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Central pragmatic principles (Leech):
- cooperative principle (CP)
- politeness principle (PP)

Leech: hyperbole, litotes

- first order principles: CP, PP, Interest, Pollyana
- higher order principles: Irony, Banter

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- person
- temporal
- spatial
- discourse
- social

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- deictic centre (speaker) -> deictic projection
- proximal
distal

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- baldly on record
- on record, attend to positive face
- on record, attend to negative face
- off record
- do not do FTA - say nothing

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- Positive S: apologies, confessions
- Negative S: expressing thanks, offers, promises
- Positive H: criticism, refusal
- Negative H: order, threat

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- face: negative, positive
-> constantly at risk, recognized by others
- politeness = show awareness of another persons face

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cooperative principle x politeness principle

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- cost-benefit scale
- indirectness scale
- optionality scale
- social distance scale
- authority scale

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Directives, commisives:
- tact maxim
- generosity maxim

Expressives, assertives:
- approbation maxim
- modesty maxim

Assertives:
- agreement maxim
- sympathy maxim

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- polite = refined, elegant, scholarly, exhibiting good and restrained taste
- universal vs. culture specific
- forms and layers:
- non-verbal
- verbal: content communicated, form
- metaling. politeness (hedged performatives)

Robin Lakoff
Paul Grice
Geoffrey Leech

Positive x negative politeness
Positive/negative politeness strategies

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Lawrence Horn - Q principle, R principle
Dan Sperber, Deidre Wilson - Relevance Theory

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- entailment (logical)
- pragmatic presupposition
- implicature (pragmatic): conventional (lang. expression); conversational (depends on social context; generalized, scalar, particularized)

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- quality m.: by irony, metaphor
- quantity m.: by redundancy, underinformativeness
- relation m.: by allusion, cautiousness
- manner m.: by ambiguity, obscurity, vagueness

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Observance = prototypical pattern

Non-observance: flouting, violating, opting-out, suspending, infringing, clash

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= structures / phrases that usually comment on what's delivered, incorporate "I"

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= pieces of advice

- focused on content:
* quality (tell the truth)
* quantity (be as informative as the situation requires)

- focused on form:
* relation (speak to the point and push the converstation forward)
* manner (use such means that are transparent to the recipient)

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- assumption, that human interaction is rational, collaborative
- Paul Grice, 1975
- 4 maxims, 9 submaxims
- human interaction is purposeful, deliberate

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- Rogatives (Leech)
- Behabitives (Austin, expressives in Searle)
- Verdictives (Austin, declarations in Searle)

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- context crucial
- order x permission
- offer x request, order

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- clause type x discourse function
- direct - formal categories
- declarative clause type - statements
- interrogative - question
- imperative - directive
- exclamative - exclamation
- indirect cases
- eg. declarative question

x reverse: function - form
-> directive discourse function; degree of politeness

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IFIDs (Illocutionary Force Indicating devices)

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IFIDs (Illocutionary Force Indicating devices)

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= a range of linguistic features that help us deduce the S's intention when performing a part. SA

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for every utterance there is an underlying clause with a perlocutionary prefix
->> fall SA vs SA verb

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- direct x indirect SA
- explicit x implicit performatives
- hereby test

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- direction of fit: world (situation), word (formulation)

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- declarations / declaratives - baptizing, naming, declaring
- representatives / assertives - asserting, concluding, describing
- directives - commanding, ordering, requesting, suggesting
- comissives - promising, threatening, refusing
- expressives - congratulating, thanking, praising, condoling

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- Austin (illocutionary verbs)
- Searle (common ground)

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- general conditions
- propositional content
- preparatory (circumstances)
- sincerity conditions
- essential conditions
x misfire: conditions not met -> infelicitous act

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- locutionary act (of saying) - semantics
- illocutionary act (in saying) - pragmatics
- perlocutionary act / effect

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- constantives: have truth values
- performatives: do not have truth values

->> later abandoned

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- act(ion)s performed via utterances (language)
- socially significant acts - have to impact sb else

John Austin: How to do things with words (1962)
John Searle: Speech Acts (1969)

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- a need for action
- directives and requestives -> non-verbal actions
- informatives - acknowledgement

1. H can hear what S says
2. H can understand what the meaning conveyed

-> specific:

* Informatives
- S believes prop. to be true
- not obvious that H knows

* Requestives
- H may be able and willing

* Directives
- H is able and willing

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- Van den Sandt
- accommodation constrained by: 1. informatives; 2. contextual consistency

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- Stalnaker - independent of ling. forms
- Karttunen-Heim - contextual updating, accommodation, local and global context

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- constantly growing
- items taken for granted

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- triggers, Yule

* existential
* lexical
* factive
* non-factive
* counterfactual
* structural

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- types of inferencing:
- entailment (based on truth)
- presupposition (based on utterances)
- pragmatic and semantic presuppositions
- projection problem

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- endorsement
- concession
- acknowledgement

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- positive
- negative
- temporizations

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- elicitations (verbal r.)
- requestives (nv. action)
- directives (nv. action)
- informatives (verbal r.)

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Discourse Analysis (DA, Birmingham School)

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Discourse Analysis (DA, Birmingham School)

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- linguists
- three-move exchange (I, R, F)
- Acts (=sentence)
- head act - pre-head, post-head
+ Tsui: Multi-act initiating moves

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- sociolinguists
- recorded spoken data only

* turn, turn-taking; floor; local management system; transition relevance place; pause; overlap; attribulable silence; backchannels; adjacency pairs; preference structure/organization; (pre) sequence; insertion sequence; repair (self-/other-); turn constructional unit

+ preference structure
+ How to do dispreffered (Yule)

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- high considerateness style
- high involvement style

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- Deborah Tannen
- Conversational Analysis (CA)
- Discourse Analysis (DA, Birmingham School)

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Types of converstation: Dimensions (A. Hakulinen)

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Types of converstation: Dimensions (A. Hakulinen)

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- Channel: visual-cum-auditory
auditory
visual
- dyadic vs. multiperson
- everyday vs. institutional communication

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- practical, parole discipline
- 1930s, Charles Morris
- the actual use of language: what the person means
- conventions, principles, maxims
- Linguistic turn -> attention to language
- Austin
- functional & practical
- contextual meaning
- common ground x relative distance
- making the invisible meaning visible
- Speaker meaning - felicitous communication, negotiation of meaning
- written x spoken discourse