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Special Events: Native Americans: 2200 B.C.—Tower of Babel (Genesis 11:1-9)

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Special Events: Native Americans: 2200 B.C.—Tower of Babel (Genesis 11:1-9)

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There are many scientists that saw so many Native Americans that were in Canada till the point of Chile. They were able to migrate because of passing Beringia.

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The Native Americans got their citizenship in 1924.
https://www.goodhousekeeping.com/life/a38083079/native-american-heritage-month-facts/

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2200 B.C-1600 AD

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1607- Early Settlement at Jamestown

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Puritanism and Early Settlement  of First "American" colonies 1600-1800

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Puritanism and Early Settlement  of First "American" colonies 1600-1800

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Puritanism and Early Settlement  of First "American" colonies 1600-1800 Authors:

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Puritanism and Early Settlement  of First "American" colonies 1600-1800 Authors:

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Puritanism and Early Settlement  of First "American" colonies 

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Puritanism and Early Settlement  of First "American" colonies 

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The Puritans realized that the Roman Catholic Church and The Church of England were becoming too much alike so they wanted to destroy that by removing formalities that weren't in the Bible.
https://www.history.com/topics/colonial-america/puritanism

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Puritanism and Early Settlement  of First "American" colonies 

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Puritanism and Early Settlement  of First "American" colonies 

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Harvard was founded by the Puritans in 1636.
https://www.ducksters.com/history/colonial_america/puritans.php

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Kids learn about the history of the Puritans in colonial America including their beliefs, the Great Migration, Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay colonies, Rhode Island, and Connecticut.

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1507: Early Settlement of the first American colonies - Jamestown

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1507: Early Settlement of the first American colonies - Jamestown

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1741: Jonathan Edwards "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God" 

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1741: Jonathan Edwards "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God" 

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Rationalism "The Age of Reason""The Enlightenment"  The 17th Century

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Rationalism "The Age of Reason""The Enlightenment"  The 17th Century

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Rationalism "The Age of Reason""The Enlightenment" The 17th century 

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Rationalism "The Age of Reason""The Enlightenment" The 17th century 

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Rationalism "The Age of Reason" "The Enlightenment" 

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Rationalism "The Age of Reason" "The Enlightenment" 

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This period made the people have many questions about religion, philosophy, and also their social life.
https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-was-the-age-of-reason.html#:~:text=The%20Age%20of%20Reason%20refers,logical%20and%20what%20was%20not.

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Rationalism "The Age of Reason""The Enlightenment"

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Rationalism "The Age of Reason""The Enlightenment"

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A lot of fights were happening between the Catholics and the Protestants everywhere in Europe.
https://kidadl.com/facts/age-of-enlightenment-facts-to-improve-your-historical-knowledge

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It means, “century of the Enlightened”
https://www.britannica.com/event/Enlightenment-European-history

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French:

siècle des Lumières (literally "century of the Enlightened")

When and where did the Enlightenment take place?

What led to the Enlightenment?

Who were some of the major figures of the Enlightenment?

What were the most important ideas of the Enlightenment?

What were some results of the Enlightenment?

Enlightenment, a European intellectual movement of the 17th and 18th centuries in which ideas concerning God, reason, nature, and humanity were synthesized into a worldview that gained wide assent in the West and that instigated revolutionary developments in art, philosophy, and politics. Central to Enlightenment thought were the use and celebration of reason, the power by which humans understand the universe and improve their own condition. The goals of rational humanity were considered to be knowledge, freedom, and happiness.

A brief treatment of the Enlightenment follows. For full treatment, see Europe, history of: The Enlightenment.

The age of reason: human understanding of the universe

The powers and uses of reason had first been explored by the philosophers of ancient Greece. The Romans adopted and preserved much of Greek culture, notably including the ideas of a rational natural order and natural law. Amid the turmoil of empire, however, a new concern arose for personal salvation, and the way was paved for the triumph of the Christian religion. Christian thinkers gradually found uses for their Greco-Roman heritage. The system of thought known as Scholasticism, culminating in the work of Thomas Aquinas, resurrected reason as a tool of understanding. In Thomas's presentation, Aristotle provided the method for obtaining that truth which was ascertainable by reason alone; since Christian revelation contained a higher truth, Thomas placed the natural law evident to reason subordinate to, but not in conflict with, eternal law and divine law.

The intellectual and political edifice of Christianity, seemingly impregnable in the Middle Ages, fell in turn to the assaults made on it by humanism, the Renaissance, and the Protestant Reformation. Humanism bred the experimental science of Francis Bacon, Nicolaus Copernicus, and Galileo and the mathematical investigations of René Descartes, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, and Isaac Newton. The Renaissance rediscovered much of Classical culture and revived the notion of humans as creative beings, and the Reformation, more directly but in the long run no less effectively, challenged the monolithic authority of the Roman Catholic Church. For Martin Luther, as for Bacon or Descartes, the way to truth lay in the application of human reason. Both the Renaissance and the Reformation were less movements for intellectual liberty than changes of authority, but, since they appealed to different authorities, they contributed to the breakdown of the community of thought. Received authority, whether of Ptolemy in the sciences or of the church in matters of the spirit, was to be subject to the probings of unfettered minds.

The successful application of reason to any question depended on its correct application-on the development of a methodology of reasoning that would serve as its own guarantee of validity. Such a methodology was most spectacularly achieved in the sciences and mathematics, where the logics of induction and deduction made possible the creation of a sweeping new cosmology. The formative influence for the Enlightenment was not so much content as method. The great geniuses of the 17th century confirmed and amplified the concept of a world of calculable regularity, but, more importantly, they seemingly proved that rigorous mathematical reasoning offered the means, independent of God's revelation, of establishing truth. The success of Newton, in particular, in capturing in a few mathematical equations the laws that govern the motions of the planets, gave great impetus to a growing faith in the human capacity to attain knowledge. At the same time, the idea of the universe as a mechanism governed by a few simple-and discoverable-laws had a subversive effect on the concepts of a personal God and individual salvation that were central to Christianity.

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Enlightenment | Definition, Summary, Ideas, Meaning, History, Philosophers, & Facts

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Enlightenment, a European intellectual movement of the 17th and 18th centuries that emphasized the use of reason to advance understanding of the universe and to improve the human condition. The goals of the Enlightenment were knowledge, freedom, and happiness.

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It  started in 1688 and ended in 1789.
https://www.britannica.com/event/Enlightenment-European-history

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Transcendentalism inspired women's rights, to remove slavery, and to protect the environment.
Cite:
https://www.easternct.edu/speichera/understanding-literary-history-all/the-american-renaissance.html#:~:text=Transcendentalism%20grew%20out%20of%20theological,abolition%20of%20slavery%2C%20and%20environmentalism.

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This event occurred in the 1830s and came to an end around the when the American Civil War ended.

Cite:
https://www.britannica.com/art/American-Renaissance

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American Renaissance, period from the 1830s roughly until the end of the American Civil War in which American literature, in the wake of the Romantic movement, came of age as an expression of a national spirit.

The literary scene of the period was dominated by a group of New England writers, the " Brahmins," notably Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Oliver Wendell Holmes, and James Russell Lowell. They were aristocrats, steeped in foreign culture, active as professors at Harvard College, and interested in creating a genteel American literature based on foreign models. Longfellow adapted European methods of storytelling and versifying to narrative poems dealing with American history. Holmes, in his occasional poems and his "Breakfast-Table" series (1858-91), brought touches of urbanity and jocosity to polite literature. Lowell put much of his homeland's outlook and values into verse, especially in his satirical Biglow Papers (1848-67).

One of the most important influences in the period was that of the Transcendentalists ( see Transcendentalism), centred in the village of Concord, Massachusetts, and including Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, Bronson Alcott, George Ripley, and Margaret Fuller. The Transcendentalists contributed to the founding of a new national culture based on native elements. They advocated reforms in church, state, and society, contributing to the rise of free religion and the abolition movement and to the formation of various utopian communities, such as Brook Farm. The abolition movement was also bolstered by other New England writers, including the Quaker poet John Greenleaf Whittier and the novelist Harriet Beecher Stowe, whose Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852) dramatized the plight of the black slave.

Apart from the Transcendentalists, there emerged during this period great imaginative writers- Nathaniel Hawthorne, Herman Melville, and Walt Whitman-whose novels and poetry left a permanent imprint on American literature. Contemporary with these writers but outside the New England circle was the Southern genius Edgar Allan Poe, who later in the century had a strong impact on European literature.

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American Renaissance, period from the 1830s roughly until the end of the American Civil War in which American literature, in the wake of the Romantic movement, came of age as an expression of a national spirit.

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So, I chose to connect today's events to the Enlightenment period since there are many examples of it today. One example is workers rights.

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There will be an election for workers' rights in November of 2022. The vote will be about making an amendment for the worker's rights or not. The people would be voting yes if they want an amendment. This will be happening in Illinois.
Cite:
https://www.ctulocal1.org/posts/general-election-2022-a/

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High stakes in the election on November 8: Workers Rights, Courts, more... - Chicago Teachers Union

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Your vote in this fall's general election will be essential to securing your rights. Voting YES for the Workers' Rights Amendment to the Illinois Constitution is at the top of your ballot. In addition, your vote will decide contests between candidates for the U.S.

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The Workers' rights will allow employees to have a safe and good environment for working. It would also allow them to have freedom from the union.
https://www.dol.gov/agencies/ilab/our-work/workers-rights

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Freedom of association is the right of workers and employers to organize to defend their interests, including for the purpose of negotiating salaries, benefits, and other conditions of work. It is a fundamental right that underpins democratic representation and governance.

Collective bargaining is an essential element of freedom of association. It helps to ensure that workers and employers have an equal voice in negotiations and provides workers the opportunity to seek to improve their living and working conditions. Effective recognition of the right to collective bargaining can contribute to economic development and growth by increasing certainty and stability in the workplace and improving labor-management relations.

The ILO's recommendations and conventions help define these rights and provide guidance on how they can be most effectively protected. The ILO's fundamental convention on freedom of association (No. 87, adopted in 1948) says that workers and employers alike have the right to:

establish and join organizations of their own choosing without previous authorization;

and that these organizations have the right to:

draw up their own rules, elect their own representatives, and organize their programs and activities freely;

not be dissolved or suspended by administrative authority; and

establish and join federations and confederations, which may in turn affiliate with international organizations of workers and employers.

The ILO's fundamental convention on the right to organize and collective bargaining (No. 98, adopted in 1949) says that:

workers shall be protected against acts of anti-union discrimination;

workers' and employers' organizations shall be protected against acts of interference by each other; and

governments shall encourage and promote voluntary collective bargaining to regulate terms and conditions of employment.

Our Strategy

We promote freedom of association and collective bargaining through:

participation in international organizations like the ILO;

enforcement of labor rights provisions in U.S. free trade agreements and trade preference programs, which includes publishing public reports on the enforcement of those rights; and

technical assistance projects aimed at improving government enforcement of labor laws or improving worker organizations' engagement with governments, employers, and society to protect worker rights.

Additionally, ILAB is responsible for regularly reporting on the progress of the United States government in respecting and promoting freedom of association and collective bargaining domestically. ILAB compiles this information for reports, pursuant to the ILO 1998 Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work, on the extent to which the U.S. government gives effect to the principles of collective bargaining and freedom of association.

Objectives

Through our work, we hope to improve government enforcement of laws and policies that protect freedom of association and collective bargaining, and expand worker influence on government, employers, and society to protect worker rights. Specific objectives include:

governments revising or adopting laws, regulations, policies, and/or other instruments that strengthen freedom of association and collective bargaining;

labor inspectorates improving their performance in conducting labor inspections and enforcing national labor laws;

worker organizations expanding their collective bargaining, advocacy, and awareness-raising skills; and

improving others' understanding of worker rights, labor commitments in trade instruments, and the benefits from enforcing those commitments.

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Freedom of association is the right of workers and employers to organize to defend their interests, including for the purpose of negotiating salaries, benefits, and other conditions of work. It is a fundamental right that underpins democratic representation and governance. Collective bargaining is an essential element of freedom of association.

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This was a period that was made because of the strength of imagining.
https://www.sutori.com/en/story/american-romanticism-1800-1860--ZuuCsbM9RLJadsZKRJwYUv8E

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Industrialization: Changed rural areas to urban ones in Europe and in North America. https://www.history.com/topics/industrial-revolution/industrial-revolution#:~:text=The%20Industrial%20Revolution%20was%20a,%E2%80%94into%20industrialized%2C%20urban%20ones.

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Contents

1. When Was the Industrial Revolution?

2. Spinning Jenny

3. Impact of Steam Power

4. Transportation During the Industrial Revolution

5. Banking and Communication in the Industrial Revolution

6. Labor Movement

7. The Industrial Revolution in the United States

8. Effects of the Industrial Revolution

9. Photo Galleries

The Industrial Revolution was a period of scientific and technological development in the 18th century that transformed largely rural, agrarian societies-especially in Europe and North America-into industrialized, urban ones. Goods that had once been painstakingly crafted by hand started to be produced in mass quantities by machines in factories, thanks to the introduction of new machines and techniques in textiles, iron making and other industries.
WATCH: 101 Inventions That Changed the World on HISTORY Vault
When Was the Industrial Revolution?

Though a few innovations were developed as early as the 1700s, the Industrial Revolution began in earnest by the 1830s and 1840s in Britain, and soon spread to the rest of the world, including the United States.

Modern historians often refer to this period as the First Industrial Revolution, to set it apart from a second period of industrialization that took place from the late 19th to early 20th centuries and saw rapid advances in the steel, electric and automobile industries.

Spinning Jenny

Thanks in part to its damp climate, ideal for raising sheep, Britain had a long history of producing textiles like wool, linen and cotton. But prior to the Industrial Revolution, the British textile business was a true "cottage industry," with the work performed in small workshops or even homes by individual spinners, weavers and dyers.

Starting in the mid-18th century, innovations like the spinning jenny (a wooden frame with multiple spindles), the flying shuttle, the water frame and the power loom made weaving cloth and spinning yarn and thread much easier. Producing cloth became faster and required less time and far less human labor.

More efficient, mechanized production meant Britain's new textile factories could meet the growing demand for cloth both at home and abroad, where the British Empire's many overseas colonies provided a captive market for its goods. In addition to textiles, the British iron industry also adopted new innovations.

Chief among the new techniques was the smelting of iron ore with coke (a material made by heating coal) instead of the traditional charcoal. This method was both cheaper and produced higher-quality material, enabling Britain's iron and steel production to expand in response to demand created by the Napoleonic Wars (1803-15) and the later growth of the railroad industry.

Impact of Steam Power

An icon of the Industrial Revolution broke onto the scene in the early 1700s, when Thomas Newcomen designed the prototype for the first modern steam engine. Called the "atmospheric steam engine," Newcomen's invention was originally applied to power the machines used to pump water out of mine shafts.

In the 1760s, Scottish engineer James Watt began tinkering with one of Newcomen's models, adding a separate water condenser that made it far more efficient. Watt later collaborated with Matthew Boulton to invent a steam engine with a rotary motion, a key innovation that would allow steam power to spread across British industries, including flour, paper, and cotton mills, iron works, distilleries, waterworks and canals.

Just as steam engines needed coal, steam power allowed miners to go deeper and extract more of this relatively cheap energy source. The demand for coal skyrocketed throughout the Industrial Revolution and beyond, as it would be needed to run not only the factories used to produce manufactured goods, but also the railroads and steamships used for transporting them.
READ MORE: When a Horse Raced Against a Locomotive During the Industrial Revolution
Transportation During the Industrial Revolution

Britain's road network, which had been relatively primitive prior to industrialization, soon saw substantial improvements, and more than 2,000 miles of canals were in use across Britain by 1815.

In the early 1800s, Richard Trevithick debuted a steam-powered locomotive, and in 1830 similar locomotives started transporting freight (and passengers) between the industrial hubs of Manchester and Liverpool. By that time, steam-powered boats and ships were already in wide use, carrying goods along Britain's rivers and canals as well as across the Atlantic.

Banking and Communication in the Industrial Revolution

In 1776, Scottish social philosopher Adam Smith, who is regarded as the founder of modern economics, published The Wealth of Nations. In it, Smith promoted an economic system based on free enterprise, the private ownership of means of production, and lack of government interference.

Banks and industrial financiers soon rose to new prominence during this period, as well as a factory system dependent on owners and managers. A stock exchange was established in London in the 1770s; the New York Stock Exchange was founded in the early 1790s.

The latter part of the Industrial Revolution also saw key advances in communication methods, as people increasingly saw the need to communicate efficiently over long distances. In 1837, British inventors William Cooke and Charles Wheatstone patented the first commercial telegraphy system, even as Samuel Morse and other inventors worked on their own versions in the United States.

Cooke and Wheatstone's system would be used for railroad signaling, as the speed of the new steam-powered trains created a need for more sophisticated means of communication.

Labor Movement

Though many people in Britain had begun moving to the cities from rural areas before the Industrial Revolution, this process accelerated dramatically with industrialization, as the rise of large factories turned smaller towns into major cities over the span of decades. This rapid urbanization brought significant challenges, as overcrowded cities suffered from pollution, inadequate sanitation, miserable housing conditions and a lack of safe drinking water.

Meanwhile, even as industrialization increased economic output overall and improved the standard of living for the middle and upper classes, poor and working class people continued to struggle. The mechanization of labor created by technological innovation had made working in factories increasingly tedious (and sometimes dangerous), and many workers-including children-were forced to work long hours for pitifully low wages.

Such dramatic changes and abuses fueled opposition to industrialization worldwide, including the " Luddites," known for their violent resistance to changes in Britain's textile industry.

Did you know? The word "luddite" refers to a person who is opposed to technological change. The term is derived from a group of early 19th century English workers who attacked factories and destroyed machinery as a means of protest. They were supposedly led by a man named Ned Ludd, though he may have been an apocryphal figure.

In the decades to come, outrage over substandard working and living conditions would fuel the formation of labor unions, as well as the passage of new child labor laws and public health regulations in both Britain and the United States, all aimed at improving life for working class and poor citizens who had been negatively impacted by industrialization.
READ MORE: How the Industrial Revolution Gave Rise to Violent 'Luddites'
The Industrial Revolution in the United States

The beginning of industrialization in the United States is usually pegged to the opening of a textile mill in Pawtucket, Rhode Island, in 1793 by the recent English immigrant Samuel Slater. Slater had worked at one of the mills opened by Richard Arkwright (inventor of the water frame) mills, and despite laws prohibiting the emigration of textile workers, he brought Arkwright's designs across the Atlantic. He later built several other cotton mills in New England, and became known as the "Father of the American Industrial Revolution."

The United States followed its own path to industrialization, spurred by innovations "borrowed" from Britain as well as by homegrown inventors like Eli Whitney. Whitney's 1793 invention of the cotton gin (short for "engine") revolutionized the nation's cotton industry (and strengthened the hold of slavery over the cotton-producing South).

By the end of the 19th century, with the so-called Second Industrial Revolution underway, the United States would also transition from a largely agrarian society to an increasingly urbanized one, with all the attendant problems.

By the mid-19th century, industrialization was well-established throughout the western part of Europe and America's northeastern region. By the early 20th century, the U.S. had become the world's leading industrial nation.
READ MORE: How Slavery Became the Economic Engine of the South
Effects of the Industrial Revolution

Historians continue to debate many aspects of industrialization, including its exact timeline, why it began in Britain as opposed to other parts of the world and the idea that it was actually more of a gradual evolution than a revolution. The positives and negatives of the Industrial Revolution are complex.

On one hand, unsafe working conditions were rife and environmental pollution from coal and gas are legacies we still struggle with today. On the other, the move to cities and ingenious inventions that made clothing, communication and transportation more affordable and accessible to the masses changed the course of world history.

Regardless of these questions, the Industrial Revolution had a transformative economic, social and cultural impact, and played an integral role in laying the foundations for modern society.

Photo Galleries

Sources

Robert C. Allen, The Industrial Revolution: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007
Claire Hopley, "A History of the British Cotton Industry." British Heritage Travel, July 29, 2006
William Rosen, The Most Powerful Idea in the World: A Story of Steam, Industry, and Invention. New York: Random House, 2010
Gavin Weightman, The Industrial Revolutionaries: The Making of the Modern World, 1776-1914. New York: Grove Press, 2007
Matthew White, "Georgian Britain: The Industrial Revolution." British Library, October 14, 2009

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When Was the Industrial Revolution? Spinning Jenny Impact of Steam Power Transportation During the Industrial Revolution Banking and Communication in the Industrial Revolution Labor Movement The Industrial Revolution in the United States Effects of the Industrial Revolution Photo Galleries The Industrial Revolution was a period of scientific and technological development in the 18th century that transformed largely rural, agrarian societies-especially in Europe and North America-into industrialized, urban ones.

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https://www.familysearch.org/en/blog/california-gold-rush-1849#:~:text=The%20California%20Gold%20Rush%E2%80%94named,1848%20and%20ended%20around%201855.

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What would you do if you heard you could make a fortune in gold by going to a far-off place called California? Your ancestors might have asked themselves that question if they lived during the time of the California Gold Rush.

The California Gold Rush-named for the thousands who "rushed" to the state of California to find gold-started in 1848 and ended around 1855. At first, most fortune seekers were locals, but before long, throngs of people from other states, territories, and countries, including Latin America, Europe, Australia, and China, joined in the search for gold. An estimated 300,000 people came to California during the Gold Rush.

Why Did the California Gold Rush Happen?

The California Gold Rush began on January 24, 1848, when James W. Marshall discovered gold while working at Sutter's Mill (now part of Coloma, a few miles northeast of Sacramento). He reported his findings to the mill's owner, John Sutter. After they confirmed that the metal Marshall had found was indeed gold, Sutter asked the mill workers to keep the discovery a secret. Not surprisingly, it didn't remain a secret for long.

Life during the Gold Rush

Dreams of making a fortune in gold didn't match reality for many people. Mining was difficult and often dangerous. At the time, California had few established cities, so conditions were often primitive in the makeshift camps and boomtowns that grew up seemingly overnight. Prices for food and supplies were high as merchants tried to get their share of the miners' expected profits. Sometimes families mined together, but more often men left their families at home as they went to search for gold.

When the Gold Rush started, California was not yet a state and was under military rule. It had no formal government or legal system, so residents developed their own codes of conduct. One widely accepted practice was "staking a claim," in which gold-seekers "staked off" an area of land and began working it. If they abandoned it later, someone else could "claim-jump" and take over the staked-off land as their own. Law enforcement was virtually nonexistent, and disputes were often settled personally or by groups of miners.

Evolution of the Mining Industry

Methods for finding gold evolved over time. Early efforts usually involved "panning" to separate the heavy gold from lighter rocks and dirt. But panning took a lot of time and effort for a small return, and it wasn't feasible on a large scale. Panning was soon replaced by placer mining, a method involving the use of "cradles" or "rockers" to process larger amounts of soil and rocks to find gold.

Hydraulic mining began in 1853. Miners used high-pressure hoses to wash soil and rocks over sluices. The principle was the same as for panning and placer mining: lighter elements were washed away, while gold and other heavier elements remained. Another mining method involved using mercury to separate gold from crushed rocks. Unfortunately, both hydraulic and mercury mining caused significant environmental damage, which led to conflicts between miners and agricultural workers. In the 1870s, the California government passed the first laws to protect the environment.

Changes in California after the Gold Rush

When the gold rush began, the population of California was about 12,000. By the end of the Gold Rush, the population was around 25 times that number. The growth of California's population was undoubtedly a factor in its being admitted as the 31st state of the Union in 1850.

Historian Malcolm Rohrbough notes, "The California Gold Rush was the decisive influence in bringing together the east with the newly acquired western extensions of the American empire, especially California. In other words, the Gold Rush didn't separate the nation by creating an east and a west. It united the nation by bringing the west into the rest of the nation."

Did Anyone Get Rich from the California Gold Rush?

About 750,000 pounds of gold were found in California during the Gold Rush, but most fortune seekers never became rich. In fact, merchants who sold goods and services to the miners often fared better than the miners themselves. Prominent businessmen who made their fortunes during the Gold Rush included Levi Strauss, John Studebaker, Henry Wells, and William Fargo.

As for James Marshall, he never did become rich from gold. The sawmill ultimately failed, and he was forced off his land by hordes of prospectors searching for gold. He came back to Coloma years later, raising grapes for a time. He died impoverished in Kelsey, California, in 1885.

With its impact on society and the environment, the California Gold Rush "was arguably one of the most significant events to shape American history during the first half of the 19th century."

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All That Glitters: The California Gold Rush * FamilySearch

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What would you do if you heard you could make a fortune in gold by going to a far-off place called California? Your ancestors might have asked themselves that question if they lived during the time of the California Gold Rush.

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Characteristic:
1. He uses Romanticism in his writing.

2. He talks about evil and sin in his writing.

3. He was an American Novelist.
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Nathaniel-Hawthorne

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Nathaniel Hawthorne (born July 4, 1804, Salem, Massachusetts, U.S.-died May 19, 1864, Plymouth, New Hampshire) is one of the greatest fiction writers of 19th-century American literature. A master of the allegorical and symbolic tale, he remains best known for the novels The Scarlet Letter (1850) and The House of the Seven Gables (1851).

Ancestry and early years

Hawthorne's ancestors had lived in Salem, Massachusetts, since the 17th century. His earliest American ancestor was William Hathorne, a magistrate who was a staunch defender of Puritan orthodoxy, with its zealous advocacy of a "pure," unaffected form of religious worship, its rigid adherence to a simple, almost severe, mode of life, and its conviction of the "natural depravity" of "fallen" humankind. (Hawthorne added a w to his surname when he began to write.) Among Hathorne's actions as magistrate was sentencing a Quaker woman to public whipping.

Hawthorne was later to wonder whether the decline of his family's prosperity and prominence during the 18th century, while other Salem families were growing wealthy from the lucrative shipping trade, might not be a retribution for this act and for the role of William Hathorne's son John as one of three judges in the Salem witchcraft trials that began in 1692.

When Nathaniel's father-a ship's captain-died during one of his voyages, he left his young widow without means to care for her two girls and Nathaniel, who was four years old. She moved in with her affluent brothers, the Mannings. Hawthorne grew up in their house in Salem and, for extensive periods during his teens, in Raymond, Maine, on the shores of Sebago Lake.

He returned to Salem in 1825 after four years at Bowdoin College, in Brunswick, Maine. Hawthorne did not distinguish himself as a young man. Instead, he spent nearly a dozen years reading and trying to master the art of writing fiction.

First works and the Transcendentalists

In college Hawthorne had excelled only in composition and had decided to become a writer. Upon graduation, he wrote Fanshawe, a novel that he published at his own expense-and then tried to destroy all copies after deciding it was unworthy of him.

Hawthorne, however, soon found his own voice, style, and subjects, and within five years of his graduation he had published "The Hollow of the Three Hills" and "An Old Woman's Tale", both notable short stories. By 1832, "My Kinsman, Major Molineux" and "Roger Malvin's Burial," considered two of his greatest tales, had been published. "Young Goodman Brown," a gripping tale of witchcraft, appeared in 1835.

His increasing success in placing his stories brought him a little fame. Unwilling to depend any longer on his uncles' generosity, he turned to a job in the Boston Custom House, which he held from 1839 to 1840, and for six months in 1841 he was a resident at the agricultural cooperative Brook Farm, a utopian experiment in West Roxbury, Massachusetts. Even when the first book to be published under his name, Twice-Told Tales, was released in 1837, he gained gratifying recognition but no dependable income.

By 1842, however, Hawthorne's writing had brought him a sufficient income to allow him to marry Sophia Peabody. The couple rented a house called the Old Manse in Concord, Massachusetts, and they began a happy three-year period that Hawthorne would later record in his essay "The Old Manse."

The presence in Concord of some of the leading social thinkers and philosophers of his day, including Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry Thoreau, and Bronson Alcott, made the village the center of the philosophy of Transcendentalism, which encouraged individuals to transcend the materialistic world of experience and facts and become conscious of the pervading spirit of the universe and the potentialities for human freedom. Hawthorne welcomed the companionship of his Transcendentalist neighbors, but he had little to say to them. Artists and intellectuals never inspired his full confidence, but he thoroughly enjoyed the visit of his old college friend and classmate Franklin Pierce, later to become president of the United States.

At the Old Manse, Hawthorne continued to write stories, with the same result as before: literary success, monetary failure. His new short-story collection, Mosses from an Old Manse, appeared in 1846.

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Nathaniel Hawthorne | Biography, Books, Short Stories, & Analysis

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Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804-64) is one of the greatest fiction writers of 19th-century America. A novelist and short-story writer, he was a master of the allegorical and symbolic tale. Hawthorne is best known for the novels The Scarlet Letter (1850) and The House of the Seven Gables (1851).

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The Scarlet letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne.
House of the Seven Gables by Nathaniel Hawthorne.

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His family had a very bad past so he changed his last name so that no one knows that he was a part of this family.
https://www.history.com/news/10-things-you-may-not-know-about-nathaniel-hawthorne

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1. He was the college classmate of another famous writer-and a president.

In addition to meeting future president Franklin Pierce while attending Maine's Bowdoin College, Hawthorne was a fellow member of the class of 1825 with Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. The pair remained lifelong friends. Longfellow served as a pallbearer at Hawthorne's funeral and later penned the poem "The Bells of Lynn" in his honor.

2. He changed his last name in part to hide his family's dark past.

The novelist's great-great-grandfather, John Hathorne, was a leading judge of the Salem witch trials, and Hawthorne was haunted by his ancestor's shameful past. Some believe that shortly after graduating from Bowdoin, the author added a "w" to his last name in part to make the spelling match the pronunciation and also to disassociate himself from a figure of whom he wrote was "so conspicuous in the martyrdom of the witches, that their blood may fairly be said to have left a stain upon him."

3. Hawthorne was the founding member of a utopian commune.

In 1841, Hawthorne became a charter member of Brook Farm, an agricultural collective founded by Unitarian minister George Ripley near Boston. The author expected that farm life would free up more time for him to write, but he quickly soured on the Transcendental commune as he laboriously cut straw, milked cows and shoveled a hill of manure that Ripley called the "gold mine." Hawthorne's blistered hands hampered his writing, and he wondered how anyone could "expect pretty stories from a man who feeds pigs." Disillusioned, he left after just a few months at the commune, which later inspired his 1852 novel The Blithedale Romance.

4. He lived in the same houses as two other famed Transcendental authors.

In 1842, Hawthorne and his newlywed wife, Sophia, moved into the Old Manse in Concord, Massachusetts, a homestead in which Ralph Waldo Emerson had previously composed the first draft of "Nature," the essay that launched the Transcendental movement. Another Transcendental leader, Henry David Thoreau, planted an heirloom vegetable garden for the Hawthornes when they moved into the Old Manse. A decade later, the Hawthornes moved into another Concord house with a literary past-the Wayside, the childhood home of author Louisa May Alcott.

5. Zachary Taylor's election led to the publication of The Scarlet Letter.

Struggling financially as a writer, Hawthorne through his connections with the Democratic Party procured a political appointment in 1846 to be a Custom House surveyor in his hometown of Salem, Massachusetts. Following the 1849 inauguration of Zachary Taylor, the president's fellow Whig Party members accused Hawthorne of "corruption, iniquity and fraud." Hawthorne's fierce fight to retain his government job was covered by partisan newspapers around the country, but he was ultimately let go in June 1849. After his dismissal, the novelist immersed himself for months in writing The Scarlet Letter, considered by many to be his best work.

6. The Scarlet Letter was an instant bestseller-but not for the reason you think.

When The Scarlet Letter was published in the spring of 1850, the initial print run of 2,500 copies sold out in only 10 days. However, given the publicity that had surrounded Hawthorne's firing the year before, readers were initially less interested in the tale of Hester Prynne than they were in the novel's introduction, "The Custom-House," in which Hawthorne's barbed pen skewered his political enemies.

7. He served as an American diplomat.

Shortly after Hawthorne completed writing Tanglewood Tales in 1853, the Senate approved his nomination by the newly inaugurated Pierce to be a United States consul in Liverpool, England, among the most lucrative of diplomatic positions. During his four years in the diplomatic corps, Hawthorne did not publish any major works.

8. Hawthorne's youngest daughter has been proposed for sainthood.

Rose Hawthorne, who initially pursued a literary career like her father, converted to Roman Catholicism with her husband. Following the death of her 5-year-old boy and her husband, she moved into a tenement in an impoverished New York City neighborhood and began nursing incurable cancer patients. She then joined a religious order and became a nun, Mother Mary Alphonsa. In 1900, she co-founded the Dominican Sisters of Hawthorne to continue her work with impoverished cancer patients. In 2003, she was nominated for sainthood.

9. Hawthorne was separated from his wife for 142 years.

Seven years after Sophia Hawthorne buried her husband in Concord's Sleepy Hollow Cemetery, she passed away in London. She was interred an ocean away from her husband along with their daughter Una when she died in 1877. In 2006, the bodies of Hawthorne's wife and daughter were unearthed from London's Kensal Green Cemetery and reinterred next to his side.

10. A former president of the United States discovered Hawthorne dead.

With the author's health failing in the spring of 1864 as a likely result of gastrointestinal cancer, Hawthorne's old college friend, former president Franklin Pierce traveled with him to New Hampshire's White Mountains with the hope that the region's rarified air could be an elixir. On the evening of May 18 inside the Pemigewasset House hotel in Plymouth, New Hampshire, Hawthorne retired early after a dinner of toast and tea. During the night, Pierce awoke to check on his friend in the adjoining room. The former president placed his hand upon Hawthorne's forehead and found that he was dead. Pierce's presence fulfilled a passage in Hawthorne's novel The Blithedale Romance: "Happy the man that has such a friend beside him, when he comes to die!"

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10 Things You May Not Know About Nathaniel Hawthorne | HISTORY

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Explore 10 surprising facts about the famed American novelist.

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He tried to demolish his first ever novel.
https://www.mentalfloss.com/posts/nathaniel-hawthorne-facts

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American novelist and short story writer Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804-1864) drew inspiration from colonial New England for his best-known works, The Scarlet Letter (1850) and The House of the Seven Gables (1851). Both critiqued morality and human nature, subjects that Hawthorne's Transcendentalist friends Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau were also exploring in their philosophy. Here are 12 facts about the man once called " handsomer than Lord Byron."

Hawthorne, born on July 4, 1804 in Salem, Massachusetts, was the great-grandson of Judge John Hathorne,one of the most fervent prosecutors in the town's witchcraft trials. Hathorne played a central role in the crusade to execute 20 people suspected of witchcraft in 1692. That wasn't Hawthorne's only connection to the Salem Witch Trials; an accuser named Sarah Phelps was the great niece of Hawthorne's maternal great-great grandfather.

The inspiration for Hawthorne's second novel, The House of the Seven Gables, stems from this family history. In the book, the fictional Pyncheon family lives in a mansion based on the real-life Turner-Ingersoll mansion in Salem, which Hawthorne visited after hissecond cousin, Susanna Ingersoll, inherited it.

Hawthorne's great uncles married two granddaughters of Mary and Philip English, a prosperous couple who were both accused of witchcraft but not convicted.

Hawthorne's cousin from a different lineage married the great-great-great grandson of John Proctor, the first man to be accused of witchcraft; Proctor was executed on August 19, 1692. Another acquitted "witch," Sarah Wilson, was married to a descendant of Hawthorne's maternal grandmother.

Hawthorne added the extra letter to his surname, perhaps to distinguish himself from some of his ancestors-including Judge Hathorne and his great-great-grandfather, William Hathorne, a magistrate who sentenced a Quaker woman to a brutal public flogging. No one knows exactly why Hawthorne did it, though.

Hawthorne anonymouslyself-published his first novel, , a Gothic romance, in 1828 while he was a student at Bowdoin College in Maine. He regretted the decision not long after (perhaps after it received poor reviews) and tried to destroy all copies. Reportedly,his wife didn't find out the book existed until after he had died.

Hawthorne met Franklin Pierce while both were students at Bowdoin College in the 1820s, and they remained lifelong friends. When Pierce received the Democratic nomination for president in 1852, Hawthorne wrote his campaign biography. By then, Hawthorne had achieved fame and accolades for The Scarlet Letter and The House of Seven Gables, and he was scorned for writing Pierce's biography. The author claimed that his job for the anti-abolitionist candidate had cost him " hundreds of friends " in the North.

When Pierce was elected president in 1853, he repaid the favor by giving Hawthorne a high-paying gig as the U.S. consul in Liverpool, UK, a sinecure that made it easier for Hawthorne to spend time writing. He and his family lived in England from 1853 to 1857.

Hawthorne met Sophia Peabody in 1838 while supposedly courting her sister, Elizabeth. The Peabodys were a connected and intellectual Salem family; Elizabeth joined the Transcendentalist circle (it was she who thought Hawthorne was handsomer than Lord Byron), while another sister, Mary, was an education activist and married fellow reformer Horace Mann. Sophia was closing in on 30 years old and had told her sister that she didn't want a husband. She and Hawthorne hit it off, however, and were engaged in 1839.

Hawthorne, then a struggling writer, was nearly broke and moved to the Transcendentalist community Brook Farm in April 1841,thinking he could save money. The 175-acre farm outside Boston was an experimental utopian society and Hawthorne was considered one of its founding members. But he hated commune life and farming, particularly his job shoveling a hill of manure nicknamed "the gold mine," and left after six months.

Hawthorne and Sophia Peabody married on July 9, 1842, at Elizabeth Peabody's Transcendentalist bookstore in Boston, then moved into The Old Manse in Concord, Massachusetts, a two-and-a-half-story clapboard house built by Ralph Waldo Emerson's grandfather. Henry David Thoreau planted an heirloom vegetable garden for the couple and Emerson loaned them money the first few years of their marriage.

The pair lived at the Old Manse for three years and etched poems for each other into the windowpanes, which are still visible today. Sophia carved her name into the glass with her engagement ring.

While living in Boston, Hawthorne often visited the reading room at the Boston Athenaeum, an elegant subscription library. One day in April 1842, Hawthorne noticed the elderly Reverend Thaddeus Mason Harris at his usual spot near the fireplace, reading The Boston Post. Later that night,he was surprised to learn from a friend that Harris had died.

In a story he told later, Hawthorne said he questioned whether he had really seen Harris earlier that same day, but that upon entering the reading room the following afternoon, Harris was once again seated in the same chair and reading the same paper (Hawthorne quipped that Harris could have been reading his own obituary). Hawthorne claimed to have seen Harris during several subsequent visits.

Shortly after The Scarlet Letter's publication, Hawthorne lived in Lenox in the scenic Berkshires of western Massachusetts. He met and befriended Herman Melville, who resided with his family in nearby Pittsfield. Melville, then a bestselling author of adventure novels, was nearly finished writing Moby-Dick, a much darker and more complex tale, but he blew his book deadline by a year to rewrite the manuscript according to Hawthorne's feedback. Melville dedicated the novel to Hawthorne and wrote a gushing letter of thanks to his mentor (among many other love letters).

Hawthorne's health had taken a turn for the worse by 1860. He moved his family back to the United States-after theirlife in England and an extended vacation to Italy-and finished his final novel, The Marble Faun.

In spring 1864, Hawthorne took a trip to the White Mountains with Pierce, who had a house in Concord, New Hampshire, in the hopes of regaining some health. On May 18, they visited Dixville Notch and stopped at the Pemigewasset Hotel for the night. There, Pierce checked on his friend in the middle of the night and found that he had passed away. Hawthorne was 59.

The Alcott family owned a house in Concord, Massachusetts, which they called "The Hillside," from 1845 to 1852 ( Louisa May Alcott used it as the setting for Little Women). Hawthorne then owned the house from 1852 to 1864 and called it "The Wayside," the name it currently bears.

After Hawthorne died in New Hampshire, his body was sent to Concord, Massachusetts, for burial. Bronson Alcott, Louisa's father and a prominent Transcendentalist, was among the pallbearers, along with Emerson, poets Henry Wadsworth Longfellow and John Greenleaf Whittier, and naturalist Louis Agassiz. Writers Oliver Wendell Holmes and James T. Fields are also mentioned as pallbearers. Pierce, hated by Hawthorne's contemporaries, was not a pallbearer but sat with the Hawthorne family.

Hawthorne's third child, Rose, married George Parsons Lathrop, an editor at Atlantic Monthly. Their marriage was difficult; George was a heavy drinker and their only child, Francis, died at 5 of diphtheria. The couple converted to Catholicism in 1891, and with permission from the church, Rose left George in 1895 to focus on charitable works.

Rose moved to the slums of New York City and founded a health clinic to aid (in her words) the "cancerous poor." In 1900, she took her vows and the name Mother Mary Alphonsa and founded a religious order called the Servants of Relief for Incurable Cancer. She died in 1926, having spent the second half of her life serving impoverished cancer patients.

Rose Hawthorne's order is now known as the Dominican Order of Hawthorne and continues her mission. In 2003, Cardinal Edward Egan, then the archbishop of New York, put Mother Mary Alphonsa on the path for sainthood.

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12 Fantastic Facts About Nathaniel Hawthorne

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American writer Nathaniel Hawthorne drew inspiration from his own ancestors for his best-known novel, 'The Scarlet Letter.'

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Nathaniel Hawthorne's first novel is published: Fanshawe (1828) 

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Nathaniel Hawthorne's first novel is published: Fanshawe (1828) 

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https://www.britannica.com/topic/Fanshawe

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https://www.britannica.com/topic/The-Scarlet-Letter-novel-by-Hawthorne

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britannica.com/topic/McCarthyism

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Senator Joseph R. McCarthy

Created McCarthyism

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McCarthy was afraid of communism and this made him have lots of authority over other people.
https://owlcation.com/humanities/Facts-About-McCarthyism

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McCarthy said that communists invaded the government of the US.
https://owlcation.com/humanities/Facts-About-McCarthyism

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He was an American poet, journalist, and essayist.
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Walt-Whitman

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Walt Whitman, in full Walter Whitman, (born May 31, 1819, West Hills, Long Island, New York, U.S.-died March 26, 1892, Camden, New Jersey), American poet, journalist, and essayist whose verse collection Leaves of Grass, first published in 1855, is a landmark in the history of American literature.

Early life

Walt Whitman was born into a family that settled in North America in the first half of the 17th century. His ancestry was typical of the region: his mother, Louisa Van Velsor, was Dutch, and his father, Walter Whitman, was of English descent. They were farm people with little formal education. The Whitman family had at one time owned a large tract of land, but it was so diminished by the time Walt was born that his father had taken up carpentering, though the family still lived on a small section of the ancestral estate. In 1823 Walter Whitman, Sr., moved his growing family to Brooklyn, which was enjoying a boom. There he speculated in real estate and built cheap houses for artisans, but he was a poor manager and had difficulty in providing for his family, which increased to nine children.

Walt, the second child, attended public school in Brooklyn, began working at the age of 12, and learned the printing trade. He was employed as a printer in Brooklyn and New York City, taught in country schools on Long Island, and became a journalist. At the age of 23 he edited a daily newspaper in New York, and in 1846 he became editor of the Brooklyn Daily Eagle, a fairly important newspaper of the time. Discharged from the Eagle early in 1848 because of his support for the antislavery Free Soil faction of the Democratic Party, he went to New Orleans, Louisiana, where he worked for three months on the Crescent before returning to New York via the Mississippi River and the Great Lakes. After another abortive attempt at Free Soil journalism, he built houses and dabbled in real estate in New York from about 1850 until 1855.

Whitman had spent a great deal of his 36 years walking and observing in New York City and Long Island. He had visited the theatre frequently and seen many plays of William Shakespeare, and he had developed a strong love of music, especially opera. During these years, he had also read extensively at home and in the New York libraries, and he began experimenting with a new style of poetry. While a schoolteacher, printer, and journalist, he had published sentimental stories and poems in newspapers and popular magazines, but they showed almost no literary promise.

By the spring of 1855 Whitman had enough poems in his new style for a thin volume. Unable to find a publisher, he sold a house and printed the first edition of Leaves of Grass at his own expense. No publisher's name and no author's name appeared on the first edition in 1855. But the cover had a portrait of Walt Whitman, "broad-shouldered, rouge-fleshed, Bacchus-browed, bearded like a satyr," as Bronson Alcott described him in a journal entry in 1856. Though little appreciated upon its appearance, Leaves of Grass was warmly praised by the poet and essayist Ralph Waldo Emerson, who wrote to Whitman on receiving the poems that it was "the most extraordinary piece of wit and wisdom" America had yet contributed.

Whitman continued practicing his new style of writing in his private notebooks, and in 1856 the second edition of Leaves of Grass appeared. This collection contained revisions of the poems of the first edition and a new one, the "Sun-down Poem" (later to become "Crossing Brooklyn Ferry"). The second edition was also a financial failure, and once again Whitman edited a daily newspaper, the Brooklyn Times, but was unemployed by the summer of 1859. In 1860 a Boston publisher brought out the third edition of Leaves of Grass, greatly enlarged and rearranged, but the outbreak of the American Civil War bankrupted the firm. The 1860 volume contained the "Calamus" poems, which record a personal crisis of some intensity in Whitman's life, an apparent homosexual love affair (whether imagined or real is unknown), and "Premonition" (later entitled "Starting from Paumanok"), which records the violent emotions that often drained the poet's strength. "A Word out of the Sea" (later entitled "Out of the Cradle Endlessly Rocking") evoked some sombre feelings, as did "As I Ebb'd with the Ocean of Life," "Chants Democratic," "Enfans d'Adam," "Messenger Leaves," and "Thoughts" were more in the poet's earlier vein.

After the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861, Whitman's brother was wounded at Fredericksburg, and Whitman went there in 1862, staying some time in the camp, then taking a temporary post in the paymaster's office in Washington. He spent his spare time visiting wounded and dying soldiers in the Washington hospitals, spending his scanty salary on small gifts for Confederate and Union soldiers alike and offering his usual "cheer and magnetism" to try to alleviate some of the mental depression and bodily suffering he saw in the wards.

In January 1865 he became a clerk in the Department of the Interior; in May he was promoted but in June was dismissed because the secretary of the Interior thought that Leaves of Grass was indecent. Whitman then obtained a post in the attorney general's office, largely through the efforts of his friend the journalist William O'Connor, who wrote a vindication of Whitman in The Good Gray Poet (published in 1866), which aroused sympathy for the victim of injustice.

In May 1865 a collection of war poems entitled Drum-Taps showed Whitman's readers a new kind of poetry, in free verse, moving from the oratorical excitement with which he had greeted the falling-in and arming of the young men at the beginning of the Civil War to a disturbing awareness of what war really meant. "Beat! Beat! Drums!" echoed the bitterness of the first of the battles of Bull Run, and "Vigil Strange I Kept on the Field One Night" had a new awareness of suffering, no less effective for its quietly plangent quality. The Sequel to Drum-Taps, published in the autumn of 1865, contained "When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd," his great elegy on Pres. Abraham Lincoln. Whitman's horror at the death of democracy's first "great martyr chief " was matched by his revulsion from the barbarities of war. Whitman's prose descriptions of the Civil War, published later in Specimen Days & Collect (1882-83), are no less effective in their direct, moving simplicity.

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Walt Whitman | Biography, Poems, Leaves of Grass, & Facts

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Walt Whitman, American poet, journalist and essayist whose verse collection Leaves of Grass, first published in 1855, is a landmark in the history of American literature. His aim was to transcend traditional epics and to eschew normal aesthetic form.

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He published a collection in 1855 which was called Leaves of Grass.
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Walt-Whitman
https://www.amazon.ca/Leaves-Grass-Original-Walt-Whitman/dp/1449505716

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He worked as a printer in Brooklyn, New York when he was only 12 years old.
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Walt-Whitman/Later-life

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People thought that he used to be a veteran because he wrote really greatly about wars in his poetry.
https://blog.bookstellyouwhy.com/six-interesting-facts-about-stephen-crane

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Stephen Crane accomplished much in his short life. Dead from tuberculosis at 28, the author left behind a body of work that captivated readers and significantly influenced writers like Ernest Hemingway. His first novel, Maggie , narrated the titular character's fall from grace with a frank moral ambiguity that is now ubiquitous in contemporary fiction, film, and TV, but at the time was essentially unseen. Yet not only did Crane help pioneer modern narrative style, of course his most famous book, The Red Badge of Courage , remains well-read and enjoyed to this very day.

Stephen Crane was born in Newark, New Jersey, in 1871, and would begin a necessarily early career for such a brief life. Here are six facts about the beloved and influential American writer.

1. He had a strenuous Methodist upbringing

Stephen Crane 's parents were devout Methodists. His mother led a crusade against drinking, even showing as a demonstration the way an egg in a glass will curdle when exposed to alcohol. To boot, Crane's father was a Methodist minister, who condemned not only booze, but frivolous enjoyments like theatre and novels.

2. He grew up fast

For a writer to become a major novelist by his early 20s (Crane was 23 when he wrote The Red Badge of Courage ), it is not so surprising that the milestones of life came to him fast. Crane not only contracted tuberculosis very young, but began reading at age 4. He took to vices early, too, having smoked cigarettes and drunk a glass beer while at the fair by the age of 6.

3. He had an exciting start

Crane wrote the first draft of his debut novel, Maggie , while at the University of Syracuse, which he entered with only the vague idea of wanting to become a journalist (he experimented with mining engineering, but failed the classes). He rented an East Village apartment in Manhattan when he revised his manuscript, which concerned the seedy and impoverished underworld of Manhattan's tenement, brothels, and taverns. No one would publish the risque book, and Crane self-published it under the pseudonym Johnston Smith, and his friends threw him a jubilant party. An impressed William Dean Howells even invited the talented young upstart to tea.

4. He had a marketing mind

To promote his yellow-covered, self-published debut, Crane hired four men to read the book conspicuously along the elevated train along the Bowery. Though a clever early instance of guerrilla marketing, the tactic had no appreciable impact on sales.

5. He wrote about war so well, people thought he was a veteran

The young Crane was born after the Civil War that he depicted in The Red Badge of Courage , but that didn't stop people from presuming that such rich depiction must have come from a writer who knew the experience of war firsthand. "The extremely vivid touches of detail convince us that he has had personal experience of the scenes he depicts," wrote the Saturday Review . Later, as a reporter on the Greco-Turkish War, Crane would witness the din of battle with his own eyes. His knowledge of the real thing would lead him to confess to the writer Joseph Conrad that his own depictions of battle was "all right."

6. He stuck his neck out for the marginalized, and suffered the consequences

Stephen Crane spent time reporting on the Tenderloin, a section of midtown Manhattan known for its brothels, transgressive amusements, and illicit economy. One day, he was helping a prostitute named Dora Clark onto a cable car when a policeman arrested her and her friend for soliciting. Crane thought it was wrong to arrest her for doing nothing wrong, and to save her Crane claimed to be her husband.

Clark was arrested anyway, and Crane was deterred by police from meddling in the case, but appeared nonetheless to testify the next morning. "Do citizens have no duties?" he wrote in his defense in the newspaper the next day, but his reputation was already being dragged by its association with a socially disgraced urban environment. Even Theodore Roosevelt, police commissioner at the time and a fan of Crane's writing, would cease his friendship with Crane, and his career as a reporter was essentially destroyed by the scandal.

The author would spend the last three years of his life traveling and writing, making visits to Cuba and England and Greece, before dying in a German sanatorium in 1900.
*For more information, see Caleb Crain's biography of Stephen Crane in The New Yorker .

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Six Interesting Facts About Stephen Crane

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Stephen Crane accomplished much in his short life. Dead from tuberculosis at 28, the author left behind a body of work that captivated readers and significantly influenced writers like Ernest Hemingway. His first novel, Maggie , narrated the titular character's fall from grace with a frank moral ambiguity that is now ubiquitous in contemporary fiction, film, and TV, but at the time was essentially unseen.

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He was the youngest of all his siblings and in his family, there were a total of 14 children.
https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poets/stephen-crane

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His parents wrote about religious things in articles. https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poets/stephen-crane

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Dr. Seuss graduated from Dartmouth College in Hanover, N.H US.
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Dr-Seuss

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What was Dr. Seuss's education?

What made Dr. Seuss famous?

What is Dr. Seuss most famous for?

Which Dr. Seuss books will no longer be published?

Dr. Seuss, pseudonym of Theodor Seuss Geisel, (born March 2, 1904, Springfield, Massachusetts, U.S.-died September 24, 1991, La Jolla, California), American writer and illustrator of immensely popular children's books, which were noted for their nonsense words, playful rhymes, and unusual creatures.

Early career and first Dr. Seuss books

After graduating from Dartmouth College (B.A., 1925), Geisel did postgraduate studies at Lincoln College, Oxford, and at the Sorbonne. He subsequently began working for Life, Vanity Fair, and other publications as an illustrator and humorist. In addition, he found success in advertising, providing illustrations for a number of campaigns. Geisel was especially noted for his work on ads for Flit insect repellent. Some of his characters later appeared in his children's works.

After illustrating a series of humour books, Geisel decided to write a children's book, which was reportedly rejected by nearly 30 publishers. After his chance meeting with a friend who was an editor at Vanguard Press, And to Think That I Saw It on Mulberry Street was finally released in 1937. The work centres on a young boy who transforms his ordinary walk home from school into a fantastical story. Later, however, he describes only the facts of his walk to his father, who frowns on the boy's imaginative nature. Geisel used the pen name Dr. Seuss, planning to publish novels under his surname; the Dr. was a tongue-in-cheek reference to his uncompleted doctorate degree. However, his first book for adults, The Seven Lady Godivas (1939), fared poorly, and thereafter he focused on children's books, which he preferred. According to Geisel, "Adults are obsolete children, and the hell with them."

After publishing several more children's works, Geisel released Horton Hatches the Egg in 1940. With it, he introduced the features that would come to define his books: a unique brand of humour, playful use of words, and outlandish characters. It centres on an elephant who is duped into sitting on the egg of a bird who goes on vacation. Despite various hardships, Horton refuses to leave: "I meant what I said, and I said what I meant. An elephant's faithful one hundred percent!" In the end, he is rewarded when the egg hatches, and a creature with bird wings and an elephant's head emerges.

World War II and documentaries

During World War II Geisel's focus shifted to politics. In the early 1940s he was an editorial cartoonist at PM magazine in New York City. He then served (1942-46) in the U.S. Army, where he was assigned to the documentary division. In 1945 he wrote Your Job in Germany, which was directed by Frank Capra; it was later remade as the Academy Award-winning Hitler Lives (1945), though Geisel was not credited. After his service ended, he continued to make films. With his first wife, Helen Palmer Geisel, he wrote the Oscar-winning documentary feature Design for Death (1947). His animated cartoon Gerald McBoing-Boing (1950) also won an Academy Award.

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Dr. Seuss | Biography, Books, Characters, Movies, & Facts

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Dr. Seuss, pseudonym of Theodor Seuss Geisel, (born March 2, 1904, Springfield, Massachusetts, U.S.-died September 24, 1991, La Jolla, California), American writer and illustrator of immensely popular children's books, which were noted for their nonsense words, playful rhymes, and unusual creatures.

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He was fortunate in advertising and did a great job in that career.
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Dr-Seuss

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Dr. Suess published his first book in 1937.
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Dr-Seuss

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The primary architect of realism was the author Honoré de Balzac.
https://www.britannica.com/art/realism-art

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realism, in the arts, the accurate, detailed, unembellished depiction of nature or of contemporary life. Realism rejects imaginative idealization in favour of a close observation of outward appearances. As such, realism in its broad sense has comprised many artistic currents in different civilizations. In the visual arts, for example, realism can be found in ancient Hellenistic Greek sculptures accurately portraying boxers and decrepit old women. The works of such 17th-century painters as Caravaggio, the Dutch genre painters, the Spanish painters José de Ribera, Diego Velázquez, and Francisco de Zurbarán, and the Le Nain brothers in France are realist in approach. The works of the 18th-century English novelists Daniel Defoe, Henry Fielding, and Tobias Smollett may also be called realistic.

Realism was not consciously adopted as an aesthetic program until the mid-19th century in France, however. Indeed, realism may be viewed as a major trend in French novels and paintings between 1850 and 1880. One of the first appearances of the term realism was in the Mercure français du XIX siècle in 1826, in which the word is used to describe a doctrine based not upon imitating past artistic achievements but upon the truthful and accurate depiction of the models that nature and contemporary life offer the artist. The French proponents of realism were agreed in their rejection of the artificiality of both the Classicism and Romanticism of the academies and on the necessity for contemporaneity in an effective work of art. They attempted to portray the lives, appearances, problems, customs, and mores of the middle and lower classes, of the unexceptional, the ordinary, the humble, and the unadorned. Indeed, they conscientiously set themselves to reproducing all the hitherto-ignored aspects of contemporary life and society-its mental attitudes, physical settings, and material conditions.

Realism was stimulated by several intellectual developments in the first half of the 19th century. Among these were the anti-Romantic movement in Germany, with its emphasis on the common man as an artistic subject; Auguste Comte's Positivist philosophy, in which sociology's importance as the scientific study of society was emphasized; the rise of professional journalism, with its accurate and dispassionate recording of current events; and the development of photography, with its capability of mechanically reproducing visual appearances with extreme accuracy. All these developments stimulated interest in accurately recording contemporary life and society.

Gustave Courbet was the first artist to self-consciously proclaim and practice the realist aesthetic. After his huge canvas The Studio (1854-55) was rejected by the Exposition Universelle of 1855, the artist displayed it and other works under the label "Realism, G. Courbet" in a specially constructed pavilion. Courbet was strongly opposed to idealization in his art, and he urged other artists to instead make the commonplace and contemporary the focus of their art. He viewed the frank portrayal of scenes from everyday life as a truly democratic art. Such paintings as his Burial at Ornans (1849) and the Stone Breakers (1849), which he had exhibited in the Salon of 1850-51, had already shocked the public and critics by the frank and unadorned factuality with which they depicted humble peasants and labourers. The fact that Courbet did not glorify his peasants but presented them boldly and starkly created a violent reaction in the art world.

The style and subject matter of Courbet's work were built on ground already broken by the painters of the Barbizon School. Théodore Rousseau, Charles-François Daubigny, Jean-François Millet, and others in the early 1830s settled in the French village of Barbizon with the aim of faithfully reproducing the local character of the landscape. Though each Barbizon painter had his own style and specific interests, they all emphasized in their works the simple and ordinary rather than the grandiose and monumental aspects of nature. They turned away from melodramatic picturesqueness and painted solid, detailed forms that were the result of close observation. In such works as The Winnower (1848), Millet was one of the first artists to portray peasant labourers with a grandeur and monumentality hitherto reserved for more important persons.

Another major French artist often associated with the realist tradition, Honoré Daumier, drew satirical caricatures of French society and politics. He found his working-class heroes and heroines and his villainous lawyers and politicians in the slums and streets of Paris. Like Courbet, he was an ardent democrat, and he used his skill as a caricaturist directly in the service of political aims. Daumier used energetic linear style, boldly accentuated realistic detail, and an almost sculptural treatment of form to criticize the immorality and ugliness he saw in French society.

Pictorial realism outside of France was perhaps best represented in the 19th century in the United States. There, Winslow Homer's powerful and expressive paintings of marine subjects and Thomas Eakins 's portraits, boating scenes, and other works are frank, unsentimental, and acutely observed records of contemporary life.

Realism was a distinct current in 20th-century art and usually stemmed either from artists' desire to present more honest, searching, and unidealized views of everyday life or from their attempts to use art as a vehicle for social and political criticism. The rough, sketchy, almost journalistic scenes of seamy urban life by the group of American painters known as The Eight fall into the former category. The German art movement known as the Neue Sachlichkeit (New Objectivity), on the other hand, worked in a realist style to express the cynicism and disillusionment of the post- World War I period in Germany. The Depression-era movement known as Social Realism adopted a similarly harsh and direct realism in its depictions of the injustices and evils of American society during that period.

Socialist Realism, which was the officially sponsored Marxist aesthetic in the Soviet Union from the early 1930s until that country's dissolution in 1991, actually had little to do with realism, though it purported to be a faithful and objective mirror of life. Its "truthfulness" was required to serve the ideology and the propagandistic needs of the state. Socialist Realism generally used techniques of naturalistic idealization to create portraits of dauntless workers and engineers who were strikingly alike in both their heroic positivism and their lack of lifelike credibility.

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Realism | History, Definition, & Characteristics

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Realism, in the arts, the accurate, detailed, unembellished depiction of nature or of contemporary life. Realism was a major trend in French novels and paintings between 1850 and 1880. Highlights included Gustave Courbet's painting Burial at Ornans (1849) and Gustave Flaubert's novel Madame Bovary (1857).

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Realism made the theatre be more realistic and not so fake.
https://www.britannica.com/art/realism-art/The-novel

https://forum-theatre.com/what-is-realism-in-theatre-definition/

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He is the author of two amazing books called The Adventures of Tom Sawyer which was written in 1876 and Adventures of Huckleberry Finn written in 1885

https://www.amazon.com/Adventures-Tom-Sawyer-Novel-ebook/dp/B000FBJF8W

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Mark Twain didn't complete school and dropped out.
https://www.discoverwalks.com/blog/united-states/top-10-facts-about-mark-twain/

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Top 10 Facts about Mark Twain

His given name was Samuel Langhorne Clemens, but he chose Mark Twain as his pen name.

Twain went to be one of the greatest American authors and humorists of the late 19 th and early 20 th century.

Many people are familiar with his work and loved his stories but few know the details of his personal life.

One of his most popular works is the Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. His quotes are also famous and have been retold over the centuries.

Twain wrote more than a dozen novels and several short stories as well as essays. Other than writing, Twain loved his cats, was innovative, among many other things.

Mark Twain is popularly considered to be the father of American literature. Here are the top 10 facts about Mark Twain.

1. He was born in the town of Florida, Missouri

Samuel Langhorne Clemens was born on November 30, 1835, in tiny Florida, Missouri. He was a preterm baby and was sickly until his 7 th birthday.

Twain had seven siblings; he was the second last child. Sadly, only three of them survived to adulthood.

His father was a self-educated lawyer who also owned a general store. When Twain was about 5 years old, they moved to Hannibal, Missouri for better opportunities.

A few years later, his father died of pneumonia at 49 years.

2. Just like a cat, Mark Twain had nine lives

One obvious thing is that Twain loved cats. One time, he hired two cats to keep him company as he worked on his writing.

His father moved the family to Hannibal, Missouri, a town by the Mississippi River. Twain loved to play in the water but did not know how to swim.

He was saved from drowning in the Mississippi River nine times. Interestingly, his family had 19 cats at one time during Twain's childhood.

3. Mark Twain dropped out of school

The death of his father meant that his education was cut short. He took up a job as a printer's apprentice at the Hannibal Journal.

This did not cut his dream of getting an education. He spent most of his free time at the library in the evening self-educating.

In 1851, Twain moved to a typesetting job at a local newspaper owned by his older brother Orion. While working here, he wrote a couple of satirical items for the publication.

Twain lived in several other cities such as New York, Philadelphia and Keokuk, working as a printer.

Other than being a printer, he wanted to be a steamboat pilot. He was trained by Horace Bixby on the Mississippi River.

4. Mark Twain loved to self-educate

Since Mark Twain got very little formal education, he took up self-educating. He spent his free time at the public library burrowing through books.

This allowed him to see things from a different perspective. He valued education and saw it as a vital part of the growth of a human being.

Twain was critical of the education system in the United State during his time. He believed learning and education were two different things.

5. He got the name Mark Twain from a steamboat

You might be wondering how the name Mark Twain came about. Well, before going by his pen name, Samuel Clemens worked as a steamboat pilot.

As a pilot, the term twain is used instead of two. When a leadsman would call "by the mark twain" they would mean the river depth was safe for the steamboat.

Twain had always dreamt of becoming a steamboat pilot since he was a young boy. It was one of the most prestigious jobs at that time. He got his licence after two years of training.

As his writing career was taking off, he opted to use an alias. After trying out several names such as Thomas Jefferson Snodgrass and Sergeant Fathom, he settled on Mark Twain.

6. Mark Twain worked as a miner too

Twain was not afraid to try out different jobs, as long as it got him the money he needed. He took up a job in Virginia City, Nevada as a miner.

Together with his brother, they did not want to fight in the Civil War. They had briefly enlisted in a confederate local unit for a few weeks.

Unfortunately, this job turned out to be hard and dismal. The war greatly affected the mining trade.

Luckily, he did not have to work here for long. Twain got a writing job at Virginia City's newspaper. He wrote about crime, politics, mining and culture.

7. He first used his pen name while working as a journalist

While working at the Territorial Enterprise, a Virginia City newspaper, he used Mark Twain as his pen name for the first time.

His first literary work that was greatly celebrated as "The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County." This article appeared in the New York Saturday Press in 1865.

The article, which was a success, paved the way to a new opportunity at the Sacramento Union. He was sent on assignment to Hawaii to write a series of travelogues.

8. Mark Twain loved to travel

His new job at the Sacramento Union afforded him opportunities to travel the world. He travelled to the Mediterranean, Europe and the Middle East.

During one of his trips, he met his wife through her brother. He showed Twain a photo of Olivia and Twain said it was love at first sight. The two got married a few years later.

While in Switzerland, he visited the Lion monument and was quoted saying that "it is the most mournful and most moving piece of stone in the world".

Twain has lived in Dublin, New Hampshire, and San Francisco.

9. It took him seven years to complete the Adventures of Huckleberry

Twain started writing the sequel to The Adventures of Tom Sawyer in 1876, but he wasn't pleased with his progress. He picked it up again and finished writing in 1883.

His famous book, Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, was considered to be controversial. It was banned for its alleged crude language and lack of moral tone.

Book critics also condemned the book terming it as being racist and it was removed from some school reading list.

10. Mark Twain's bad luck: bad investments and bankruptcy

After becoming a successful writer, Twain put his money into several bad investments. None of his investments was profitable and was soon bankrupt.

He invested in one of his inventions, a self-pasting scrapbook which sold well. His investment in an automatic typesetting machine was a flop. It cost him more than $200,000.

He recovered financially after a successful lecture tour around the world. He paid all his creditors in full.

Discover Walks contributors speak from all corners of the world - from Prague to Bangkok, Barcelona to Nairobi. We may all come from different walks of life but we have one common passion - learning through travel.

Whether you want to learn the history of a city, or you simply need a recommendation for your next meal, Discover Walks Team offers an ever-growing travel encyclopaedia.

For local insights and insider's travel tips that you won't find anywhere else, search any keywords in the top right-hand toolbar on this page. Happy travels!

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Top 10 Facts about Mark Twain His given name was Samuel Langhorne Clemens, but he chose Mark Twain as his pen name. Twain went to be one of the greatest American authors and humorists of the late 19th and early 20th century. Many people are familiar with his work and loved his stories but few [...]

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He had a job as a miner.
https://www.discoverwalks.com/blog/united-states/top-10-facts-about-mark-twain/

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She is an American poet and short story writer who is best recognized for her portrayal of Mexican American life in Chicago.
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Sandra-Cisneros

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She wrote her first book called Bad Boys in 1980.
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Sandra-Cisneros
http://t2.gstatic.com/licensed-image?q=tbn:ANd9GcTGBdcOx6dOrR4teTdts7y0uibqgDWSDv7ntc40RvlBlJFPtGF0wEZMjHpWJzihrTOKsvX3t0a3tc0Vty0

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She became famous because of a fictional book she wrote which was called The House on Mango Street, that book was written in 1983.
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Sandra-Cisneros

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People wanted to have status and power during this time. They also wanted power.
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-12839437

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Is the American Dream still achievable in 2011, amid lingering economic hard times, wars and political discord? Veteran US pollster John Zogby says fewer Americans think it is, but many have redefined what that dream means.

Steadily over the past decade, I have witnessed in my polling a fundamental redefinition of the American Dream, even for that matter, the American character.

While fewer Americans believe that the American Dream still exists for themselves or for the middle class than before (57% compared with 74% just prior to the Great Recession), more Americans say that the American Dream means something different to them than it did before.

Materialism rejected

In the late 1990s, I began probing how Americans define the dream. I discovered in 1999 that about one-third believed the American Dream meant some form of financial success: the acquisition of goods, a bigger house, a home with a piece of land around it and so on. I called them the Traditional Materialists.

But I found an equal-size group that eschewed both that label and that aspiration. I called this group the Secular Spiritualists, finding they had decided to reorder their priorities away from things and rejected the notion that he who dies with the most toys wins.

Instead, for Secular Spiritualists, life was about being genuine, about achieving a legacy larger than one's self, about leaving this earth a better place for family, community, and planet.

For the record, I found two other groups: The Deferred Dreamers (about 18%) who felt the dream of material acquisition could still be alive, but just not for themselves or their children.

And then there were the Dreamful Dead (15%), who felt the American Dream was simply dead. This last group included minorities, the poor and too many single mothers.

What I have witnessed over the past decade is the steady growth of the Secular Spiritualists to around 42%, while the Traditional Materialists now number about 31%.

There are four distinct sources of this growth in Secular Spiritualism.

Status anxiety

First, there is the growing number of Americans who work at a job that pays less than a previous job. When I first starting tracking this group in the early 1990s, that included about 14% of all adults.

When I published my book The Way We'll Be: The Zogby Report on the Transformation of the American Dream in 2008, the number had grown to 27%.

Today, fully 35% work for less than in a previous job. This group is the most affected by status anxiety. They are often one or two pay cheques away from poverty and worry about health and healthcare, government costs, and being squeezed.

They are the new "haves" in the sense that are paying the costs for those below who need help and think they are paying disproportionately to cover those higher above who do not get socked as much by taxes.

They are afraid of losing ground, and most have changed their goals in life because the traditional materialist goals are simply unachievable.

The second source can be found on the polar end of the economic spectrum - the now approximately 10-11 million Americans who actually have succeeded quite well financially and now are concluding that they have too much, they do not need more, and that they actually can - and must - do with less.

Boomer self-indulgence

They are part of an active and engaged simplification movement in the US - people who have concluded that they do not need the next iteration of the iPhone because the last version did not make them a better person.

The third source is my age cohort, Baby Boomers - 78 million strong. I call us "Woodstockers", a paean to our self-indulgence.

We did such a great job creating adolescence that we still find it difficult to give it up. But give it up we must.

We are the first age cohort who will have one million of us reach the age of one hundred.

That means record numbers of us have 25 to 30 years of healthy living ahead of us. We will not (and most cannot) be retiring at 65, so we are entering a stage historian Robert Fogel argues will be one dominated by "vol-work" - as opposed to "earn-work" - in which we are ready to do something that really counts, that is fulfilling, that is on our own terms and leaves a legacy.

Lastly, the rise of Secular Spiritualism is born of a trait for which we Americans seldom credit ourselves: a spirit of sacrifice.

The continent was not settled by John Wayne and the Marlboro Man but by families who built communities and braved the elements together.

Young global citizens

In the 1970s, presidents from two different parties asked Americans to conserve energy and we did. In recent decades, despite the fact that we were very spoiled by creature comforts, we have begun to recycle massive amounts of waste, we have stopped littering our highways and towns, and we have largely given up smoking.

And this change away from materialism and toward this new American Dream is embodied by the under-30s among us - America's first global citizens.

They have passports and have travelled abroad. The world is in the palm of their hands, they are the least likely to say that American culture is superior to other cultures of the world, and they are by far the most likely of any age cohort to call themselves "citizens of the planet Earth".

They are multi-cultural (in 20 years America will look like Barack Obama, they say) and 40% say they expect (not hope or wish, but expect) to live and work in a foreign capital in their lives. They are revolutionizing the worlds of work, philanthropy, relationships, governing, and music.

The American Dream has changed. It has adjusted to the new world in which we live.

John Zogby is chairman of US polling company Zogby International.

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John Zogby: The American Dream redefined

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Is the American Dream still achievable in 2011, amid lingering economic hard times, wars and political discord? Veteran US pollster John Zogby says fewer Americans think it is, but many have redefined what that dream means. Steadily over the past decade, I have witnessed in my polling a fundamental redefinition of the American Dream, even for that matter, the American character.

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It basically says that there is no right truth we are the ones who make everything right or wrong.
https://www.britannica.com/art/Modernism-art

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Modernism, in the fine arts, a break with the past and the concurrent search for new forms of expression. Modernism fostered a period of experimentation in the arts from the late 19th to the mid-20th century, particularly in the years following World War I.

In an era characterized by industrialization, the nearly global adoption of capitalism, rapid social change, and advances in science and the social sciences (e.g., Freudian theory), Modernists felt a growing alienation incompatible with Victorian morality, optimism, and convention. New ideas in psychology, philosophy, and political theory kindled a search for new modes of expression.

Modernism in literature

The Modernist impulse is fueled in various literatures by industrialization and urbanization and by the search for an authentic response to a much-changed world. Although prewar works by Henry James, Joseph Conrad, and other writers are considered Modernist, Modernism as a literary movement is typically associated with the period after World War I. The enormity of the war had undermined humankind's faith in the foundations of Western society and culture, and postwar Modernist literature reflected a sense of disillusionment and fragmentation. A primary theme of T.S. Eliot's long poem The Waste Land (1922), a seminal Modernist work, is the search for redemption and renewal in a sterile and spiritually empty landscape. With its fragmentary images and obscure allusions, the poem is typical of Modernism in requiring the reader to take an active role in interpreting the text.

Eliot's was not the dominant voice among Modernist poets. In the United States Robert Frost and Carl Sandburg evocatively described the regions-New England and the Midwest, respectively-in which they lived. The Harlem Renaissance produced a rich coterie of poets, among them Countee Cullen, Langston Hughes, Claude McKay, and Alice Dunbar Nelson. Harriet Monroe founded Poetry magazine in Chicago in 1912 and made it the most important organ for poetry not just in the United States but for the English-speaking world. During the 1920s Edna St. Vincent Millay, Marianne Moore, and E.E. Cummings expressed a spirit of revolution and experimentation in their poetry.

A sense of disillusionment and loss pervades much American Modernist fiction. That sense may be centred on specific individuals, or it may be directed toward American society or toward civilization generally. It may generate a nihilistic, destructive impulse, or it may express hope at the prospect of change. F. Scott Fitzgerald skewered the American Dream in The Great Gatsby (1925), Richard Wright exposed and attacked American racism in Native Son (1940), Zora Neale Hurston told the story of a Black woman's three marriages in Their Eyes Were Watching God (1937), and Ernest Hemingway's early novels The Sun Also Rises (1926) and A Farewell to Arms (1929) articulated the disillusionment of the Lost Generation. Meanwhile, Willa Cather told hopeful stories of the American frontier, set mostly on the Great Plains, in O Pioneers! (1913) and My Ántonia (1918), John Steinbeck depicted the difficult lives of migrant workers in Of Mice and Men (1937) and The Grapes of Wrath (1939), and William Faulkner used stream-of-consciousness monologues and other formal techniques to break from past literary practice in The Sound and the Fury (1929).

Across the Atlantic, the publication of the Irish writer James Joyce's Ulysses in 1922 was a landmark event in the development of Modernist literature. Dense, lengthy, and controversial, the novel details the events of one day in the life of three Dubliners through a technique known as stream of consciousness, which commonly ignores orderly sentence structure and incorporates fragments of thought in an attempt to capture the flow of characters' mental processes. Portions of the book were considered obscene, and Ulysses was banned for many years in English-speaking countries. Other European Modernist authors whose works rejected chronological and narrative continuity included Virginia Woolf, Marcel Proust, and the American expatriate Gertrude Stein.

The term Modernism is also used to refer to literary movements other than the European and American movement of the early to mid-20th century. In Latin American literature, Modernismo arose in the late 19th century in the works of Manuel Gutiérrez Nájera and José Martí. The movement, which continued into the early 20th century, reached its peak in the poetry of Rubén Darío. ( See also American literature; Latin American literature.)

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Modernism | Definition, Characteristics, History, Art, Literature, Time Period, Postmodernism, & Examples

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Modernism, in the fine arts, late 19th to mid-20th century, a break with the past and the concurrent search for new forms of expression. It fostered a period of experimentation in literature, music, dance, visual art, and architecture. Learn more about the history of Modernism and its various manifestations.

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It experimented in the arts. It wanted to see new things in life.
https://www.britannica.com/art/Modernism-art

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Modernism, in the fine arts, a break with the past and the concurrent search for new forms of expression. Modernism fostered a period of experimentation in the arts from the late 19th to the mid-20th century, particularly in the years following World War I.

In an era characterized by industrialization, the nearly global adoption of capitalism, rapid social change, and advances in science and the social sciences (e.g., Freudian theory), Modernists felt a growing alienation incompatible with Victorian morality, optimism, and convention. New ideas in psychology, philosophy, and political theory kindled a search for new modes of expression.

Modernism in literature

The Modernist impulse is fueled in various literatures by industrialization and urbanization and by the search for an authentic response to a much-changed world. Although prewar works by Henry James, Joseph Conrad, and other writers are considered Modernist, Modernism as a literary movement is typically associated with the period after World War I. The enormity of the war had undermined humankind's faith in the foundations of Western society and culture, and postwar Modernist literature reflected a sense of disillusionment and fragmentation. A primary theme of T.S. Eliot's long poem The Waste Land (1922), a seminal Modernist work, is the search for redemption and renewal in a sterile and spiritually empty landscape. With its fragmentary images and obscure allusions, the poem is typical of Modernism in requiring the reader to take an active role in interpreting the text.

Eliot's was not the dominant voice among Modernist poets. In the United States Robert Frost and Carl Sandburg evocatively described the regions-New England and the Midwest, respectively-in which they lived. The Harlem Renaissance produced a rich coterie of poets, among them Countee Cullen, Langston Hughes, Claude McKay, and Alice Dunbar Nelson. Harriet Monroe founded Poetry magazine in Chicago in 1912 and made it the most important organ for poetry not just in the United States but for the English-speaking world. During the 1920s Edna St. Vincent Millay, Marianne Moore, and E.E. Cummings expressed a spirit of revolution and experimentation in their poetry.

A sense of disillusionment and loss pervades much American Modernist fiction. That sense may be centred on specific individuals, or it may be directed toward American society or toward civilization generally. It may generate a nihilistic, destructive impulse, or it may express hope at the prospect of change. F. Scott Fitzgerald skewered the American Dream in The Great Gatsby (1925), Richard Wright exposed and attacked American racism in Native Son (1940), Zora Neale Hurston told the story of a Black woman's three marriages in Their Eyes Were Watching God (1937), and Ernest Hemingway's early novels The Sun Also Rises (1926) and A Farewell to Arms (1929) articulated the disillusionment of the Lost Generation. Meanwhile, Willa Cather told hopeful stories of the American frontier, set mostly on the Great Plains, in O Pioneers! (1913) and My Ántonia (1918), John Steinbeck depicted the difficult lives of migrant workers in Of Mice and Men (1937) and The Grapes of Wrath (1939), and William Faulkner used stream-of-consciousness monologues and other formal techniques to break from past literary practice in The Sound and the Fury (1929).

Across the Atlantic, the publication of the Irish writer James Joyce's Ulysses in 1922 was a landmark event in the development of Modernist literature. Dense, lengthy, and controversial, the novel details the events of one day in the life of three Dubliners through a technique known as stream of consciousness, which commonly ignores orderly sentence structure and incorporates fragments of thought in an attempt to capture the flow of characters' mental processes. Portions of the book were considered obscene, and Ulysses was banned for many years in English-speaking countries. Other European Modernist authors whose works rejected chronological and narrative continuity included Virginia Woolf, Marcel Proust, and the American expatriate Gertrude Stein.

The term Modernism is also used to refer to literary movements other than the European and American movement of the early to mid-20th century. In Latin American literature, Modernismo arose in the late 19th century in the works of Manuel Gutiérrez Nájera and José Martí. The movement, which continued into the early 20th century, reached its peak in the poetry of Rubén Darío. ( See also American literature; Latin American literature.)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Modernism | Definition, Characteristics, History, Art, Literature, Time Period, Postmodernism, & Examples

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Modernism, in the fine arts, late 19th to mid-20th century, a break with the past and the concurrent search for new forms of expression. It fostered a period of experimentation in literature, music, dance, visual art, and architecture. Learn more about the history of Modernism and its various manifestations.

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It means the success of materialistic things. Like houses, cars, and money to buy anything.
https://www.bushcenter.org/catalyst/state-of-the-american-dream/churchwell-history-of-the-american-dream
https://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archbridgeinstitute.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2019%2F06%2F6124109199_ee83ca10b2_o-1.jpg&imgrefurl=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archbridgeinstitute.org%2Fall-in-with-the-american-dream%2F&tbnid=ps1gowLSU_aWSM&vet=12ahUKEwiP3Lzr5db9AhXcpicCHc9HCwgQMygOegUIARD0AQ..i&docid=cG14dwjVjyeO6M&w=768&h=512&q=The%20American%20Dream&ved=2ahUKEwiP3Lzr5db9AhXcpicCHc9HCwgQMygOegUIARD0AQ

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Value is measured through money in the American Dream and not in any other way.
https://www.bushcenter.org/catalyst/state-of-the-american-dream/churchwell-history-of-the-american-dream
https://www.economist.com/united-states/2013/09/21/the-american-dream-rip

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The American dream at that time meant equality and freedom.
https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/04/upshot/the-transformation-of-the-american-dream.html

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The Transformation of the ‘American Dream’ (Published 2017)

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It wasn’t originally about owning a beautiful home and a roaring business. It meant freedom, mutual respect and equality of opportunity.

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Being stable was very important during this time.
https://www.lovemoney.com/galleries/84477/what-the-american-dream-looked-like-the-decade-you-were-born#:~:text=The%20American%20Dream%20in%20the,consumption%20began%20to%20gain%20traction.

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What the American Dream looked like the decade you were born

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From the white-picket-fence ideals of the 40s to the materialism of today, how has the American Dream changed?

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People thought that the American Dream was all about the nuclear family and also many jobs were available at that time.

https://www.smokyhillmuseum.org/exhibits/online_exhibits_folder/1950s-an-american-dream.html#:~:text=The%20American%20dream%20of%20the,color%20to%20target%20consumer%20behaviors.

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Many people also cared a lot to have a modern home in a suburban area.
https://www.smokyhillmuseum.org/exhibits/online_exhibits_folder/1950s-an-american-dream.html#:~:text=The%20American%20dream%20of%20the,color%20to%20target%20consumer%20behaviors.

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Harlem Renaissance"The Jazz Age""The Roaring 20s"1920–1940

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Harlem Renaissance"The Jazz Age""The Roaring 20s"1920–1940

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Harlem Renaissance"The Jazz Age""The Roaring 20s"1920–1940

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Harlem Renaissance"The Jazz Age""The Roaring 20s"1920–1940

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New genre of music and dance was added in the whole world.
https://bluebox.creighton.edu/demo/modules/en-boundless-old/www.boundless.com/u-s-history/textbooks/boundless-u-s-history-textbook/the-roaring-twenties-1920-1929-24/a-culture-of-change-187/the-jazz-age-1031-1995/index.html#:~:text=The%20Jazz%20Age%20was%20a%20cultural%20period%20and%20movement%20that,to%20America's%20white%20middle%20class.

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If
freedom was the mindset of the Roaring Twenties, then Jazz was the soundtrack. The
Jazz Age was a cultural period and movement that took place in America during the
1920s from which both new styles of music and dance emerged. Largely credited
to African-Americans employing new musical techniques…

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Harlem Renaissance "The Jazz Age""The Roaring 20s" 1920-1940

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Harlem Renaissance "The Jazz Age""The Roaring 20s" 1920-1940

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Female artist Bessie Smith was very popular at that time she was also singing jazz songs.
https://www.thedailybeast.com/why-blues-titan-bessie-smith-still-kills-it

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The American Dream during the 60's and 70's (60's)

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The American Dream during the 60's and 70's (60's)

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In the 60's people's dream was just to have peace, to be free, and be equal.
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/behold-america-american-dream-slogan-book-sarah-churchwell-180970311/#:~:text=The%20original%20%E2%80%9CAmerican%20Dream%E2%80%9D%20was,consumer%20capitalist%20version%20of%20democracy.

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Stop any American on the street and they'll have a definition of the "American Dream" for you, and they'll probably have a strong opinion about the slogan "America First," too.

But how did Americans develop their understanding of these slogans? What did they mean when coined and how do the meanings today reflect those histories? That's the subject of Sarah Churchwell's upcoming book, Behold, America, out October 9. Introduced more than a century ago, the concepts of "American Dream" and "America First" quickly became intertwined with race, capitalism, democracy, and with each other. Through extensive research, Churchwell traces the evolution of the phrases to show how the history has morphed the meaning of the "American Dream" and how different figures and groups appropriated "America First."

A Chicago native now living in the United Kingdom, Churchwell is a professor of American literature and public understanding of the humanities at the University of London. She spoke with Smithsonian.com about the unfamiliar origins of two familiar phrases.

As a presidential candidate, Donald Trump used the slogan "America First," which many people traced to Charles Lindbergh in the 1940s. But you trace its origin even further back.
I found the earliest use of the phrase as a Republican slogan in the 1880s, but it didn't enter the national discussion until 1915, when Woodrow Wilson used it in a speech arguing for neutrality in World War I. That isn't the same as isolationism, but the phrase got taken up by isolationists.

Wilson was treading a very fine line, where there were genuine and legitimate conflicting interests. He said he thought America would be first, not in the selfish spirit, but first to be in Europe to help whichever side won. Not to take sides, but to be there to promote justice and to help rebuild after the conflict. That was what he was trying to say in 1915.

"America First" was the campaign slogan not only of Wilson in 1916, but also of his Republican opponent. They both ran on an "America First" platform. Harding [a Republican] ran on an "America First" platform in 1920. When [Republican President Calvin] Coolidge ran, one of his slogans was "America First" in 1924. These were presidential slogans, it was really prominent, and it was everywhere in the political conversation.
How did "America First" become appropriated to have a racist connotation?
When Mussolini took power in November 1922, the word "fascism" entered the American political conversation. People were trying to understand what this new thing "fascism" was. Around the same time, between 1915 and the mid 1920s, the Second Klan was on the rise.

Across the country, people explained the Klan, "America First" and fascism in terms of each other. If they were trying to explain what Mussolini was up to, they would say, "It's basically 'America First,' but in Italy."

The Klan instantly declared "America First" one of its most prominent slogans. They would march with [it on] banners, they would carry it in parades, they ran advertisements saying they were the only "America First" society. They even claimed to hold the copyright. (That wasn't true.)

By the 1930s, "America First" stopped being a presidential slogan, and it began to be claimed by extremist, far-right groups and who were self-styled American Fascist groups, like the German American Bund and the Klan. When the America First Committee was formed in 1940, it became a magnet that attracted all of these far-right groups that had already affiliated themselves with the idea. The story about Lindbergh and the Committee suggests that the phrase cropped out of nowhere, but that just isn't the case.
You found that the backstory of "the American Dream" is also misunderstood.
"The American Dream" has always been about the prospect of success, but 100 years ago, the phrase meant the opposite of what it does now. The original "American Dream" was not a dream of individual wealth; it was a dream of equality, justice and democracy for the nation. The phrase was repurposed by each generation, until the Cold War, when it became an argument for a consumer capitalist version of democracy. Our ideas about the "American Dream" froze in the 1950s. Today, it doesn't occur to anybody that it could mean anything else.
How did wealth go from being seen as a threat to the "American Dream" to being an integral part of it?
The "American Dream" really starts off with the Progressive Era. It takes hold as people are talking about reacting to the first Gilded Age when the robber barons are consolidating all this power. You see people saying that a millionaire was a fundamentally un-American concept. It was seen as anti-democratic because it was seen as inherently unequal.

1931 was when it became a national catch phrase. That was thanks to the historian James Truslow Adams who wrote The Epic of America, in which he was trying to diagnose what had gone wrong with America in the depths of the Great Depression. He said that America had gone wrong in becoming too concerned with material well-being and forgetting the higher dreams and the higher aspiration that the country had been founded on.

[The phrase] was redefined in the 1950s, and seen as a strategy for soft power and for [commercializing] the "American Dream" abroad. It was certainly an "American Dream" of democracy, but it was a very specifically consumerist version that said "this is what the 'American Dream' will look like." By contrast with the earlier version, which was focused on the principles of liberal democracy, this was very much a free market version of that.
How do the two phrases fit together?
When I began this research, I didn't think of them as related. They both started to gain traction in the American political and cultural conversation discernibly around 1915. They then came into direct conflict in the late 1930s and early 1940s in the fight over entering World War II. In that debate, both phrases were prominent enough that they could become shorthand, where basically the "American Dream" was shorthand for liberal democracy and for those values of equality, justice, democracy, and "America First" was shorthand for appeasement, for complicity, and for being either an outright fascist or a Hitler sympathizer.

The echoes between 100 years ago and now are in many ways as powerful, if not more powerful, than the echoes between now and the post-war situation.

Why is the history of political slogans and clichés, like the "American Dream," so important? What happens when we don't understand the nuances of these phrases?
We find ourselves accepting received wisdoms, and those received wisdoms can be distorting and flat-out inaccurate. At best, they're reductive and oversimplifying. It's like the telephone game, the more it gets transmitted, the more information gets lost along the way and more you get a garbled version of, in this case, important understandings of the historical evolution and the debates surrounding our national value system.
Will these phrases continue to evolve?
"The American Dream" has long belonged to people on the right, but those on the left who are arguing for things like universal health care have a historical claim to the phrase, too. I hope that this history can be liberating to discover that these ideas that you think are so constricting, that they can only ever mean one thing-to realize that 100 years ago it meant the exact opposite.

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The Original Meanings of the "American Dream" and "America First" Were Starkly Different From How We Use Them Today

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Stop any American on the street and they'll have a definition of the "American Dream" for you, and they'll probably have a strong opinion about the slogan "America First," too. But how did Americans develop their understanding of these slogans? What did they mean when coined and how do the meanings today reflect those histories?

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The American Dream during the '60s and 70's (70's)

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The American Dream during the '60s and 70's (70's)

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People during this time dreamed to be healthy and also peaceful.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bdpmW2YQaaY&ab_channel=Nelwizard

https://transformationoftheamericandream.weebly.com/1970s.html

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People at this time dreamed to live happily since the prices of things were declining in a very bad way.
https://theamericandream5.weebly.com/1980s.html
https://flowvella.com/s/2jgm/1980s:-American-Dream?iframe=true

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People at this time dreamed of being very rich since America was going through hard times in the 80s. This was because the prices of crops for farmers were declining a lot. https://theamericandream5.weebly.com/1980s.html
https://www.marxists.org/history/erol/ncm-5/cwp-dream-nightmare.htm

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People also dreamed to have a big house.The also still wanted to get rich because of high rates of unemployment and taxes.
https://www.socialistalternative.org/why-we-need-a-labor-party/end-american-dream/

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“Everyone Wants the American dream. But the dream isn’t there anymore. You fall more than you climb.” — Comment by worker interviewed after November 1994 elections. During the 1990s, the idea of the American dream, that the next generation will do better than the present one, has now all but disa