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This Padlet was designed on 18/06/2025. It has sources from the course learning materials and additional sources to enhance your professional development. 

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This Padlet was designed on 18/06/2025. It has sources from the course learning materials and additional sources to enhance your professional development. 

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Cyber security is how individuals and organisations reduce the risk of cyber attack.

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Understanding what motivates cyber criminals is a crucial part of improving your organization’s defenses against a barrage of cyber attacks.

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M&S cyber-attack disruption to last until July and cost £300m

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Customers have been unable to order online for almost a month due to the cyber-attack.

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The threat from cyber crime

We have seen a significant growth in cyber criminality in the form of high-profile ransomware campaigns over the last year. Breaches leaked personal data on a massive scale leaving victims vulnerable to fraud, while lives were put at risk and services damaged by the WannaCry ransomware campaign that affected the NHS and many other organisations worldwide. Tactics are currently shifting as businesses are targeted over individuals and although phishing attacks on individuals are increasing, fewer are falling victim as people have become more alert.

Because the distinction between nation states and criminal groups is increasingly blurred, cyber crime attribution is sometimes difficult. Russian-language criminals operating ransomware as a service continue to
be responsible for most high profile cyber crime attacks against the UK. Although young criminals are often driven by peer kudos rather than financial reward, organised UK cyber crime groups are motivated by profit.Cyber criminals seek to exploit human or security vulnerabilities in order to steal passwords, data or money directly. The most common cyber threats include:

Hacking - including of social media and email passwords

Phishing - bogus emails asking for security information and personal details

Malicious software - including ransomware through which criminals hijack files and hold them to ransom

Distributed denial of service (DDOS) attacks against websites - often accompanied by extortion

The scale and complexity of cyber attacks is wide ranging. 'Off the shelf' tools mean that less technically proficient criminals are now able to commit cyber crime, and do so as awareness of the potential profits becomes more widespread. The evolving technical capabilities of malware means evolving harm as well as facilitating new crimes, such as the cryptomining malware which attacks digital currencies like Bitcoin.

Cyber attacks are financially devastating and disrupting and upsetting to people and businesses. They undermine the economic stability of the UK and cost the UK economy millions of pounds each year.

The NCA is committed to improving the UK's resilience to cyber-attacks and improving the law enforcement response to the cyber-crime threat, by taking action against those responsible, wherever they may be located.

Our response

Cyber crime is a global threat. Criminals and the technical infrastructure they use are often based overseas, making international collaboration essential.

We focus on critical cyber incidents as well as longer-term activity against the criminals and the services on which they depend. We work closely with UK police, regional organised crime units, and partners in international law enforcement such as Europol, the FBI and the US Secret Service to share intelligence and coordinate action. We have also developed close and effective partnerships with private industry to share information and technical expertise.

As well as disrupting the current generation of cyber criminals we also want to prevent young people from slipping into cyber crime. Our #CyberChoices programme encourages parents of young people with cyber skills to talk to them about their ambitions and the opportunities to use their skills positively.

We also work with partners such as the National Cyber Security Centre, Get Safe Online and Cyber Aware to promote ways for the public and businesses to protect themselves online.

How you can help

Most cyber attacks could be prevented by taking these basic security steps:

Choose strong passwords and don't reuse them for multiple logins

Install security software such as anti-virus and two-factor authentication. This kind of software is often available for free.

Keep all security software and operating systems updated (this can be set to update automatically)

For further advice on how to stay safe online please visit Cyber Aware, Get Safe Online or the National Cyber Security Centre.

If you are a victim of cyber crime please report it to Action Fraud, the UK's fraud and cyber crime reporting centre.

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Millions of people and thousands of businesses are victims of cyber crime every year. It costs the UK billions of pounds, damages UK business and in extreme cases can even threaten national security.

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6 different types of hackers, from black hat to red hat

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Different types of networks (LAN, WAN) - Networks - Edexcel - GCSE Computer Science Revision - Edexcel - BBC Bitesize

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Learn about and revise networks with this BBC Bitesize GCSE Computer Science Edexcel study guide.

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Phishing attacks: defending your organisation

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How to defend your organisation from email phishing attacks.

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Teen who hacked Joe Biden and Bill Gates’ Twitter accounts sentenced to three years in prison

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Graham Ivan Clark also took over account of Kim Kardashian West in 2020 bitcoin scam

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Department for Science, Innovation and Technology

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New plans to supercharge UK cyber sector

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The UK’s growing cyber security sector will be boosted by millions in new investment and a new Cyber Growth Action Plan, as part of the government’s Plan for Change.

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Cyber security regulations and directors duties in the UK

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This section summarises relevant cyber security regulations that boards need to be aware of.

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What is asymmetric cryptography?

Asymmetric cryptography, also known as public key cryptography, is a process that uses a pair of related keys -- one public key and one private key -- to encrypt and decrypt a message and protect it from unauthorized access or use.

A public key is a cryptographic key a person can use to encrypt a message so it can only be decrypted by the intended recipient with their private key. A private key -- also known as a secret key -- is shared only with the key's initiator.

When someone wants to send an encrypted message, they pull the intended recipient's public key from a public directory and use it to encrypt the message before sending it. The recipient of the message can decrypt the message using their related private key.

If the sender encrypts the message using their private key, the message can be decrypted only using that sender's public key, thus authenticating the sender. These encryption and decryption processes happen automatically; users do not need to physically lock and unlock the message.

Many protocols rely on asymmetric cryptography, including Transport Layer Security ( TLS) and Secure Sockets Layer ( SSL), which make HTTPS possible.

The encryption process is also used in software programs that need to establish a secure connection over an insecure network, such as web browsers, or that need to validate a digital signature.

Increased data security is the primary benefit of asymmetric cryptography. It is the most secure encryption process because users are never required to reveal or share their private keys, decreasing the chances of a cybercriminal discovering a user's private key during transmission.

How does asymmetric cryptography work?

Asymmetric encryption uses a mathematically related pair of keys for encryption and decryption: a public key and a private key. If the public key is used for encryption, then the related private key is used for decryption. If the private key is used for encryption, then the related public key is used for decryption.

Asymmetric cryptography involves a pair of keys to encrypt and decrypt data.

The two participants in the asymmetric encryption workflow are the sender and the receiver. Each has its own pair of public and private keys. First, the sender obtains the receiver's public key. Next, the plaintext message is encrypted by the sender using the receiver's public key. This creates ciphertext. The ciphertext is sent to the receiver, who decrypts it with their private key, returning it to legible plaintext.

Because of the one-way nature of the encryption function, one sender is unable to read the messages of another sender, even though each has the public key of the receiver.

Uses of asymmetric cryptography

Asymmetric cryptography is typically used to authenticate data using digital signatures. A digital signature is a mathematical technique that validates the authenticity and integrity of a message, software or digital document. It is the digital equivalent of a handwritten signature or stamped seal.

Based on asymmetric cryptography, digital signatures can provide assurances of evidence to the origin, identity and status of an electronic document, transaction or message, as well as acknowledge informed consent by the signer.

Asymmetric cryptography can also be applied to systems in which many users might need to encrypt and decrypt messages, including the following:

Encrypted email. A public key can encrypt an email message, and a private key can decrypt it.

SSL/TLS. Establishing encrypted links between websites and browsers also uses asymmetric encryption.

Cryptocurrencies. Bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies rely on asymmetric cryptography. Users have public keys that everyone can see and private keys that are kept secret. Bitcoin uses a cryptographic algorithm to ensure only legitimate owners can spend the funds.

In the case of the Bitcoin ledger, each unspent transaction output (UTXO) is typically associated with a public key. For example, if user X, who has an UTXO associated with their public key, wants to send the money to user Y, user X uses their private key to sign a transaction that spends the UTXO and creates a new UTXO that's associated with user Y's public key.

What are the benefits and disadvantages of asymmetric cryptography?

The benefits of asymmetric cryptography include the following:

The key distribution problem is eliminated because there's no need for exchanging keys.

Security is increased since the private keys don't ever have to be transmitted or revealed to anyone.

The use of digital signatures is enabled so a recipient can verify that a message comes from a particular sender.

It allows for nonrepudiation so the sender can't deny sending a message.

Disadvantages of asymmetric cryptography include the following:

It's a slow process compared to symmetric cryptography. It's, therefore, not appropriate for decrypting bulk messages.

If an individual loses their private key, they can't decrypt the messages they receive.

Because public keys aren't authenticated, no one can ensure a public key belongs to the person specified. Consequently, users must verify their public keys belong to them.

If a malicious actor identifies a person's private key, the attacker can read that individual's messages.

What's the difference between asymmetric vs. symmetric cryptography?

The main difference between asymmetric versus symmetric cryptography is that asymmetric encryption algorithms make use of two different but related keys. One key encrypts data and another key decrypts it. Symmetric encryption uses the same key to perform both encryption and decryption functions.

Symmetric encryption uses a shared private key, while asymmetric encryption uses a public/private key pair.

Another difference between asymmetric and symmetric encryption is the length of the keys. In symmetric cryptography, the length of the keys -- which is randomly selected -- is typically set at 128 bits or 256 bits, depending on the level of security needed.

In asymmetric encryption, there must be a mathematical relationship between the public and private keys. Since malicious actors can potentially exploit this pattern to crack the encryption, asymmetric keys need to be longer to offer the same level of security. The difference in the length of the keys is so pronounced that a 2,048-bit asymmetric key and a 128-bit symmetric key provide about an equivalent level of security.

Asymmetric encryption is notably slower than symmetric encryption, which has a faster execution speed.

What are examples of asymmetric cryptography?

The (Rivest-Shamir-Adleman) algorithm -- the most widely used asymmetric algorithm -- is embedded in SSL/TLS, which is used to provide secure communications over a computer network. RSA derives its security from the computational difficulty of factoring large integers that are the product of two large prime numbers.

Multiplying two large primes is easy, but the difficulty of determining the original numbers from the product -- factoring -- forms the basis of public key cryptography security. The time it takes to factor the product of two sufficiently large primes is beyond the capabilities of most attackers.

RSA keys are typically 1,024 or 2,048 bits long, but experts believe 1,024-bit keys will be broken soon due to the advent of quantum computing, which is why government and industry are moving to a minimum key length of 2,048-bits.

Elliptic curve cryptography (ECC) is gaining favor with many security experts as an alternative to RSA. ECC is a public key encryption technique based on elliptic curve theory. It can create faster, smaller and more efficient cryptographic keys through the properties of the elliptic curve equation.

To break ECC, an attacker must compute an elliptic curve discrete logarithm, which is significantly more difficult than factoring. As a result, ECC key sizes can be significantly smaller than those required by RSA while delivering equivalent security with lower computing power and battery resource usage.

The history of asymmetric cryptography

Whitfield Diffie and Martin Hellman, researchers at Stanford University, first publicly proposed asymmetric encryption in their 1977 paper, "New Directions in Cryptography."

The concept was independently and covertly proposed by James Ellis several years earlier, while he was working for the Government Communications Headquarters, the British intelligence and security organization. The asymmetric algorithm as outlined in the Diffie-Hellman paper uses numbers raised to specific powers to produce decryption keys. Diffie and Hellman initially teamed up in 1974 to solve the problem of key distribution.

The RSA algorithm, which was based on the work of Diffie, was named after its three inventors -- Ronald Rivest, Adi Shamir and Leonard Adleman. They invented the RSA algorithm in 1977 and published it in Communications of the ACM in 1978.
Editor's note: This article was updated by Kate Brush and Michael Cobb in 2021. TechTarget editors revised it in 2024 to improve the reader experience.

Continue Reading About asymmetric cryptography

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As businesses make increasing use of safety monitoring to minimise the risks associated with lone working, consideration must be given to the impact on workers. Concerns that safety monitoring measures will be used for performance management purposes may well increase rather than alleviate health and safety risks.

What is lone working?
The Health and Safety Executive defines lone workers as "those who work by themselves without close or direct supervision". It includes delivery drivers, security staff, cleaners, home workers and some health workers - for example, community nurses and health visitors. It may also include other workers who, although physically in the same building or workplace as others, are, in reality, out of sight and sound of their colleagues. Known as 'hidden lone workers', this group can inadvertently be overlooked by employers.

Photograph: iStock/SensorSpot
What are the risks?
Lone workers face many of the same hazards at work as anyone else, but there is a greater risk of these hazards causing harm because the worker may not have anyone to help or support them if things go wrong.

For example, lone workers may be more vulnerable to the risk of workplace violence, particularly when working late or when their work involves entering other premises or homes. Likewise, the ability to summon emergency help and first aid may be limited for a lone worker in distress or who has been overcome by sudden illness.

Similarly, lone workers may be more vulnerable to workplace health and safety risks, including from hazardous substances or equipment challenges, when they work in isolation. The particular work environment might also present unique challenges. For example, there might be risks associated with repetitive tasks, prolonged sitting or spending long periods alone, all of which can impact not only on employees' physical but also mental health. Feelings of disconnection and isolation are recognised as potential causes of stress, anxiety and depression.

In each case, employers must assess the particular risks that arise and put in place suitable health and safety mitigations, including control measures to account for individual worker vulnerabilities. However, controlling the risks of lone working, albeit well-intentioned and legally required, can be met with resistance from workers who may be concerned the measures will impact their existing autonomy, freedom and independence. Therefore, the introduction of risk reduction measures requires careful consideration and assessment.
The legal position
The starting point is the Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974, which imposes general health and safety duties on employers "so far as is reasonably practicable". This includes implementing policies and procedures that mitigate risk, as well as the provision of information, instruction, training and supervision.

In addition, the Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1999 (the Management Regulations) require employers to undertake suitable and sufficient risk assessments, provide health surveillance in appropriate circumstances, consider employees' capabilities, and deliver adequate health and safety training.

Employers should carry out a risk assessment to determine whether lone working is a viable option, and the risks associated with it. Some roles are generally considered as unsuitable for lone working, such as working in a confined space where a supervisor needs to be present, working near exposed electricity conductors or working with vehicles carrying explosives.

Lone working can be considered as part of a general risk assessment or the risks can be assessed separately, and the assessment should be updated when things change, or new risks are identified.

The Management Regulations set out a hierarchy of controls, known as the general principles of prevention, to be applied by employers when implementing any preventative and protective measures. These are ordered from most to least effective and include risk avoidance (or combatting risk at source), adapting to technical progress and developing an overall prevention policy. This policy should, among other things, consider technology, the organisation of work and working conditions, social relationships and the influence of factors relating to the working environment.

Although information and training are viewed as less effective methods of prevention in the hierarchy of controls, employers should also ensure workers are provided with appropriate training and instruction.
Safety monitoring
As safety must move with the times in order to avoid becoming static, the mitigation measures adopted by employers of lone workers are increasingly including worker safety monitoring.

Worker safety monitoring means the use of monitoring technology to manage the status of workers when they are working alone. This can include:

Body worn cameras (with SOS buttons)

SOS alarm fobs

CCTV

Mobile phone apps.

The device or app normally connects to a monitoring centre, via Wi-Fi or mobile data connection, which receives reports if a certain event occurs, such as the user pressing the SOS button or a silent alarm. In some cases, there may just be a continuous feed of information/data, without a specific event having to occur.

Mobile phone apps are deployed by many organisations. They have the advantage of a number of functions and being relatively easy to use. With ready access to the GPS, Wi-Fi and mobile data of the user's phone, they can offer features such as an SOS function, timed sessions (where a worker must confirm their safety after a set period), welfare checks, fall detection and non-movement alerts.

Each event will be flagged to a monitoring centre which will respond accordingly. App providers have access to the emergency services database and can quickly report incidents to them.
A double-edged sword?
While monitoring devices undoubtedly offer benefits for reducing the risks associated with lone working, their introduction can cause concern among the workforce. Issues may arise if the affected workers suspect the devices are being used not for (or not only for) safety reasons, but also to enable surveillance of their activities, such as location, attendance and productivity.

As a result, rather than mitigating risks from lone working, workers' concerns about the purpose of the monitoring may increase their stress and anxiety, resulting in heightened feelings of disconnection and managerial distrust.

To avoid this, careful consideration should be given to the use of such devices and their potential impact on worker autonomy. From the outset, employers should consider whether the use of monitoring devices with surveillance capabilities is really a reasonable and proportionate response to the risk identified from lone working.

In particular, employers must consider if the particular proposed device is in fact appropriate. For example, would a panic button or two-way radio suffice? If so, a mobile tracking device may well be met with some scepticism and resistance. If, however, there are reasons for preferring a device with tracking capacities, these reasons should be clearly communicated to employees.

Data access should also be considered. This is because granting access to the data obtained from monitoring activity to certain people in the business will undoubtedly determine how it is used. For example, giving access to line managers could, even inadvertently, turn the emphasis from safety to productivity. By contrast, if monitoring is outsourced to an external organisation, workers may have some comfort that the purpose is primarily for ensuring their safety.
Communication
Used properly, safety monitoring equipment can help to build mutual trust between employers and workers. With the increasing emphasis on mental health and wellbeing, such devices can really improve outcomes for lone workers. They can provide contact and opportunities to reflect and educate, via regular wellness surveys, which are fully considered and acted upon, as well as by providing in-built information and tools for stress management.

Communication is key to the successful deployment of this technology. Employers should begin by consulting the workforce and should explain the thinking behind any proposed introduction of safety monitoring, along with details of the safety features and benefits.

Workers should be encouraged to provide input to the process, and to ask questions, which should be answered candidly, with complete transparency encouraged. Where possible, pilot schemes should be trialled, and open and honest feedback should be sought, and then given careful consideration.

Technology provides a real opportunity to make in-roads in lone worker safety and wellbeing, securing the best outcomes for both employer and worker. Its success depends on full understanding and buy-in from all concerned. This can only be achieved with full transparency.
Hayden Singh is an associate solicitor at Pinsent Masons LLP. Contact him at: pinsentmasons.com [email protected]
linkedin.com/in/haydensingh/

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