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Holocaust Memorial. Rachel Whiteread, Judenplatz, Vienna, Austria, 2000.

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Holocaust Memorial. Rachel Whiteread, Judenplatz, Vienna, Austria, 2000.

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This Viennese Holocaust Memorial is a quite controversial monument that commemorates an event in history that shaped humanity and changed the lives of countless people. The city of Vienna held a nationwide competition in 1996 in order to select an artist to create a monument commemorating the countless Austrian Jews who lost their lives at the hand of the Nazi regime during World War II. Rachel Whiteread, a British sculptor was chosen for this project and was honored to take on such a project. She was met with controversy however and had to wait 4 years to begin work on the monument due to the Austrians believing that the Holocaust was to be forgotten completely and monuments such as this Holocaust memorial would only serve to re-ignite the terrible memories of the Holocaust. She also met opposition due to her minimalist style which juxtaposed the surrounding Baroque area. The actual monument features very minimal details such as the low relief entrance and books lined on the shelves. The books were a reference to the Jews as “People of the Book” and also referenced the notorious book burnings that the Nazi regime made commonplace. The monument also features inscriptions on the ground of the base that show the name of several Nazi Concentration camps. She incorporated multiple national identities in the work by writing these inscriptions in German, English, and Hebrew. The location of the memorial is also important as it is situated directly where a former Jewish synagogue once existed in the 15th century. While the monument appears to have doors, these are simply relief sculptures and the monument cannot be physically entered, which created the idea that the Austrian history is reserved and sealed inside the memorial. Whiteread’s ability to transform negative space into monuments that leave lasting marks on their respective locations, cement her as an innovate artist who sparks conversation through her work. This work is another example of honoring the dead and specifically desires to commemorate the countless Austrian lives lost in the Holocaust.

Themes: minimalism, juxtaposition, memory, dignity, negative space.

Possible connections

Vietnam Veterans Memorial: This work is similar to the Holocaust memorial both in its minimalist style that drew controversy from the citizens of each respective city, and also its subject matter, venerating those lost in war.

Chavin de Huantar: This temple complex featured relief sculptures that were similar in form to the outer relief seen in the Holocaust memorial and featured shallow indentations in the stone in order to depict a scene.

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Memorial Sheet for Karl Liebknecht. Kathe Kollwitz. 1919-1920 CE. Woodcut

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Memorial Sheet for Karl Liebknecht. Kathe Kollwitz. 1919-1920 CE. Woodcut

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This woodcut print was created in direct response to the brutal death of Karl Liebknecht, a respected and revered Communist leader responsible for multiple movements, specifically an armed revolt against the German socialist government in January of 1919. Along with other leader Rosa Luxemburg, he was murdered by military officers with the approval of the government leaders. Kollwitz often depicted emotional scenes in her works and through her art, showed her advocacy for social issues. Although she was trained as a painter, Kollwitz changed her focus towards prints and lithography in order to be able to have her work be replicable and viewed by a widespread audience. Through her prints, Kollwitz helped spread her political message and helped influence the German people during a very decisive time in German history where Germany was led by coalitions of left wing groups such as the Social Democratic Party and German Communist Party. The Socialists and Communists both desired to get rid of Capitalism but they differed in the means by which they desired to achieve this goal. Karl Liebknecht is considered to be a martyr towards the communist cause and in this lamentation piece, he is portrayed as the central Christ figure with countless people mourning around him. The work is composed of three horizontal sections each depicting a different element of the scene. The top section is packed with heads and features a crowded composition. The middle section has a less packed composition and instead draws attention to the figure directly mourning over the body of Liebknecht. The woodblock technique of the work allowed for the raw and stark feel of the scene to be perfectly displayed through the sharp and contrasted edges that make up the work. Wood prints such as these evoke a sense of honor and respect towards the deceased that are displayed and communicate the solidarity that the German people had in their efforts to bring along social change.

Themes: Political turmoil, mourning, memorial, raw emotion, martyrdom.

Possible Connections

Arena Chapel, including Lamentation: This work can be connected to the Memorial Sheet of Karl Liebknecht in that it features a lamentation similar in form to the memorial sheet however very different in subject matter,

Adam and Eve: This work connects to the Memorial sheet in that it also benefited from the creation of mechanical reproduction and used these means to replicate the work and spread it to other regions and countries.

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Tamati Waka Nene. Gottfried Lindauer. 1890 CE. Oil on canvas. 

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Tamati Waka Nene. Gottfried Lindauer. 1890 CE. Oil on canvas. 

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To the Maori people, portraits such as this oil on canvas work by Gottfried Lindauer are extremely important in that they not only represent and depict ancestors, but help in bringing to life the presence former leaders can have in our world. Gottfried Lindauer was a Czech artist who was a leading Maori painter throughout the 19th century and was known for creating countless Maori portraits and scenes. Lindauer oftentimes portrayed tribal leaders and influential Maori figures who played important roles in the ancestral history of New Zealand. This particular portrait paints Tamati Waka Nene a leader and tohunga (specialist). Lindaur specifically based this portrait off of a portrait taken by a man by the name of John Crombie, and created his oil portrait years after the death of Tamati Waka Nene. He was most likely born in the 1780s and converted to the Wesleyan faith in 1839, changing his name to resemble that of Thomas Walker, an English merchant patron. He specifically was a chief of the Ngatipeople in Hokianga. His people lived during a revolutionary time in New Zealand’s history where British missionaries had significant influence on the changing culture and customs of the Maori indigenous peoples. Many features of the painting depict Maori culture and traditional garment often worn by chiefs and leaders. Some of these features include the kahu kiwi cloak, greenstone earring, and tewhatewha hand weapon, all seen in the work. These objects not only display Maori culture but tell of Nene’s personal mana or power. One of the most striking features of this portrait is the intricately designed facial tattoos on Nene’s face called moko. Lindauer had an interesting technique that focused on realistic portrayal and contrast between light and dark in his three dimensional looking works. Lindaur also altered his portrayal of the Maori depending on the patron of the work and in this case depicted Nene in traditional Maori wear due to the patron being a European purchaser. This work successfully honored and displayed Maori culture in a way that allows the viewer to respect and venerate the dead.

Themes: indigenous peoples, ancestral presence, tribal leaders, mana, tradition.

Possible Connections

Staff God: This work similarly deals with the idea of mana, and in this case, the actual work contains mana within the different layers, while the portrait shows displays that imply the figure containing mana.

George Washington: This work is also created to show the authority and honor a popular leader and important figure to a nation's people.

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Great Stupa at Sanchi. Madhya Pradesh, India. Buddhist; Maurya, late Sunga Dynasty. c. 300 BCE-100 CE. Stone masonry, sandstone on dome. 

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Great Stupa at Sanchi. Madhya Pradesh, India. Buddhist; Maurya, late Sunga Dynasty. c. 300 BCE-100 CE. Stone masonry, sandstone on dome. 

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A stupa is an essential form of Buddhist architecture that has the ability to represent various facets of the Buddhist religion such as Buddha himself, the path to Enlightenment, and the entire universe itself. Stupas generally serve as sepulchres, or places of burial or receptacles for religious objects. Early Buddhist stupas would contain amounts of Buddha’s ashes therefore the mound served as a burial site and location where the energy of the Buddha would be activated. Stupas often exhibit a domed shape which is representative of the seated pose Buddha took during meditation known as the lotus pose. The base would represent the crossed legs, the middle of the stupa would represent the Buddha’s body and the top would represent his head. Under King Ashoka, Buddhism was embraced and respected as a religion and King Ashoka himself was responsible for building upwards of eighty thousand stupas in his lifetime. He created these stupas all around northern India and other Mauryan territories, and built them in specific locations where converts could have access to the tools needed to reach Enlightenment. One of the key elements of a stupa is the yasti or spike at the top of the structure which represents the concept of axis mundi, or a line through the center of the earth around which the universe revolves. The yasti is additionally surrounded by other aspects such as a harmika or fence, and chattras or umbrella objects that symbolize protection. One of the most important aspects of a stupa is the activity of circumambulation. Visitors to the stupa would walk around the stupa in the clockwise direction observing the stupa and focusing on the teachings of Buddha. This specific stupa features four 34 foot tall sandstone tornas which mark the four compass points and reflect the form of earlier Indian wood gates. Various toranas have unique capitals as well and depict various events and figures such honorific processions and dwarves and lions. These toranas are also adorned with relief sculptures which can be attributed to local guilds of ivory carvers. These relief sculptures depict episodes from the life of Buddha and tell various tales from his past lives. While the life of Buddha is deprecated in these reliefs, Buddha himself is never directly represented and instead his presence is implied through symbols such as footprints, the seat of his enlightenment, and a stupa. This work showed how Buddhist culture desired to honor the Buddha and create a burial that celebrates his life and work.

Themes: Enlightenment, burial, meditation, conversion, axis mundi.

Possible connections:

The Kaaba: This work can be connected to the Great Stupa as it also allows and encourages through its construction, the meditative practice of circumambulation.

Templo Mayor: This work connected to the Great Stupa as it also serves as an axis mundi or center of the world to its respective Aztec culture.

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Tutankhamun's tomb, innermost coffin. New Kingdom, 18th Dynasty. c. 1323. BCE. Gold with inlay of enamel and semiprecious stones. 

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Tutankhamun's tomb, innermost coffin. New Kingdom, 18th Dynasty. c. 1323. BCE. Gold with inlay of enamel and semiprecious stones. 

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Tutankhamen is one of the most famous Egyptian pharaohs and is specifically the most well known ruler from the Post-Amarna Period. In this period of Egyptian history, the pharaoh Akhenaten turned the religious attention towards the worship of the sun god Aten. Although he is one of the most well known Egyptian rulers, he was actually quite unimportant in Egyptian history as he died at the age of 18 due to unknown causes. Howard Carter, a British archaeologist is credited with re-discovering Tutankhamen’s tomb and mummy. The enshrined body of the pharaoh was the principal item in the tomb. The mummy has  three layers with the innermost coffin being the most luxurious of the three. The innermost coffin is made of about a quarter ton of solid gold and is inlaid with various precious stones such as lapis lazuli, turquoise and carnelian. The innermost coffin depicts Tutankhamen as a god, and the precious stones and materials tell us that he has entered his divine form. The death mask is one of the most ornate and grand pieces of Egyptian art and was constructed with two sheets of solid gold. He is depicted wearing a striped nemes headdress and has a false beard, connecting him to the image of a god. This work shows ancestor veneration in that it exhibits how Egyptian society treated their leaders as Gods and honored their life and facilitated their passage into the afterlife.

Themes: importance of the pharaoh, archaeological discovery, ancient tombs, material wealth of the Egyptians. Ruler veneration

Possible connections:

-   Sarcophagus of the Spouses: This work uses a similar funerary practice, the use of a sarcophagus with a human form depicted on the outer and inner layers of the work.

-   Merovingian looped fibulae: use of precious inlaid stones worked into the base metal, which depicts lifelike features.

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Tomb of the Triclinium. Tarquinia, Italy. Etruscan. c. 480-470 BCE. Tufa and Fresco.

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Tomb of the Triclinium. Tarquinia, Italy. Etruscan. c. 480-470 BCE. Tufa and Fresco.

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The Tomb of the Triclinium is an Etruscan chamber tomb (tomb cut out of rock underground) located in the Monterozzi necropolis of Tarquinia, a region in Italy. The Etruscan people amassed wealth through vast trade networks, and painted chamber tombs such as the Tomb of the Triclinium reveal Etruscan funerary culture and tell of how the elite participated in elaborate funerary rituals. The tomb seen in this work is a single chamber which features multiple wall paintings in the form of frescoes. The main scene is painted of the rear wall of the tomb and is a depiction of a banquet and those enjoying it. Stylistic comparisons can be made between the reclining figures in this work and contemporary attic pottery imported from Greece. The garments of the subjects allows us to realize that the banquet depicted was likely a ceremony being held amongst the elite. The alternate left and right walls feature music and dancing scenes. Artistically gender conventions are followed in these paintings as the women have lighter skin and the men have slightly darker skin. The jovial theme of the tomb is not surprising as Etruscan funerary rituals were festive events where a grand final meal was shared with the deceased and helped them transition from the world of the living to the dead. Tombs like these also served the purpose of reinforcing the the socio-economic status of the deceased person and their respective family. This work showed how Etruscans valued honor and respect towards those who died and left legacies in their society,

Themes: funerary culture, elite status, funeral banquets, celebration, artistic conventions

Possible connections

Arena Chapel: this work also features a fresco mural similar to that seen on the interior walls of the Tomb of the Triclinium

Sarcophagus of the Spouses: This work also comes from the Etruscan culture, and similarly to the frescos in the Tomb of the Triclinium, this work depicts the spouses as they would be at a banquet.

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Anthropomorphic Stele. Arabian Peninsula. Fourth millenium BCE. Sandstone.

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Anthropomorphic Stele. Arabian Peninsula. Fourth millenium BCE. Sandstone.

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The Anthropomorphic Stele from Ha’il is a tall three foot free standing stone sculpture that appears to be vaguely human or anthropomorphic. The frontal side of the sculpture shows a robed figure who wears a necklace, a cross body awl, (small pointed tool) and carries a double bladed dagger around the figure's waist. The sculpture was found in a small village in Saudi Arabia and was one of more than 60 low relief sculptures found across the Arabian Peninsula. Other works discovered in nearby areas show similar figural representation, and a rock wall in Tabuk, a nearby city, shows the same cords and double edged dagger seen in the anthropomorphic stele. The presence of materials from other regions in Pre-Islamic Arabic art such as the stele tells us that works from this period were oftentimes circulated across territories. One common interpretation of the Ha’il stele was that this work served as a grave marker in an open air sanctuary. There is no conclusive information on who produced this work, however a leading theory is that a specialist stone carver most likely created this minimal and impressively carved representative figure. This work connects to my theme in that it served as a way for ancient society to mark their graves and venerate their dead ancestors.

Themes: minimalism, human representation, trade across territory, anthropomorphism, archaeology, ritual burial practices.

Possible connections

The Kiss (Brancusi): has a similar use of figurative abstraction and similar appearance in form and abstract depiction of the human form

Female Deity Nukuoro: this work exhibits a similar abstracted and simplified human form with minor details that identify the figure as a human and allow the viewer to observe the gender of the figure.