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Non-Hodgkin lymphoma is a type of cancer that develops in the lymphatic system, a network of vessels and glands spread throughout your body.
The lymphatic system is part of your immune system.

Clear fluid called lymph flows through the lymphatic vessels and contains infection-fighting white blood cells known as lymphocytes.

In non-Hodgkin lymphoma, the affected lymphocytes start to multiply in an abnormal way and begin to collect in certain parts of the lymphatic system, such as the lymph nodes (glands).

The affected lymphocytes lose their infection-fighting properties, making you more vulnerable to infection.

The most common symptom of non-Hodgkin lymphoma is a painless swelling in a lymph node, usually in the neck, armpit or groin.
Find out more about the symptoms of non-Hodgkin lymphoma

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Who's affected

In the UK, more than 13,000 people are diagnosed with non-Hodgkin lymphoma each year.

Non-Hodgkin lymphoma can occur at any age, but your chances of developing the condition increase as you get older, with just over a third of cases diagnosed in people over 75.

Slightly more men than women are affected.

What causes non-Hodgkin lymphoma?

The exact cause of non-Hodgkin lymphoma is unknown.

But your risk of developing the condition is increased if:

you have a medical condition that weakens your immune system

you take immunosuppressant medication

you have previously been exposed to a common virus called the Epstein-Barr virus, which causes glandular fever

You also have a slightly increased risk of developing non-Hodgkin lymphoma if a first-degree relative (such as a parent or sibling) has had the condition.

How non-Hodgkin lymphoma is diagnosed

The only way to confirm a diagnosis of non-Hodgkin lymphoma is by carrying out a biopsy.

This is a minor surgical procedure where a sample of affected lymph node tissue is removed and studied in a laboratory.
Find out more about diagnosing non-Hodgkin lymphoma

Treatments for non-Hodgkin lymphoma

There are many subtypes of non-Hodgkin lymphoma, but they can generally be put into 1 of 2 broad categories:

high-grade or aggressive non-Hodgkin lymphoma - where the cancer grows quickly and aggressively

low-grade or indolent non-Hodgkin lymphoma - where the cancer grows slowly and you may not experience any symptoms for many years

The outlook and treatment for non-Hodgkin lymphoma varies greatly, depending on the exact type, grade and extent of the lymphoma, and the person's age.

Low-grade tumours do not necessarily require immediate medical treatment, but are harder to completely cure.

High-grade lymphomas need to be treated straight away, but tend to respond much better to treatment and can often be cured.

The main treatments used for non-Hodgkin lymphoma are:

Overall, most cases of non-Hodgkin lymphoma are considered very treatable.

You can read more detailed information about the outlook for non-Hodgkin lymphoma on the Cancer Research UK website.

But there's a risk of long-term problems after treatment, including infertility and an increased risk of developing another type of cancer in the future.

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Non-Hodgkin lymphoma is a type of cancer that develops in the lymphatic system, a network of vessels and glands spread throughout your body. The lymphatic system is part of your immune system. Clear fluid called lymph flows through the lymphatic vessels and contains infection-fighting white blood cells known as lymphocytes.

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Find out about the symptoms of thyroid cancer, why it happens, how it’s treated, and what the outlook is.

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Anyone can get breast cancer. Find out about breast cancer in women, including what the symptoms are, what to do if you think you have it, how it is treated, and where to get support.

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Read about the symptoms of breast cancer in men, what causes it, how it's treated and what the outlook is.

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Leukaemia is cancer of the white blood cells. Acute leukaemia means it progresses quickly and aggressively, and usually requires immediate treatment.
Acute leukaemia is classified according to the type of white blood cells affected.

The 2 main types of white blood cells are:

monocytes and granulocytes, which come from myeloid stem cells

lymphocytes, which come from lymphoid stem cells

This topic focuses on acute myeloid leukaemia (AML), which is an aggressive cancer of the monocyte or granulocyte cells.

The following types of leukaemia are covered separately:

Symptoms of AML

The symptoms of AML usually develop over a few weeks and become worse over time.

Symptoms can include:

looking pale or "washed out"

feeling tired or weak

breathlessness

frequent infections

unusual and frequent bruising or bleeding, such as bleeding gums or nosebleeds

losing weight without trying to

Seeking medical advice

Speak to a GP if you or your child have possible symptoms of AML.

Although it's highly unlikely that leukaemia is the cause, these symptoms should be investigated.

If your GP thinks you may have leukaemia, they'll arrange blood tests to check your blood cells.

If the tests suggest there's a problem, you'll be urgently referred to a specialist in treating blood conditions (haematologist) for further tests and treatment.
Find out more about diagnosing AML

What causes AML?

It's not clear exactly what causes AML and, in most cases, there's no identifiable cause.

But some things can increase your risk of getting AML, including:

previous chemotherapy or radiotherapy

exposure to very high levels of radiation (including previous radiotherapy treatment)

smoking and other exposure to benzene, a chemical used in manufacturing that's also found in cigarette smoke

having a blood disorder or some genetic conditions, such as Down's syndrome

Find out more about the causes of AML

Who's affected

AML is a rare type of cancer, with around 3,100 people diagnosed with it each year in the UK.

The risk of developing AML increases with age. It's most common in people over 75.

How AML is treated

Treatment for AML needs to begin as soon as possible, as it can develop quickly.

Chemotherapy is the main treatment for AML. It's used to kill as many leukaemia cells in your body as possible and reduce the risk of the condition coming back (relapsing).

In some cases, intensive chemotherapy and radiotherapy may be needed, in combination with a bone marrow or stem cell transplant.
Find out more about treating AML

Help and support

There are organisations that offer information, advice and support if you or a family member has been diagnosed with AML.

These include:

Page last reviewed: 04 October 2022
Next review due: 04 October 2025

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Leukaemia is cancer of the white blood cells. Acute leukaemia means it progresses quickly and aggressively, and usually requires immediate treatment. Acute leukaemia is classified according to the type of white blood cells affected.

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Cancer of the testicle is 1 of the less common cancers, and tends to mostly affect men between 15 and 49 years of age.
Typical symptoms are a painless swelling or lump in 1 of the testicles, or any change in shape or texture of the testicles.

It's important to be aware of what feels normal for you. Get to know your body and see a GP if you notice any changes.

Read more about the look and feel of normal testicles, the symptoms of testicular cancer and diagnosing testicular cancer.

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The testicles

The testicles are the 2 oval-shaped male sex organs that sit inside the scrotum on either side of the penis.

The testicles are an important part of the male reproductive system because they produce sperm and the hormone testosterone, which plays a major role in male sexual development.

Types of testicular cancer

The different types of testicular cancer are classified by the type of cells the cancer begins in.

The most common type of testicular cancer is germ cell testicular cancer, which accounts for around 95% of all cases. Germ cells are a type of cell that the body uses to create sperm.

There are 2 main subtypes of germ cell testicular cancer. They are:

seminomas - which have become more common in the past 20 years and now account for 40 to 45% of testicular cancers

non-seminomas - which account for most of the rest and include teratomas, embryonal carcinomas, choriocarcinomas and yolk sac tumours

Both types tend to respond well to chemotherapy.

Less common types of testicular cancer include:

Leydig cell tumours - which account for around 1 to 3% of cases

Sertoli cell tumours - which account for less than 1% of cases

This topic focuses on germ cell testicular cancer.

You can contact the cancer support specialists at Macmillan for more information about Leydig cell tumour and Sertoli cell tumours.

The Macmillan helpline number is 0808 808 00 00, open Monday to Friday, 9am to 8pm.

Read more about Hodgkin lymphoma and non-Hodgkin lymphoma.

How common is testicular cancer?

Testicular cancer is a relatively rare type of cancer, accounting for just 1% of all cancers that occur in men.

Around 2,300 men are diagnosed with testicular cancer each year in the UK.

Testicular cancer is unusual compared with other cancers because it tends to affect younger men.

Although it's relatively uncommon overall, testicular cancer is the most common type of cancer to affect men between the ages of 15 and 49.

For reasons that are unclear, white men have a higher risk of developing testicular cancer than men from other ethnic groups.

The number of cases of testicular cancer diagnosed each year in the UK has roughly doubled since the mid-1970s. Again, the reasons for this are unclear.

Causes of testicular cancer

The exact cause or causes of testicular cancer are unknown, but a number of factors have been identified that increase a man's risk of developing it.

Undescended testicles

Undescended testicles (cryptorchidism) is the most significant risk factor for testicular cancer.

Around 3 to 5% of boys are born with their testicles inside their abdomen. They usually descend into the scrotum during the first year of life, but in some boys the testicles do not descend.

In most cases, testicles that do not descend by the time a boy is a year old descend at a later stage.

If the testicles do not descend naturally, an operation known as an orchidopexy can be carried out to move the testicles into the correct position inside the scrotum.

It's important that undescended testicles move down into the scrotum during early childhood because boys with undescended testicles have a higher risk of developing testicular cancer than boys whose testicles descend normally.

It's also much easier to observe the testicles when they're in the scrotum.

Men with undescended testicles are about 3 times more likely to develop testicular cancer than men whose testicles descend at birth or shortly after.

Family history

Having a close relative with a history of testicular cancer or an undescended testicle increases your risk of also developing it.

For example, if your father had testicular cancer, you're around 4 times more likely to develop it than someone with no family history of the condition.

If your brother had testicular cancer, you're about 8 times more likely to develop it.

Current research suggests a number of genes may be involved in the development of testicular cancer in families where more than 1 person has had the condition.

This is an ongoing area of research in which patients and their families may be asked to take part.

Previous testicular cancer

Men who have previously been diagnosed with testicular cancer are between 12 and 18 times more likely to develop it in the other testicle.

For this reason, if you have been diagnosed with testicular cancer, it's very important that you keep a close eye on the other testicle.
Find out what testicles should look and feel like
If you have been diagnosed with testicular cancer, you also need to be observed for signs of recurrence for between 5 and 10 years, so it's very important that you attend your follow-up appointments.

Cancer Research UK has more information about testicular cancer risks and causes.

Outlook

Testicular cancer is 1 of the most treatable types of cancer, and the outlook is 1 of the best for cancers.

In England and Wales, almost all men (99%) survive for a year or more after being diagnosed with testicular cancer, and 98% survive for 5 years or more after diagnosis.

Cancer Research UK has more information about survival rates for testicular cancer.

Almost all men who are treated for testicular germ cell tumours are cured, and it's rare for the condition to return more than 5 years later.

Treatment almost always includes the surgical removal of the affected testicle (orchidectomy or orchiectomy), which does not usually affect fertility or the ability to have sex.

In some cases, chemotherapy or, less commonly, radiotherapy may be used for seminomas (but not non-seminomas).
Find out more about treating testicular cancer

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Cancer of the testicle is 1 of the less common cancers, and tends to mostly affect men between 15 and 49 years of age. Typical symptoms are a painless swelling or lump in 1 of the testicles, or any change in shape or texture of the testicles.

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