# data[].attributes.body
The skull, consisting of 22 different bones, which join each other through cranial sutures. It is one of the most important bones in the body, as it protects our brain. As we develop and grow, it increasingly becomes harder (Anderson et al, 2023).

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This includes everything: voluntary and involuntary movement, our senses, our emotions, thoughts and therefore the creation and regulation of hormones... our body only works because our brain directs it to.

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Nerves (in yellow, part of the peripheral system)

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Nerves (in yellow, part of the peripheral system)

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Nerves are tissue, and as they are part of the nervous system the cell that composes them is called a neuron. Nerves collect information from the outside environment (ie: it is very bright) and send such information to the brain, which can then send a command to a certain body part (ie: pupils constrict).

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The spinal cord is the point at which all the nerves meet, and how they connect for the information to reach the brain. This is why any injuries to the spinal cord can result in paralysis: if the injury is grave enough, the nerves can disconnect from each other, and no longer receive or send instructions to the brain, meaning voluntary movement from the injury down is no longer possible.

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The brains is an organ that is responsible for receiving, processing, and sending information to and from the other parts of the system.

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There is a part of our brain called Medulla oblongata that is responsible for our involuntary movement. If you injure that part, you most likely will die, because you disconnect the brain from the nerves in the muscles and glands (which includes the heart) ad our body can no longer function.

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In our muscular system, depending on the type of muscle, it will either move voluntarily or involuntarily, which means we either control the movement or we don't. Skeletal muscles move according to our will, while Cardiac and Smooth muscles move without us needing to tell them to.

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We only have one cardiac muscle: our heart. Its cells are made of filaments because it needs to be strong to perform its function (to distribute blood through the body). The filaments, in this case, are connected, as the muscle has to move as one to work properly. If the filaments weren't connected, you would have arrhythmia.

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Smooth muscles move very slowly, so they do not need filaments. Their cells are flexible, and their form enhances that, in order to perform peristalsis, which is the smooth movement. For example, when we swallow, our esophagus does peristalsis to push the push the food or drink down.

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Skeletal muscles, as said before, move at our will because they are responsible for movement. This goes from walking to touching your nose. Their cells are made of filaments because they need to be strong, but the filaments aren't connected, as this allows for the movement of separate muscles (ie: bending your arm) where one contracts and the other relaxes, rather than moving as a whole.

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Whenever we exercise, our muscles suffer microtears (which is why it hurts). Working your muscles too much, and having larger tears could result in an injury, which is why its always important to lift weights with caution. Anyhow, our cells fill the small holes that are formed with protein, meaning the muscle is now slightly bigger. Over time, the change becomes apparent.

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Breaks down food and absorbs nutrients.

Mouth: Responsible for mastication; teeth do mechanical digestion, which basically means tearing the food into smaller pieces.

Salivatory gland: The saliva helps with chemical digestion, where its acidity has a chemical reaction with food and helps break it down, especially with carbohydrates.

Esophagus: Connects the mouth to the stomach, taking the food down.

Liver: Rids our body of toxins (drugs, alcohol). Produces bile.

Gallbladder: Stores bile, which helps our digestive system break down fats.

Stomach: The storage area for food. It starts the digestion process with acids, as well as contracting to mix the food. . It has a mucus wall to protect itself, while our throat does not, which is why you feel a burning sensation in your throat if you throw up.

Pancreas: Regulates blood with insulin and glucagon, as well as releasing digestive enzymes.

Small intestine: Absorbs the macromolecules (nutrients) and vitamins and sends them to the blood. The digestive enzymes act here.

Large intestine: Absorbs water.

Rectum: stores fesces.

Anus: releases fesces. Has two muscles: voluntary and involuntary.

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Not eating enough carbohydrates means your body will not have enough energy for basic body functions. This can even mean loosing brain power.

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Our body needs three main nutrients, which are called macromolecules: Carbohydrates, responsible for energy, Protein, responsible for building protein such as hair, nails, and muscles, and Fat, responsible for regulating our hormones and storing energy (for when carbohydrates might not be available).

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Our stomach contracting is also peristalsis.

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ATP is a form of energy- as is the sun, or heat, or electricity- for cells. They need it in order to be able to perform their functions.

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Receive information chemically; branched in order to do so.

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Shaped as a wire in order to transmit information electrically.

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Also branched, in order to send the information chemically.

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The cell needs ATP in order to constantly be able to transmit the signals electrically.

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The mitochondria is an organelle responsible for performing cellular respiration and transforming glucose and oxygen into ATP. Mostly related to the cardiovascular and respiratory systems (oxygen) and the digestive system (glucose from carbohydrates).

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The nucleous is what contains the DNA of our bodies; in the process of a zygote, which is what the fertilized egg cell is called, becoming a fetus and eventually a human being, the nucleus stores how each part of the body should be made, and when growing, with the need of proteins, the information on creating amino acids and turning them into proteins comes from it too.

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The ribosome is responsible for reading the mRNA, which is a copy of the genetic information in the DNA, but in a manner that our body understands it, and using it to create amino acids.

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The endoplasmic is essentially a "factory" that stores and transports the protein made by the nucleus and the ribosome into its correct place. It is also responsible for transporting the mRNA.

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Cooper, G. M. (2000). Lysosomes - The Cell. NCBI. Retrieved December 4, 2023, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK9953/

Anderson, B. W., Kortz, M. W., Black, A. C., & Al Kharazi., K. A. (2023, November 09). Anatomy, Head and Neck, Skull - StatPearls. NCBI. Retrieved December 5, 2023, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK499834/

DeCoster, M. A. (2023, June 16). Calcium dynamics in the central nervous system. Science Direct. Retrieved December 5, 2023, from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/096054289500015T

5 Reasons Why Meditation is Beneficial to Your Nervous System. (2022, February 16). The Australian & New Zealand Mental Health Association. Retrieved December 5, 2023, from https://anzmh.asn.au/blog/5-reasons-why-meditation-is-beneficial-to-your-nervous-system

The musculoskeletal system review (article). (n.d.). Khan Academy. Retrieved December 6, 2023, from https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-human-body-systems/hs-the-musculoskeletal-system/a/hs-the-musculoskeletal-system-review

Skeletal, Muscular and Cardiovascular Systems. (n.d.). Nimbin Central School. Retrieved December 6, 2023, from https://nimbin-c.schools.nsw.gov.au/content/dam/doe/sws/schools/n/nimbin-c/covid-19-resources/secondary/stage-5/St_5_PASS2_Mr_Everingham.pdf

Smith, C. (2012, November 16). Anatomy and Physiology: The Relationships of the Respiratory System. Visible Body. Retrieved December 6, 2023, from https://www.visiblebody.com/blog/anatomy-and-physiology-the-relationships-of-the-respiratory-system

DW Planet A (2021, June 18) Neuromarketing: How brands are getting your brain to buy more stuff [Video]. Retrieved December 10, 2023, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mkDVC_izIV0

Big Think (2021, July 27) How Apple and Nike have branded your brain | Your Brain on Money | Big Think [Video]. Retrieved December 10, 2023, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4eIDBV4Mpek

Snoffle (2019, September 1) How Targeted Advertising Works [Video]. Retrieved December 10, 2023, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c5QoOvW2_fg

Mike Lamb (2021, June 1)Targeted Ads: The Dark Side of Divulging Your Data [Video]. Retrieved December 10, 2023, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yVwKQqbMw-c

William, H., & Gallego, J. (2021, August 11). The risks of targeted advertising. GetTerms.io. Retrieved December 10, 2023, from https://getterms.io/blog/the-risks-of-targeted-advertising

Berreby, D. (2017, March 3). Click to agree with what? No one reads terms of service, studies confirm. The Guardian. Retrieved December 2, 2023, from https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2017/mar/03/terms-of-service-online-contracts-fine-print

Huettel, S. A., Stanton, S. J., & Sinnott-Armstrong, W. (2017, September). Neuromarketing: Ethical Implications of its Use and Potential Misuse. Jornal of Buisness Ethics. Retrieved December 11, 2023, from https://www.jstor.org/stable/45022222?seq=2

Egg cell. (2023, November 24). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egg_cell

Cell organelles and their functions [Image]. (n.d.). Geeks for Geeks. https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/cell-organelles-definition-structure-types-functions/

Circulation [Image]. (n.d.). Quizlet. https://quizlet.com/252447641/cardiovascular-system-diagram/

The Digestive System [Image]. (2017, December). National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/digestive-diseases/digestive-system-how-it-works

Endocrine system [Image]. (2023, March 13). United States Environmental Protection Agency. https://www.epa.gov/endocrine-disruption/overview-endocrine-system

[Female reproductive system with labels]. (2016, April 14). Everyday Health.https://www.everydayhealth.com/sexual-health/female-reproductive-organs.aspx

Human Respiratory System [Image]. (2022, March). Research Gate. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Human-Respiratory-System_fig1_361140085

Human skull [Image]. (n.d.). Encyclopædia Britannica.
https://www.britannica.com/science/skull#/media/1/547812/149110

[Male reproductive system with labels]. (n.d.). True. https://www.true.org.au/clinic/health-information/men-s-health

Peripheral nervous system [Image]. (2022). Cleveland Clinic.
https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/body/23123-peripheral-nervous-system-pns

[Sensory, relay, and motor neurons labeled and explained]. (2022, September 23).Tutor 2 U. https://www.tutor2u.net/psychology/reference/biopsychology-sensory-relay-and-motor-neurons

Skeletal system image [Image]. (2023, February 25). Lybrate. https://www.lybrate.com/topic/skeletal-system-image

Smith, S. (2022, February 28). Structure of a neuron [Illustration]. Healthline.https://www.healthline.com/health/neurons

Structure and parts of a sperm cell [Image]. (2022, August 3). Invitra. https://www.invitra.com/en/sperm-cell/

Types of muscle [Image]. (2016, January 16). Socratic. https://socratic.org/questions/what-is-the-function-of-the-muscular-system

[Structure of the red blood cell with labels]. (n.d.). Bitesize.
https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/z86q2p3/revision/1

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Lysosome (known as the "digestive system of the cell")

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Lysosome (known as the "digestive system of the cell")

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The Lysosome is responsible for breaking down cells that are no longer used, with digestive enzymes. This could also be bacteria or viruses (Cooper, 2000).

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Is triggered by stimuli from the environment; this can be all five senses (sight, hearing, smell, taste, touch). Will send the information received to the brain.

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Connects neurons to one another, passing the information along.

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What makes things move. The motor neurons receive instructions from the brain and send them to either muscles or glands.

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Hormones are similar to neurotransmittors, but they are messages sent more to your body parts than to your brain; they transport such messages through our blood streams to our tissues and organs.

Hormones are in charge of growth & development, our metabolisms, mood, sexual functions, and reproduction.

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Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that send information chemically from one neuron to another. Some neurotransmitters can also be hormones, where the distinction is made if the reactions are mainly neurological or involve the body as well.

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Gaba reduces brain activity; Alcohol stimulates the creation of Gaba, which means it might make you more relaxed, but it will also make you "loosen up", AKA say whatever comes to mind, because it reduces your filter. People with anxiety have less of this neurotransmitter.

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This is a "happy" neurotransmitter- it brings the feeling of well-being. It has an impact on your sleep cycle and digestive system.

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Dopamine makes you feel good as well-but it is more based on pleasure than happiness, and it is addicting, giving us the urge to repeat actions that give us dopamine. A lot of dopamine clouds our judgment because it has an impact on our pre-frontal cortex, reducing our critical thinking levels.

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Our reward system is meant to aid us with motivation, which is why a way to trigger it is getting tasks done. There are two ways to activate it:

Hard: good grades, winning a championship (requires effort)

Easy: cocaine, alcohol, sex, social media (addictive)

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Adrenaline is an example of a hormone AND a neurotransmitter. It activates our fight or flight instincts, and has physical effects on our bodies, such as accelerated heart rate, sweating, and shutting down functions such as pain.

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Connection to nervous system (as well as hormones)

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Connection to nervous system (as well as hormones)

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If, through our sensory neurons, our body sensed danger, the brain, through relay neurons, would tell the motor neuron to send the signal to the adrenal gland and some of the central nervous systems' neurons to create adrenaline, which is then released in our bloodstream and distributed by our veins and arteries around the body. When it reaches the heart muscle, the adrenaline will cause it to beat fast, as the body is entering the "fight or flight" state (for which it will need a lot of energy, so the heart must start oxygenating the body). The arteries distribute the blood with oxygen and glucose (gathered from the digestive system) through the body, and depending on what your brain decides you should do in the situation it will instruct the motor neurons to tell certain parts to move (could be the voluntary leg muscles to run or your voluntary arm muscles to punch someone, for example) and your heart will send more blood with oxygen to them, bringing the blood with CO2 and water back and exhaling it quickly.

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Fertilizes the female egg with sperm in order to form a zygote and eventually offspring.

Urethra: both pee (from the bladder) and semen come out, differently from the female body where pee is in a different hole (also urethra) than the reproductive system.

Testis: hold the sperm cell. Why do they hang? Sperm cells are actually very sensitive, and need a very specific temperature to survive; the human body is too hot. The testicles regulate temperature very well.

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Ovaries: hold the egg cell.

Vagina: mucusa. This means that it has easy access to our bloodstream, which leads it to be, unfortunately, vulnerable to pathogens, especially because it doesn't have much protection (nose has hairs and mucus, for example).

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Inside our brain, the Hypothelamus releases GnRH, which is the growth hormone. This activates the puberty process. The Pituary gland, also in the brain, starts producing LH and FSH, which are released in the blood to distribute to the body. For females, this would go to the ovalries to produce estrogen and projesterone, which are, again, released in the blood and taken around our body for all the changes that need to happen to occur (not only in the uterus; this includes hip growth, breast development, etc). For men, the same happens but in the testis.

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Glands are responsible for producing and secreting hormones. Some hormones are in common independant of the gender, but some are more prevalent in one or the other.

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Testosterone is mostly prevalent in men, where it is produced in Testis, but it is also present in women, where it is produced in the adrenal cortex in the brain at low levels. Testosterone is responsible for the deepening of men's voice through the growth of the larinx, growth of body hair, and sperm cell growth.

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Estrogen and Progesterone are hormones mostly found in women, produced by the ovary and uterus. While they share many functions, Estrogen holds most of the responsibility of regulating women's periods while Progesterone takes charge of pregnancy- mainly preparing the uterus lining to receive the fertilized egg.

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Holds the egg cell, multiplies zygote cells, and transforms it into an embryo, fetus, and then baby.

It isn't practical to have more than one baby, as it takes a long to raise them and it's too much work. Due to this, many of the eggs form to prevent more than one sperm from entering.

Corona radiata: shaped like that to prevent more than one sperm from entering.

Corticle Granule: releases enzymes to kill remaining sperm.

Mitochondria: The cell needs energy so that, when fertilized, the zygote multiplies and generates a fetus.

Nucleus: has 23 chromosomes to pass over to the embryo.

Zona Pellucida: hardens when a sperm cell enters.

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Tail: used to swim.

Mitochondria: energy used to fuel the movement (tail).

Nucleus: Holds 23 chromosomes (with female it's 46)

Acrosome: Shaped like that to pierce the Corona radiate, as well as releasing enzymes to digest it.

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Heart: a cardiac muscle responsible for pumping blood.

Veins: Take blood from the body parts to the heart.

Arteries: Take blood from the heart to the body parts.

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The cardiovascular and respiratory systems serve similar purposes, both with the end goal of oxygenating our body and therefore allowing the mitochondria in our cells to perform cellular respiration and create ATP for our body to properly function. However, the respiratory system is in charge or getting the oxygen in the bloodstream, while the cardiovascular system distributed that blood around the body.

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Nasal cavity/sinus: we breathe in. It's a mucosa so it has hair and mucus to protect itself from viruses and pathogens.

Pharynx: When you swallow, it closes in order to prevent the food or liquid from traveling up to your nose. When you laugh, it isn't as "effective" and the food could travel up.

Larynx: This is what grows during puberty for a man's voice to deepen. Prevents liquid and food from getting into your tracheae (because the liquid in your lungs is VERY dangerous).

Trachae: Takes the air from the Larynx to the Bronchi.

Alvioli: exchange oxygen for CO2; what is left of cellular respiration ends up being CO2, which is why that's what we breathe out. A bit of water is also released, which is why windows fog up when we breathe in them. It's surrounded by veins and arteries.

Diaphram: a muscle that provides the system the strength to expand when we breathe.

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Insulin and glucagon are hormones; diabetic people's pancreas does not produce enough insulin, meaning their blood sugar is low, so they have to get it artificially.

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The nucleus, ribosome, and endoplasmic serve their functions with basis on the muscular system (as they build proteins for many things, including growing skeletal muscles) and digestive system (which is where we get some of the building blocks for certain types of protein.

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A deficit of fat (which can be healthy fats such as avocado, nuts, and olive oil, not necessarily trans fats found in processed foods) leads to the disregulation of hormones and can result in a woman losing her period.

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Connection to nervous system (and cardiovascular): 

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Connection to nervous system (and cardiovascular): 

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When a man is aroused, he will get an erection. Essentially, what this is is a lot of blood flow and oxygen going to his penis, because it will need a lot of energy to perform sexual intercourse. Our brain receives signals from sensory nerves (could be seeing something that "turns them on" or being touched somewhere) and sends signals to the cardiac muscle to stimulate the blood flow in the area by pumping blood to it, just as it would for someone's legs when they run. This is involuntary.

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Carries the oxygen and CO2 around the budy (through the blood).

Biconcave shape (like a shell): It has a larger surface area while occupying less space, so it can carry more.

No organelles: It doesn't need them, plus without them it can fold which helps it fit into smaller veins and arteries.

Haemoglobin: has iron which allows it to pick up the oxygen. Also, gives blood its red color.

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The skeletal system gives us our shape, sustenting our body (or else we would be a blob). It gives structure to our muscles, protects our organs, stores fat, helps movement, stores minerals, and makes blood cells  (Skeletal, Muscular and Cardiovascular Systems, n.d.).

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The spinal cord is protected by the vertebrae in our spine. Also, bones provide calcium which is crucial for the functioning or the nervous system, especially when it comes to releasing neurotransmitters (Decoster, 2023).

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When we exercise, our body will need more energy, which also means more oxygen. With this, the brain directs the heart to beat faster, as the blood will flow faster and we will get, in turn, a larger supply of oxygen. For example, if you are running, your motor nerves will be directing your leg muscles to move. The cells in our leg and feet muscles need more ATP, so the heart will pump more blood, with oxygen and glucose, towards your legs. Then, the mitochondria in the cells will convert both of them into ATP, with the side effects being CO2 and water, which then gets carried by the blood back. This is where it goes to the respiratory system.

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The increased demand for oxygen also has an impact on the respiratory system, as it needs to work faster. The red blood cells, for both, must travel quicker than before. Therefore, when we exercise we might get out of breath, as the brain is dictating to the system that the body needs more oxygen and we need to breathe more- and faster. Once the blood reaches the legs, as is explained in the other connection, it will come back to the lungs, carrying CO2 and water. The brain is directing the diaphragm muscle to contract and relax faster, to breathe faster, and the blood comes back and gets exhaled as the diaphragm relaxes.

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Breathing is an automatic behavior to us; while we technically have control over it, our medulla oblongata is what takes care of it (and this part of the brain is responsible for involuntary movement). However, by meditating, for example, we take control of our breathing. Here, we can even teach our automatic nervous system to maintain a more balanced breathing rate. We can control our breathing because the muscle that is responsible for it, the diaphragm, is a skeletal muscle; when we meditate, we control our motor neurons in the diaphragm consciously, directing it to inhale and whale at a steady rate, which in turn calms us down, because it breaks patterns of repetition that were caused by stress, anger, and concern, steadying your respiratory, nervous, and even digestive system. (5 Reasons Why Meditation Is Beneficial to Your Nervous System, 2022).

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The peristosis that our stomach performs sometimes happens before we even eat. If it is around the time our brain has understood we eat, and through our sensory neurons we see or smell food, for example, the brain sends the signal to the motor neurons that the stomach should start preparing itself to receive food. Performing the smooth movement while empty leads to the stomach rumbling, and the sound made.

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Connection to nervous system (voluntary)

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Connection to nervous system (voluntary)

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Any movement we do is directed by the brain, whether we consciously can control it or not. Some movements are consequences of what the sensory neurons detect; for example, if we feel a bug bite, our brain will send to the motor neurons the signal to slap it away. This goes for most pain, where our brain tries to take us out of that situation (such as with Bob and the hot pan).

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Connection to nervous system (involuntary)

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Connection to nervous system (involuntary)

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Any movement by smooth or cardiac muscles we cannot control, but our brain is still the one directing it. For example, when women are on their period (reproductive system) they feel cramps because their brain directs the uterus to perform peristalsis to aid with the shedding of the uterus lining. The brain would understand this by the sensory neurons seeing that the hormone levels are low and the period is about to start- which is why cramps can start even before you menstruate.

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If your sensory nerves detect that your body is intoxicated, perhaps because you have eaten something that isn't healthy, it will rush to rid itself of it Because of this, it doesn't pass by the long process of having its water absorbed in the large intestine, which leads to diarrhea.

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How it would work (how a neuron sends information to another).

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How it would work (how a neuron sends information to another).

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1-Mosquito is biting the skin. The sensory neuron detects the prickling feeling.

2-Receptor cell sends the information to the synaotic end bulbs through the axon, electrically.

3-The synaptic end releases neurotransmitters.

4-The neurotransmitters will connect in the dentrite of a new neuron, probably a relay neuron.

5- New neuro will send electrically to the axon the information to the syaptic end.

6-Repeats until it reaches the brain, which then gives the signal to slap it away ---> process repreats but backwards until it reaches the motor neuron, which directs the muscles in the arm and hand to move.

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Connection between skeletal and muscular

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Connection between skeletal and muscular

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The skeletal muscles lie on top of the skeleton- AKA our bones. They are attached through tendons. When the muscle contracts, these act on the bones, which causes movement. The two are interconnected, often referred to each other as the "musculoskeletal" system- which also has ligaments, cartilage, and joints (The Musculoskeletal System Review (Article), n.d.).

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In the skeletal system, our bone marrow is what makes new red and white blood cells, ridding itself of old dirty ones, and sending them to the circulatory system (Skeletal, Muscular and Cardiovascular Systems, n.d.).

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The cardiovascular system distributes not only oxygen but also the nutrients gathered from the food around the body.

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We make sounds because we breathe air. The skeleton responsible for this is laryngeal skeleton, where our vocal cords are. The esophagus and trachea are part of this system. Air passes through it, the chords vibrate, and we make a sound!

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Connection to nervous system (and digestive)

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Connection to nervous system (and digestive)

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How do we smell things? It is through the collaboration of the nervous and respiratory systems that this happens. Our olfactory sensory neurons, placed in tissue inside our nose (close to the nasal cavity) detect smells, and send such things to the brain, which has information on familiar scents- such as your mother's perfume, or your favorite food (which would indicate to your brain you're about to eat, leading to the connection explained in-depth in the digestive system) The brain processes this information and makes the association based on our memories. Based on what it concludes, it might send the motor neurons instructions (so if you smell something bad, associating it with feces, you might check your shoes.)(Smith, 2012).

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Lets suppose you use cocaine. The first time, you brain releases x amount of dopamine and you feel great. Over time though, x dopamine isn't enough, you don't feel as good as you felt that first time, so you chase the feeling by consuming more. This is what leads to overdosing.

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Social media is addictive the same way. If you like soccer, and see a soccer video, you feel pleasure. You continue to scroll. You seek that pleasure, but the dopamine isn't enough to make you feel joy again, which is why after some time you are kind of emotionless.

Also, the amount of dopamine released clouds your judgement, and makes you more likely to buy something (that's why ads show up, its designed to sell).

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One os the symptoms of ADHD is a lack of dopamine; this is why they struggle with focusing and motivation. Using social media a lot can end in similar effects, because your dopamine supply is used up and when you need to work there is nothing left.

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The most general definition of bias is "a tendency to believe that some people, ideas, etc., are better than others that usually results in treating some people unfairly."

Our brains can sometimes be biased, subconciously. This is what cognitive bias is: our brain processing information and simplifying it. This could be in the form of seeing someone with long hair and assuming it to be a woman.

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The way our brain works concerning how social media is designed, and how this affects the way we see the world.

Anchoring bias: We assume the first thing that shows up in our news feed/ when searching something up to be the truth.

Confirmation bias: Our brain values what we already agree with.

Fake consensus effect: thinking that everyone agrees with you, and have the same feed as you.

Social media is designed to show you things that you agree with, as since everyone has different opinions different things show up for them (even in Google!). Therefore, our scopes end up being very limited because we only see what we agree with, and our anchoring bias further enforces such beliefs.

This can be very dangerous in the case of fake news, where flat-earthers or anti-vaxxers will continue to be exposed to content that makes them thing this way.

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An algorithm is made by a human, and so it sometimes has bias. This takes the form of generalization, where we are put into "buckets" of the things that we like, and engage with, and the content that shows up in our for you page is based on that. For example, if you like make-up videos it might show you other content that is considered to be traditionally feminine, or relating women (anywhere from nails to hair to menstruation education).

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Our brains release dopamine when we see things we like and agree with, and while this could mean soccer videos, it could also mean your political opinion. In turn, when receiving positive reinforcement (feeling of pleasure) cognitive biases may form, as we not only seek information that we agree with, but that will release dopamine (AKA, confirmation bias).

They also connect in seeking pleasure and avoiding pain, what our reward systems do, where you avoid content that you disagree with and will cause you discomfort, believing something to be better than it is because of dopamine (which connects to social media with FOMO, seeing people having lots of fun, going out, and wishing you could go+ this is a way paid parties market themselves), and undermining risks because of the potential reward (Chat GPT).

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During science summative #2, I explored how your gender affects the way political movements such as feminism and women's rights are portrayed. I found that generally if you engaged with traditionally "girly" content, how it is portrayed would be predominantly positive. In contrast, content creators who went against it were portrayed mostly negatively, but it was the other way around for those who engaged with traditionally "manly" content.

This led me to reflect on how my algorithm might be hiding certain types of content from me, not only because of my gender (although that does play a part) but also because I generally engage with pro-feminism content, making it show that more to me.

However, this could result in anchoring bias, because the first thing I see will be videos that relate to feminism, and this will further reinforce my beliefs- besides, due to confirmation bias, my brain prioritizes such videos. While I don't see an issue with that, as, at least from my point of view, these aren't harmful ideals, it does mean that I end up seeing only one side of the story (especially because most videos are by women). Plus, with the fake-consensus effect, I end up being irritated at those who don't share my beliefs, and wonder how come (with my brother, for example, who sometimes makes ridiculous claims about it not being unsafe for me to walk home from school alone: "What would happen to you anyways?". It's easy to be baffled at his ignorance of the risk I run towards being sexually assaulted, for example, but the truth is, he doesn't, as I saw in my experiment in Science Summative #2, get videos educating him about this.) thinking they're blatantly sexist when in reality they are exposed to different content than me, sometimes simply because of their gender, but their anchoring bias ends up solidifying such beliefs; sometimes, their ignorance isn't even their fault.

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Other way my social media could be affecting me

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Other way my social media could be affecting me

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Relating to social media, I have noticed that since I got Instagram about six months ago my screen time has increased and my attention span has worsened. I felt a lot more overwhelmed with schoolwork this semester than I ever had, and work seemed to pile up, likely because I ended up doom-scrolling rather than working many afternoons.

For my algorithm, I engage a lot with content relating to recipes, sometimes workouts, and also hair, makeup, and fashion. While I don't follow such content from a place of insecurity, and rather being interested in the topics, I do sometimes find myself wishing I looked like a person, clicking on their profile, stalking them... even though I stop myself as soon as I realize what I'm doing, it wouldn't be truthful if I said that social media didn't affect my self-esteem and the way I think about myself. Filters also affect my view, because they make me think about how I would be prettier if this one thing were different, and I think in a way it distorts my view of myself outside of social media because I think I look worse than I used to think. I understand how this is unhealthy thinking, and so I do try to follow influencers that make me feel good about myself- and it's interesting (and a little concerning) to see how the people I see can completely change my mood for the day. It's a blatant reminder of the control social media has over my well-being.

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The fundamental of marketing is that your goal is to persuade people that they need more things, even when they don't know they need them. You must convince them that they need your product.

There are many sneaky strategies brands use to sell:

1- Wearing you down. Supermarkets are designed to be tiring so that when you arrive at the cashier, your brain is functioning on automatic. This is why there is lots of candy, which our body sees as easy dopamine.

2-Right price. Basically, you see a price in the context of the prices of other products. This goes for something that looks relatively cheap in comparison to the other things or seeing a price crossed out to make room for a much lower one. Our brain evaluates the prices in the context the company wants.

3-Hedonic treadmill. Companies are constantly coming out with "innovative" products (Apple coming out with a new iPhone every year). Are they actually different? No. But we chase the dopamine we get when we buy something new.

4- Hiding in plain sight. Basically subliminal messages, but hidden. Cars, for example, kind of have "expressions", and they correlate to the type of car: a Range Rover, considered a family car, smiles.

(Neuromarketing: How Brands, 2021)

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Neuromarketing is "the use of science and physiological research techniques to gain new insights into consumers' behavior, preferences, and decision-making" (Huettel et al., 2017).

Some companies study people's reactions to advertisements, observing their heartbeat, pressure, breathing, eyes (to see attention), pupil dilation, even bodily fluids such as saliva and blood can be used to predict user behavior (Huettel et al., 2017) and brain activity, looking at what areas light up in MRIs or scans. This way, they can tell what people like subconsciously, when sometimes even they, the person, don't know.

This was seen with Cheetos, which was characterized as a "kids snack", and so they performed MRIs on individuals to study this further. What they found was that people actually thought the orange dust that stayed on your fingers was fun, in a subversive way. So, they centered their whole campaign on "being naughty" (Neuromarketing: How Brands, 2021). And it was a success!

Companies are now able to target us in ways that we aren't even aware of, and honestly, it's kind of scary.

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Chokehold some brands have on us- and we don't realize it

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Chokehold some brands have on us- and we don't realize it

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Okay, brands such as Cheetos base their campaign around our brains... but what do our brains say about brands?

It is said that the way we feel about brands is essentially the way we feel about people, down to the loyalty we have towards them. A study done with Apple and Samsung users where negative, positive, and neutral claims about the companies were made found that the Apple users' brains reacted as they would with such claims being made about family members. Samsung users, however, only reacted when bad news about Apple was said- feeling happy. The most bizarre thing is that, when asked, the users did not know they had such reactions. The brands are engrained in our subconscious brain, through really successful marketing. Involuntary movement and reactions from our nervous system are now controlled by brands.

(How Apple and Nike, 2021)

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In the age of social media, companies no longer have to wonder whether their advertisements reached the intended audience; using data, they can choose who the ad will reach.

The way this works is through cookies: when you join a website and accept cookies, this creates an anonymous ID where all the actions you take will be stored. There are a handful of big advertising platforms, and chances are the website you are visiting uses a platform that already has information about your ID. It will compare all the information it has and pick which advertisement is more relevant to you (How Targeted Advertising Works, 2019).

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First off, there are privacy concerns: if our phones have enough information about us to make accurate assumptions about what we as a person want to buy... what else can they do (Targeted Ads: the Dark Side, 2021)?

Besides, when companies pay for an advertisement, it would reach whoever they want. Such a tool can be dangerous in many scenarios. Because of both anchoring and confirmation bias, if advertisements that support fake ideas such as a miracle green juice that will make you lose weight reach someone who is trying to lose weight and engages with diet and exercise videos, they are very likely to believe it; this could lead them not only to waste money but fuel their insecurities- in turn resulting in mental health conditions such as eating disorders or depression.

This can also be harmful when kids are exposed to fast food advertising. Excluding the fact that kids should be shown ads at all since they are very susceptible, it has been found that seeing such ads at a young age can lead to unhealthy eating habits (William, 2021).

Some ads can also be targeted in discriminatory ways, which is where we see algorithm bias come into play. For example, ads for employment and housing opportunities are influenced by gender and race stereotypes (William, 2021).

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The largest concerns relating to neuromarketing are mostly ethical; is it right to subconsciously manipulate customers into wasting their money on something they would most likely not buy otherwise? Many see the studies as a violation of the human right to privacy.

There is also the question of freedom. Should consumers not be free to make their own choices about which product to buy, rather than have their choices influenced? Subliminal messaging, for example, is illegal; shouldn't neuromarketing be outlawed too?

According to (Huettel et al., 2017) though, such claims turn out going overboard, in the sense that such rights were already being violated by regular marketing. What neuroscience does is be more efficient in understanding what people like. Still, as we see with the Apple thing, marketing has a deeper effect on us.

Companies should have much more transparency with us, and governments should monitor such activities much more closely, as there isn't much control over these practices, especially by the Institutional Review Board (Huettel et al., 2017).

Besides, marketing can influence someone to buy something that isn't good for them, and with the added complexities of the studies of our brains, such as with cigarettes.

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The connection between parts 1 through 4 is mainly our brain; and, in turn, the nervous system. The first two parts explored body systems concerning our brain, and organelles, which make up the cells in such body systems- exploring the neuron cell and its parts, as well as the use of organelles such as the mitochondria for it. Organelles make our cells, including neurons, work, which then makes our nerves and brain work, and our brain takes care of the rest of our body. In part 3, we explore the reward system and what a neurotransmitter such as dopamine does to our body, in the context of addiction to things such as social media. This is, of course, directly connected to our nervous system... also because of how dopamine clouds our judgment because it overfills our prefrontal cortex, making us more susceptible to advertisements and fake news. Our brains, when receiving information from sensory nerves, sometimes takes "shortcuts" or assumptions based on information it already has. This could be assuming someone with long hair is a woman which is called cognitive bias. Social media reinforces many cognitive biases, such as anchoring bias, confirmation bias, and the fake-consensus effect, and the reward system helps strengthen them in many ways, such as rewarding us for seeing things we already agree with (confirmation bias). Advertisements, as the content we receive, are, as our For You page, also tailored specifically to us, which is called tailored advertisements; there is a whole brand of marketing called neuromarketing because it is developed based on studies of our brain and reactions we have unconsciously, or involuntarily- a connection back to part 1 where I explored voluntary vs involuntary muscles and how they end up moving as a consequence of the nervous system. Targetted advertisements are dangerous because they can fortify cognitive biases and prejudice, as well as involuntarily have a huge impact on the way we perceive something, even when we don't realize it.

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While social media can be a great way to connect and communicate with others, there is a wide array of dangers in using it, especially for teens.

For example, social media helps promote toxic beauty standards, where teens see someone who fits them and wishes they could look like them. However, many times not even the person looks like that; filters and Photoshop come into play a lot, and yet those consuming the content many times believe it and can end up developing unhealthy eating habits or being susceptible to advertising (that will reach them because of targetted ads) that sells a product that supposedly will make them fit such standards.

Teens are at even greater risk of falling prey to such things because their prefrontal cortex, the part of the brain responsible for rational decision-making, is not yet fully developed. On top of that, the dopamine released by being on social media clouds their judgment further, and they are very susceptible to believing both fake news and ads.

Other dangers include dependence and addiction to apps, as well as being isolated from the outside world because you are chronically online, having worse attention because of the dopamine supply being used up, and therefore procrastinating work or not focusing on school... and all of these can lead to mental health conditions such as anxiety and depression.

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Different problems call for different solutions, and seeing as social media spans multiple issues, there would have to be various solutions that target each of these.

For fake news, for example, there already are some in place; Twitter's mediators will detect fake news and place a blue square under it clarifying that the information being promoted is false.

For targeted ads, and the overlying issue of cookies and data collection, where people aren't educated about it because they don't read terms of service, two solutions have been put in place, both independent from the platform. There are Terms of Service, Did Not Read, a non-profit platform where people summarize the TOS of companies, and Pribot, an AI that answers questions related to TOS (Berreby, 2017). However, a successful solution would also have to include an explanation of the topics and give people a reason to care about their privacy.

For the issue of addiction and wasting time, a solution could be the one that my group developed for the Hackathon: an app called Disconnect, which gives you quests that essentially get you off your phone. Completing tasks gives us dopamine, and so does winning, so making the people compete makes the game appealing. However, since you are releasing dopamine the hard way, it isn't addicting.

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The thing is, not only companies can pay for ads. Anyone can- and this includes politicians. Again, because of anchoring bias, the first ad someone sees on their page could subconsciously end up influencing their voting decisions... and in this case, the consequences are much more serious than buying a product and wasting money. The product, essentially, is the future of the country. Is it really a democracy when people's decisions end up being influenced by outside factors? If neuromarketing comes into play, a whole new problem occurs, calling into question again the freedom of the people that is being taken away.

Besides, such marketing, where you pay to reach a group of people, can result in occurrences such as the Capitol storm in the USA by Trump supporters. If ads target a group of people that are likely to be violent, then the result could be real harm to other people.

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Part 1= yellow

Part 2= red

Part 3= blue

Part 4= purple

Part 5= white

Part 6= green

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Target audience: students in high school

Because of this, I chose to do a Tiktok video, as Tiktok is a platform where people in the age group of 14 and 18 are found prevalently on. Besides, it highlights the issue- you are already online, so clearly what I'm saying is relevant to you!

Link to script

Link to video

PS: I don't actually have TikTok so I edited on movie and uploaded it to Google Drive