runs like a powerful river through today's blues, rock and jazz music. The film RUMBLE helps us understand why, and to actually now these indigenous influences present themselves in rhythm, tonality, phrasing, and attitude.

This process has not stopped, just as Native cultures continue to thrive and evolve, adding new bits of influence into American culture. But what about the other direction? One often hears the question "why does today's Native music sound so much like other styles?" The answer would have to be that today's Native peoples are full participants in modern culture and engage in the same cultural give and take as everyone else.

In recent decades, these artists have melded their own traditions with forms of expression to give us the Navajo (Diné) drum & bass sounds of Sihasin, the Inuit a cappella of Pamua, the country-rock storytelling of Arigon Starr, the Standing Rock-inspired folk of Raye Zaragoza and the topical lightning of Prolific the Rapper and A Tribe Called Red.

They have each chosen a way to express their "indigeneity," purposefully trading bits of art and culture with others as Native peoples have always done throughout time.

This accounts for how Native values and instincts were present in the crucible of rock, and why so many other musical traditions are woven Native works.

Mainly living and working outside of the mainstream music industry, Native musicians have joined (or created) small labels, touring below the radar to Indian events and world music festivals, some enjoying greater success in Europe than at home. You won't find most of them on late night TV shows or commercial radio. But they are regulars on Native radio around the U.S. and occasionally on public radio. Today's Native music remains somewhat underground, which makes the discovery process both challenging and deliciously rewarding.

In that spirit, we've created both this list and a Spotify playlist to introduce to you to some Native artists you should know about. Each in their own way carries forward deep traditional values, incorporated musical strands such as reggae, punk, funk, techno, and alternative.
Pamyua
In the Arctic Circle, the only indigenous instruments are the drum and the voice, used to accompany dance, often with masks. From this starting point, and inspired by the ethnic gumbo of The Meters, Pamyua (pron: BUM-you-wah) invented what they call "tribal funk," a melding of traditional circumpolar chants of Inuit, Yupic and Greenlandic origin, in powerful four-part harmony, propelled by funky percussion, keyboards and occasionally, didgeridoo. Alaskans are very proud of Pamyua and they're a big inspiration for Native youth.
Nadjiwan
You can hear the chill of Toronto winters in his every song, yet each burns with passion and intelligence. Much of it is driven by the Redbone-style "King Kong Beat" with mesmerizing vocals floating above double-time guitars. Marc Meriläinen records under his own name and as NADJIWAN. He also collaborates in the electronic side-project Quillbox, where he continually explores rock and electronic soundscapes while giving voice to his Ojibway and Finnish heritage.
Lila Downs
On the reservation, Mexicans can be viewed as outsiders. And Native music circles have tended not to include them. But when thousands of 1st Nation peoples gathered in full regalia for concerts celebrating the grand opening of the NMAI (National Museum of the American Indian) in Washington, D.C., an artist not known to them, Lila Downs, took the stage and completely wowed the crowd. Her intricate interweaving of Latin, jazz, and indigenous Mexican grooves was instantly recognizable as American Indian, but with a Pan-American perspective.

Powerful, polished and deeply folkloric, Lila Downs bridges the same distance that her parents, a White Minnesota professor and a Mixtec singer from Oaxaca, crossed. Downs' artistic stance and her music remind us that so many people from south of the border are Indians too, that we're all cousins. Her song "La Linea" ("The Border") challenges the imaginary line:
Cornflower The sky is watching over you Plain of fire The earth which gave birth to you Spirit of the earth Spirit of the sea Spirit of luck Meant to wander Arigon Starr
This Native woman has so much talent, she restlessly moves from one medium to the next. Through her own record label, Wacky Productions, Arigon Starr recorded four albums of her original songs. Her songcraft ranges from tender old-school country ballads ("Daddy's Records") to the punk of "Salmon Song" ("I will come back!). "Honor Me" takes a direct shot at team mascots while "California Indians" delivers a well-researched history lesson that takes us from The Senator Hotel to Alcatraz. She created radio a theater series, then a one-woman show in LA ( The Red Road), and is now publishing her original comics, Super Indian. Starr is an enrolled member of the Kickapoo-Creek Nation Tribe of Oklahoma.

In all of her creative pursuits, she seems to most enjoy skewering tired stereotypical images of Indians.
Prolific The Rapper
A lot of early rap was born as a socio-political critique of a brutal system of oppression. Think NWA. Prolific The Rapper (a.k.a. Aaron Sean Turgeon) has grabbed the baton of resistance rap with the anthem "Black Snakes a full-throated takedown of the oil industry, specifically the Dakota Access Pipeline, site of massive protests at Standing Rock in the Dakotas. Backed by Canadian First Nation samplers A Tribe Called Red Prolific comes through with a plainspoken message that is made even more powerful by his blistering videos - documenting ongoing assaults on the land and its people, truth-telling activities that could have sent him to jail for seven years had the charges not been dropped.
What is goin' on, have we lost our minds? Every human needs clean water to survive. Sihasin
Long a traditional Navajo (Dine') dance group led by their father Jones Banally, the kids were emotionally struck by lightning the first time they heard The Ramones. So as young teens in Northern Arizona, they formed a punk band, Blackfire. They burned hot with a message of resistance, touring the world many times, mainly playing small clubs and festivals. As they grew up and had their own kids, brother and sister Clayson and Jeneda Benally formed a new band, (See-ha-sin), the Dine' word 'to think with hope and assurance.' They continue to dance, record, make videos and tour the world with a message of hope for social and environmental justice. "Fight Like a Woman" comes from their most recent album, produced by Ed Stasium (Talking Heads, Ramones).
Keith Secola
Keith Secola is Anishinabe (Ojibwa) from the Iron Range of Northern Minnesota, now living in Arizona. Through his own record label Akina he has been prolific, recording six albums and winning seven Native American Music Awards. Secola is gifted with a naturally funny and magnetic personality, easily able to instigate big jams and sing-alongs whether they be at major stage productions or intimate benefit shows.

If there is a Native American national anthem, it's "Indian Cars." With wry Native humor, it celebrates a reservation one-eyed junker, its bumper held on by a sticker that says "Indian Power." This fun remix brings Secola together with a host of rockers and rappers.
Cary Morin
connected the dots from Southeast traditional tribal rhythm and vocals right on through the delta blues - which is where we find Cary Morin right at home. He's a masterful finger picker and an earthy, soulful singer with an impressive collection of original and distinctive songs to his credit, a perfect road trip companion. A member of the Crow Nation, and collaborator with Tuscaroran artist Pura Fé on her extensive European tours, Morin was a founding member of The Atoll which specialized in electronic world beats, then went solo and now also collaborates with John Magnie and Steve Amedée (of the Subdudes) in the band Young Ancients.

Live Acoustic Set:
Nahko
Author Sherman Alexie answers the question "How do you know you're Indian?" with a very straightforward "When your tribe says you are." Yet identity is still complicated for many Native peoples given sometimes difficult family backstories with adoptions and cross-cultural marriages. Native artists such as Buffy Sainte-Marie and Michael Franti were raised by White adoptive parents far from a day-to-day tribal experience. As was , whose roots are Apache, Puerto Rican, and Filipino.

From desperate beginnings (his mother was a prostitute) to his advantaged Portland upbringing with classical piano lessons, then travel and his discovery of guitar, folk, and songwriting, Nahko's path has been one of deep self-discovery. His band, Nahko and Medicine for the People, has garnered a passionate following, with avid young fans memorizing his rapid-fire lyrics and turning out in force for live shows.
Debora Iyall
Adopted by a working single-mother in Fresno, CA, Deborah Iyall (Cowlitz) always had teenage babysitters who introduced her to The Rolling Stones and all the current music on AM radio. She was raised to be proud of her heritage, and at 14 she took part in the All Nations Occupation of Alcatraz (1969). Instead of going straight to college, Iyall purchased a VW camper van and joined the salmon protests on the Klamath River where Yurok people demanded return of their fishing rights. She wrote poetry and entered the San Francisco Art Institute where she joined forces with other students to form a band, Romeo Void, got a record deal and toured colleges all across the country. They even opened for U2.

To this day, "Never Say Never" and "A Girl in Trouble (Is a Temporary Thing)" are staples of modern rock radio.

In those days, Iyall's distinctive talents and strong work ethic were thwarted by her not fitting in with the MTV "look" of the day. Lithe model-like waifs were and sturdy dark-haired Indian women were . But her power as a non-puritanical Native woman was fully felt and appreciated by her fans.

With her pride and Native identity completely intact, she has moved forward performing and recording with her own band (Debora Iyall Band) and developing her visual art. Iyall is an accomplished printmaker, and by day is a credentialed art teacher in Southern California.
Ronnie Spector
Ronnie Spector was known as "The Bad Girl of Rock & Roll," performed with all four of The Beatles, and was such a big star in Europe that The Rolling Stones once opened for Spector's mother was African American/Cherokee and her father Irish American. Her singing career began with a family group, the Ronettes ("Walking in the Rain," "Be My Baby"), leading to a tumultuous marriage to record producer Phil Spector, and most recently to a successful album of British '60's covers titled English Heart. Here she is doing the Ramones song "She Talks To Rainbows."
Gregg McVicar (Tlingit) is host and producer of the daily eclectic music show UnderCurrents, heard nationwide on Native Voice One, The Native American Radio Network ( NV1.org undercurrentsradio.net

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
RUMBLE On: More Native American Musicians You Should Definitely Know

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Today's Native music remains somewhat underground, which makes discovery both challenging and rewarding. In that spirit and in connection with the PBS premiere of RUMBLE, we created a playlist to introduce to you to Native artists you need to know.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
On Tuesday, New Mexico joined a growing number of cities and states that celebrate Indigenous Peoples' Day in place of Columbus Day, when Gov. Michelle Lujan Grisham signed legislation approving the change. It joins five states in designating a day to formally honor Native American people, as well as dozens of cities that already celebrate Indigenous Peoples' Day in an effort to pay respect to the indigenous communities across the country.

The movement to officially recognize indigenous groups instead of Columbus Day each October has stretched all the way back to 1990, when then-South Dakota Gov. George Mickelson sought to improve relations between indigenous people and white residents in the state, according to Argus Leader. Mickelson signed a measure that passed unanimously in the state legislature to replace Columbus Day with "Native Americans' Day." The state of Hawaii also has an alternative to Columbus Day - Discoverers' Day, which celebrates the Polynesian discoverers of the islands that make up the state, according to the University of Hawaii at Manoa.

To many indigenous people, Christopher Columbus represents acts of of mass violence and brutality. Historians have long pointed to Columbus' ugly treatment of Native American people. Jonathan Nez, Navajo Nation president, wrote in a statement on Facebook after the New Mexico governor signed the legislation on Tuesday, "For many years, Indigenous people have protested Columbus Day because it celebrates colonialism, oppression, and injustice inflicted on Indigenous peoples. Observing Indigenous Peoples' Day allows citizens to recognize our rich heritage and represents a step toward healing and growth."

Here are the states and cities that celebrate Indigenous Peoples' Day.

WAFB reported on Sept. 16 that Louisiana Governor John Bel Edwards said the state will officially recognize Indigenous Peoples' Day for the first time on Oct. 14, 2019. "I am proud to proclaim Indigenous Peoples' Day to recognize the contributions of Native Americans in Louisiana." Edwards said to the outlet. "My administration has prioritized working with the tribes through our Office of Indian Affairs to award scholarships and establish the Native American Commission to ensure issues important to Native Americans in Louisiana get the attention they deserve."

Edwards' announcement came after a 27-year-old Louisiana woman named Baley Champagne reached out to the governor's office requesting that he sign a proclamation to formally recognize the day, WAFB reported. Champagne told the outlet that she received notice that the governor would do so on Sept. 11, 2019.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Cities & States That Celebrate Indigenous Peoples' Day Are Part Of A Growing List

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
On Tuesday, New Mexico joined a growing number of cities and states that celebrate Indigenous Peoples' Day in place of Columbus Day, when Gov. Michelle Lujan Grisham signed legislation approving the change. It joins five states in designating a day...

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
This is a list of treaties to which the United States has been a party or which have had direct relevance to U.S. history.

Before the United States Declaration of Independence in 1776, the sovereign of the United Kingdom and the leaders of various North American colonies negotiated treaties that affected the territory of what would later become the United States.

These are treaties that the United States has made with other sovereign international states. This is mostly to distinguish them from the next category. Under the treaty clause of the United States Constitution, treaties come into effect upon final ratification by the President of the United States, provided that a two-thirds majority of the United States Senate concurs.

1850 - Clayton-Bulwer Treaty - U.S. and United Kingdom agree not to colonize Central America

1851 - Treaty of Fort Laramie (1851) - with the Cheyenne, Sioux, Arapaho, Crow, Assiniboine, Mandan, Hidatsa, and Arikara Nations

1851 - California Indian Reservations and Cessions - 18 lost treaties of California

1854 - Convention of Kanagawa - forcibly opens Japan to American trade

1855 - Canadian-American Reciprocity Treaty - with Canada on trade and tariffs

1855 - Treaty of Detroit (1855) - U. S. and Ottawa and Chippewa Nations of Indians which severed the link between the two Native American groups for further treaty negotiations and prepared the way for allotment of tribal land to individuals.

1857 - American treaty is kept with france- Treaty between American and Russia

1858 - Treaty of Amity and Commerce (United States-Japan), also known as Harris Treaty - forces the opening of treaty ports on Japan

1858 - Treaty of Tientsin - with China after the Second Opium War; established peace, amity, and commerce

1864 - First Geneva Convention - established rules for the treatment of battlefield casualties and sick and wounded combatants

1867 - Alaska Purchase - U.S. buys Alaska from Russia

1868 - Burlingame Treaty - with China; established improved relations

1868 - Naturalization Convention - with Belgium

1869 - Naturalization Convention - with Sweden and Norway.

1870 - Naturalization Convention - with United Kingdom

1871 - Treaty of Washington - settles grievances between the U.S. and Canada including the Alabama Claims

1872 - Naturalization Convention - with Denmark

1886 - Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works (ratified by U.S. in 1989)

1898 - Sixth Treaty of Paris - ends the Spanish-American War

1899 - Hague Conventions - one of the first formal statements of the laws of war

1900 - Treaty between Spain and the United States for Cession of Outlying Islands of the Philippines. Concluded November 7, 1900; ratification advised by Senate January 22, 1901 .. ratified by the President January 30, 1901; ratifications exchanged March 23, 1901; proclaimed March 23, 1901.

1901 - Hay-Pauncefote Treaty - nullified Clayton-Bulwer Treaty in exchange for free access to build a canal across Central America

1901 - Boxer Protocol AKA Treaty of 1901, Peace Agreement between the Great Powers and China - one of the Unequal Treaties with China

1902 - Naturalization Convention - with Haiti

1903 - Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty - establishes the Panama Canal Zone

1903 - Cuban-American Treaty of Relations (1903) - completed lease on

1905 - Taft-Katsura Agreement - Japan and U.S. agree on spheres of influence in Asia

1906 - Second Geneva Convention - treatment of wounded, sick and shipwrecked members of armed forces at sea

1906 - Inter-American Convention Establishing the Status of Naturalized Citizens Who Again Take Up Residence in the Country of Their Origin

1907 - Gentlemen's Agreement - limiting Japanese immigration to the U.S.

1907 - Naturalization Convention - with Peru

1908 - Naturalization Convention - with Portugal

1908 - Naturalization Convention - with El Salvador

1908 - Naturalization Convention - with Honduras

1908 - Naturalization Convention - with Nicaragua

1908 - Naturalization Convention - with Uruguay

1909 - Boundary Waters Treaty - regulates water quantity and water quality along the boundary between Canada and the United States.

1911 - Naturalization Convention - with Costa Rica

1911 - North Pacific Fur Seal Convention of 1911 - first international treaty for wildlife preservation

1912 - International Opium Convention - first international drug control treaty

1917 - Lansing-Ishii Agreement - trade treaty between the U.S. and Japan

1918 - Migratory Bird Treaty - Environment treaty with the United Kingdom representing Canada, to protect birds which migrate between Canada and the U.S.

1921 - U.S.-Austrian Peace Treaty (1921) - separate World War I peace agreement between United States and Austria

1921 - Treaty of Berlin - separate World War I peace agreement between United States and Germany

1923 - Treaty of Lausanne - sets the boundaries of the modern Republic of Turkey

1925 - Anglo-American Convention - American acceptance of the provisions of the Mandate for Palestine and supervision of British performance as mandatory of the Mandate for Palestine.

1925 - Hay-Quesada Treaty - America accepts Cuban ownership of Isle of Pines.

1928 - Kellogg-Briand Pact - calls "for the renunciation of war as an instrument of national policy"

1929 - Geneva Convention on Prisoners of War - establishes rules for the treatment of prisoners of war

1930 - London Naval Treaty - regulates submarine warfare and shipbuilding

1934 - Treaty of Relations - agreements between United States and Cuba s:United States - Cuban Agreements and Treaty of 1934

1937 - Treaty Defining Liability for Military Service, etc. - with Lithuania

1943 - Sino-American Treaty for the Relinquishment of Extraterritorial Rights in China - relinquished previous U.S. rights to extraterritoriality in China

1944 - Bretton Woods Agreement - establishes the rules for commercial and financial relations among the major industrial states

1945 - UN Charter - establishes the United Nations

1946 - Bermuda Agreement - bilateral treaty on Civil Aviation between U.S. and United Kingdom

1946 - Treaty of Manila (1946) - United States recognizes independence of the Republic of the Philippines

1947 - General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) - establishes rules for international trade

1947 - Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance (Rio Treaty) - Western Hemisphere mutual defense

1947 - Convention on International Civil Aviation AKA Chicago Convention - establishes International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)

1949 - North Atlantic Treaty (Treaty of Washington) - establishes NATO mutual defense organization

1949 - Fourth Geneva Convention - establishes rules for the protection of civilians during times of war

1949 - Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation between the United States of America and the Republic of China - establishes amiable relations between the U.S. and China.

U.S.-Native American treaties

From 1778 to 1871, the United States government entered into more than 500 treaties with the Native American tribes; all of these treaties have since been violated in some way or outright broken by the US government, Native Americans and First Nations peoples are still fighting for their treaty rights in federal courts and at the United Nations.

In addition to treaties, which are ratified by the US Senate and signed by the US President, there were also Acts of Congress and Executive Orders which dealt with land agreements. The U.S. military and representatives of a tribe, or sub unit of a tribe, signed documents which were understood at the time to be treaties, rather than armistices, ceasefires and truces.

The entries from 1784 to 1895 were initially created by information gathered by Charles C. Royce and published in the U.S. Serial Set, Number 4015, 56th Congress, 1st Session, in 1899. The purpose of the Schedule of Indian Land Cessions was to indicate the location of each cession by or reservation for the Indian Tribes. Royce's column headings are titled: "Date, Where or how concluded, Reference, Tribe, Description of cession or reservation, historical data and remarks, Designation of cession on map, Number, Location".

Treaty-making between various Native American governments and the United States officially concluded on March 3, 1871 with the passing of the United States Code Title 25, Chapter 3, Subchapter 1, Section 71 ( 25 U.S.C. § 71). Pre-existing treaties were grandfathered, and further agreements were made under domestic law.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
List of United States treaties - Wikipedia

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
This is a list of treaties to which the United States has been a party or which have had direct relevance to U.S. history. Before the United States Declaration of Independence in 1776, the sovereign of the United Kingdom and the leaders of various North American colonies negotiated treaties that affected the territory of what would later become the United States.

# data[].attributes.body
Can you share some stories with the class? Check your paper organizer for some choices.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
As more cities and states consider marking Indigenous Peoples Day instead of Columbus Day, one Native American scholar aims to set the record straight on where the movement began.

Increasingly, Columbus Day is giving people pause.

More and more towns and cities across the country are electing to celebrate Indigenous Peoples Day as an alternative to -or in addition to-the day intended to honor Columbus' voyages.

Critics of the change see it as just another example of political correctness run amok-another flashpoint of the culture wars.

As a scholar of Native American history -and a member of the Lumbee Tribe of North Carolina-I know the story is more complex than that.

The growing recognition and celebration of Indigenous Peoples Day actually represents the fruits of a concerted, decades-long effort to recognize the role of Indigenous people in the nation's history.

Why Columbus?

Columbus Day is a relatively new federal holiday.

In 1892, a joint congressional resolution prompted President Benjamin Harrison to mark the "discovery of America by Columbus," in part because of "the devout faith of the discoverer and for the divine care and guidance which has directed our history and so abundantly blessed our people."

Europeans invoked God's will to impose their will on Indigenous people. So it seemed logical to call on God when establishing a holiday celebrating that conquest, too.

Of course, not all Americans considered themselves blessed in 1892. That same year, a lynching forced Black journalist Ida B. Wells to flee her hometown of Memphis. And while Ellis Island had opened in January of that year, welcoming European immigrants, Congress had already banned Chinese immigration a decade before, subjecting Chinese people living in the U.S. to widespread persecution.

And then there was the government's philosophy towards the country's Native Americans, which Army Col. Richard Henry Pratt so unforgettably articulated in 1892: "All the Indian there is in the race should be dead. Kill the Indian in him, and save the man."

It took 42 more years for Columbus Day to formally become a federal holiday, thanks to a 1934 decree by President Franklin D. Roosevelt.

He was responding, in part, to a campaign by the Knights of Columbus, a national Catholic charity founded to provide services to Catholic immigrants. Over time, its agenda expanded to include advocacy for Catholic social values and education.

Members of the Virdone family smile on Fifth Avenue during the annual Columbus Day Parade on Oct. 8, 2012, in New York City. The parade was launched in 1929 and is billed as the world's largest celebration of Italian American heritage, featuring more than 35,000 participants. Photo by Mario Tama/Getty Images.

When Italians first arrived in the United States, they were targets of marginalization and discrimination. Officially celebrating Christopher Columbus-an Italian Catholic-became one way to affirm the new racial order that would emerge in the U.S. in the 20th century, one in which the descendants of diverse ethnic European immigrants became "White" Americans.

Indigenous People Power

But some Americans started to question why Indigenous people-who'd been in the country all along-didn't have their own holiday.

In the 1980s, Colorado's American Indian Movement chapter began protesting the celebration of Columbus Day. In 1989, activists in South Dakota persuaded the state to replace Columbus Day with Native American Day. Both states have large Native populations that played active roles in the Red Power Movement in the 1960s and 1970s, which sought to make American Indian people more politically visible.

Then, in 1992, at the 500th anniversary of Columbus' first voyage, American Indians in Berkeley, California, organized the first " Indigenous Peoples Day," a holiday the City Council soon formally adopted. Berkeley has since replaced its commemoration of Columbus with a celebration of Indigenous people.

Dancers from Anahuacalmecac International University Preparatory of North America, a school for Indigenous students, pray before dancing on Hollywood Boulevard near the El Capitan Theatre and Jimmy Kimmel Live Studio during an event celebrating Indigenous Peoples Day on Oct. 8, 2017, in Los Angeles, California. Photo by David McNew/Getty Images.

The holiday can also trace its origins to the United Nations. In 1977, Indigenous leaders from around the world organized a United Nations conference in Geneva to promote Indigenous sovereignty and self-determination. Their first recommendation was "to observe October 12, the day of so-called 'discovery' of America, as an International Day of Solidarity with the Indigenous Peoples of the Americas." It took 30 more years for their work to be formally recognized in the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, which was adopted in September 2007.

Unexpected Allies

Today, cities with significant Native populations, such as Seattle, Portland, Oregon, and Los Angeles now celebrate either Native American Day or Indigenous Peoples Day. And states like Hawaii, Nevada, Minnesota, Alaska, and Maine have also formally recognized their Native populations with similar holidays. Many Native governments, like the Cherokee and Osage in Oklahoma, either don't observe Columbus Day or have replaced it with their own holiday.

But you'll also find commemorations in less likely places. Alabama celebrates Native American Day alongside Columbus Day, as does North Carolina, which, with a population of more than 120,000 Native Americans, has the largest number of Native Americans of any state east of the Mississippi River.

A statue of Christopher Columbus at a downtown Los Angeles park is surrounded by a chain-link fence on Oct. 9, 2017, in Los Angeles, California. Photo by Frederic J. Brown/AFP via Getty Images.

In 2018, the town of Carrboro, North Carolina, issued a resolution to celebrate Indigenous Peoples Day. The resolution noted the fact that the town of 21,000 had been built on Indigenous land and that it was committed to "protect, respect, and fulfill the full range of inherent human rights," including those of Indigenous people.

While Columbus Day affirms the story of a nation created by Europeans for Europeans, Indigenous Peoples Day emphasizes Native histories and Native people-an important addition to the country's ever-evolving understanding of what it means to be American.
This article was originally published by The Conversation. It has been republished here with permission.
Inspiration in Your Inbox

Sign up to receive email updates from YES!

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Native History of Indigenous Peoples Day

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
As more cities and states consider marking Indigenous Peoples Day instead of Columbus Day, one Native American scholar aims to set the record straight on where the movement began.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Extended Trailer | Native America: A Documentary Exploring the World of America’s First Peoples

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Indigenous People Review Native American Characters In Film & TV

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Indigenous People Answer Commonly Googled Questions About Native Americans

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
This 13 Years Old Girl STANDS UP to the Dakota Access Pipeline!

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Mapping

We strive to map Indigenous territories, treaties, and languages across the world in a way that goes beyond colonial ways of thinking in order to better represent how Indigenous people want to see themselves.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Native Land is a resource to learn more about Indigenous territories, languages, lands, and ways of life. We welcome you to our site.

# data[].attributes.body
The Indigenous Group you chose may not be on here. You may need to search for other sources. Make sure to focus on past and present when possible.

# data[].attributes.body
1. The tribe that I am researching is named Siletz. 2. The place the tribe lived was Fisherman's paradise. 3. I am feeling a confidence level of 3 because I feel OK

# data[].attributes.body
1. The tribe that i am researching is named multnomah.
2. The place the tribe lived was Portland Oregon .
3. I am feeling good level of 3 because i love writing and sometimes and taking notes.

# data[].attributes.body
1. the tribe that i am researching is named  Multnomah

2. the place the tribe lived was portland

3. i am felling a confidence level of 3 because i fell good about multnomah and i think did good.

# data[].attributes.body
The tribe i'm researching is Cowlitz. The place they lived was close to portland. I'm feeling confident level 2 about this research .

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
WE ARE STILL HERE - NATIVE AMERICAN HERITAGE MONTH @thebookwrangler