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We got brief about the exam topics. I learned some of the topics in last semester taught by professor Judit Kovács, like “Language learning vs language acquisition”, “The theory of multi competence”. And I am very curious about the topics of CLIL. I am very interested to the coming lessons of this course.

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Professor Éva Trentinné Benkő introduced how to use padlet to collect our works from this course. I found it very useful and intuitive and easy to use. I hope at the end of this course I can have tons of works that can be useful for my future studies.

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Here’s the requirements of the portfolio. It’s very informative.

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Thinking Game of indication of pictures in bilingualism 

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Thinking Game of indication of pictures in bilingualism 

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The instructions of this game is firstly you have to choose a few of pictures that interest you. Then you have to think why it is interesting to you and how it related to bilingualism. You have to explain to others about your thoughts of it later on.

I chose 3 pictures. First is a man sitting on a royal like chair. Second is a long hair went through a gold ring. The third one is a kitty looking at a couple who are in the night sky but strangely they are standing in a cage.

I chose the first one because it seems the man on the chair is kind of depressed. I think if he learn more languages or even a new culture different from his. It would be beneficial for him to meet new people and make some friends. Hopefully, this could help him psychologically and emotionally.

I chose the second one because the gold ring seems to me is some kind of goals of bilingualism, like learning new cultures, enhancing our own knowledge of thinking like how different of logical thinking different from different cultures and languages. These goals are very valuable as real gold. I hope i could be like this long hair to achieve the ultimate aim of the meaning of its. For me, is to become bilingual.

Lastly, I chose the third picture because I think not knowing different languages and cultures is like not knowing the outside world, just like the couple who are living in a cage. For my point of view is just like the cat looking at the couple and to tell them to leave the cage to embrace the life outside. I would courage people to try to know more languages and cultures, not like learning languages to be fully fluent like a native speaker but to learn some phrases or words or some greeting phrases would be beneficial of personal experience to be more open to the world around us.

In addition, I also listened to other classmates how they view the pictures related to bilingual. It’s very interesting and at the same time I have broader my view of bilingualism.

I really like this activity!

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Video watching activity of a bilingual speaker who speaks more than 10 languages 

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Video watching activity of a bilingual speaker who speaks more than 10 languages 

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He really inspires me how we human could capable of speaking more than 10 languages. I learned that our brain isn’t just limited to speak one or two languages. Some points of view of his I really couldn’t disagree on. For instance, he said learning multiple languages has broadened his horizons, like knowing new cultures and meeting new peoples. It always has new information for each day. To be bilingual could increase your social circle, learning new things and maybe also could alter your meaning of life eventually. Or Maybe you will find other places on earth could fit you better than your original place.

He is a role model for me. I admire him and I hope i can pursue my bilingual dream, which is to speak Hungarian and English and Finnish.

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Knowledge findings competition of bilingualism 

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Knowledge findings competition of bilingualism 

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Today, we got a game like competition. There are some paper question and its answer can be found on the official book. We have to find the answers as many as we can. And to see who find the most answers.

It was a great experience to regain our knowledge and briefly learn what is CLIL and bilingualism. This knowledge is very valuable for my future studies.

I hope we can have more activities like this in the future.

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Matching game of Traditional FL teaching and CLIL teaching

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Matching game of Traditional FL teaching and CLIL teaching

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We got an online matching game today. It had some definitions elements of two types of teachings. Traditional FL teaching and CLIL teaching. Some elements include such as work form: co-operative or final goal: getting by etc. We needed to match them in the correct categories. Through this activity, I learned both teachings in an accurate way. I really enjoyed it today.

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Guessing animals games based on information on animals 's cards

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Guessing animals games based on information on animals 's cards

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Today, we got a very special game from the professor. This game is a guessing game. We need to pick one animal card and put the card on the partner head. And we need to tell the information of the animal based on the card but without telling what animal it is to the partner. It was really fun and exciting. We had a fun time together. I think it is fun but of course not just that, I think this game is very educational. We can have the time to practice our english in a fun way but we can also learn how to create a activites like this to the kindergarteners. It was a really great experience for all of us , especically for us as a future billingual educators.

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Wow! We got the chance to expericence our classmate's game created by ourselves. We saw many many fun and creative games. I specially choosen this one. Not because it is just aesthetic simple, But because it is very good for young learners. For instance, this game required player to know the vocabs and try to figure how to put those words togther which is very good for memory skills, learning vocabs, and also of course to learn some basic problem solving skill in elements in the game. I learned a lot. Not just typical knowledge, but knowledge of creating fun and educational digitial games.

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As you can see, I did pretty well in this kahoot game created by my classmate. I think it is not focus on competitive but rather focus on learning in this game. So more games like this, more time you can practice. And at the end i believe All of us can be a great equiped educators.

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The kahoot game created by my classmate I mentioned about 

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The kahoot game created by my classmate I mentioned about 

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Here is the example of the kahoot game I mentioned about

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Competitive activities of finding the answers of the paper questions in limited time

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Competitive activities of finding the answers of the paper questions in limited time

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yeah! As you can see, me, myself and my partner had achieved so much in this task. We found many answers from the book. But for me, it is not just about the game. but also more importantly , is about what we learn during the activities. I hope we can have more activities like this. And I am very grateful i can be a part of the lesson.

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we have a very exciting activities. We have the chance to use few apps to learn how the human organ systems works . This is very great not just for young learners, but also for us adults as well . There is always something to learn which you think you know but actcally there is more to discover even we as adults.

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Discover Millky Way in fun ipad activities

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Discover Millky Way in fun ipad activities

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As i mentioned, we got this fun time to use ipad to explore some great things, and this is one of the special one to me . In this app, I learn that our galaxy is very huge and there is trillions or even more galaxy out there . This shows how small and insignificant we are. This really change my perspective on life.

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We got an app that show animals and even dinosaurs in an AR way. This bring the digitial world to life. I can also learn how the animals sounds like. It is very fun and I could bring this kind of activities to young learners as I become a future educator.

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We have the activities to find the easter eggs which they were hidden somewhere in the classroom. It is very fun especically easter is coming . We had a very fun time togther.

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After finding all the easter eggs, I have the chance to see what i have got in the easter egg i have picked. I got the penguin!!!!!!!!!!! I am very excited about that.

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We had the chance to go outside to explore the nature . Look what i got in the pic. I captured a bee flying to the flower per se. I think it would be a fun activities for young learners to learn sth about the nature. I really like this picture .

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We did a great job in the teaching activities. Many of us had really special different ideas for the activities . I learned a lot in different fields, like science and art. I think this is a very good chance for us to practice how to teach to others. I hope we can have more activities like this.

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This is my practice podcast for this course , i leanred a lot throughout the practice and this course. i am really lokking forward to the coming semester in the uni life. To recap my experience, all i can say is i am really grateful for having the chance to participate this course and this internship. I learned a lot. Thank you .

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A FUN Podcast of Kindergarten Internship LIUKWANKIT-PIERRE

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This is the game i created by myself . it is realted to billingualism . what is the benefits of it or what are the elements of billingualism etc. I hope others would enjoy it .

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All games (Matching): Bilingual Quest - Embark on a journey to master two languages and unlock cultural treasures!

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My TOP 3 choices are:

1. (5*)The benefits of a bilingual brain - Mia Nacamulli

It is because it taught me about how bilingualism strengthens the brain's attention system, leading to improved focus and other knowledge like bilingualism may contribute to better brain health and delay dementia. I found that billingual can not just good for learning cultures but also good for our physical health.

2.(5*) The cognitive benefits of learning a language

Because i learned how early bilinguals have stronger brain connectivity and how bilingualism builds a "cognitive reserve" , this really taught me a lot.

3.(5*) Principles of CLIL

because it taught me how CLIL aims are and it is to enable all learners to access deeper learning and CLIL involves understanding culture etc. i can use this Principles for my future career.

the three i liked the least:

1.(3*) Mission Possible - Immersion and CLIL

Not because it is not good , but since i learned some of it like, Immersion Programs. So it is not on my top choices.

2.(5*) Noam Chomsky's Language Acquisition Theory

as i mentioned, i learned some of it in last semester, so it wouldn't be the top 3.

3.(5*) What is CLIL?

because i learned it in my previous lessons, so it wouldn't be on my top 3.

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May 30, 2024

In our globalized world, the benefits of being bilingual extend far beyond mere communication. While speaking more than one language opens doors to different cultures and communities, it also has profound effects on cognitive abilities. Let's explore the cognitive benefits of being bilingual backed by scientific research.

Enhanced Problem-Solving Abilities

Improved Memory and Multitasking

Enhanced memory also contributes to better academic performance and daily task management. Ellen Bialystok highlights how bilinguals show improved focus, memory, and decision-making abilities​​ in her book ​​ Bilingualism in Development: Language, Literacy, and Cognition . This translates to the ability to multitask effectively as bilingual people frequently switch between languages, which trains the brain to handle multiple tasks simultaneously.

Greater Attention and Focus

Delayed Cognitive Decline and Increased Cognitive Reserve

Enhanced Executive Function and Mental Agility

Executive function refers to the mental processes that allow us to plan, focus attention, remember instructions, and manage multiple tasks. Bilingual people often show enhanced executive function, as the brain's need to manage two language systems requires greater planning and organizational skills. This translates into better decision-making and problem-solving abilities in everyday life.

Additionally, being bilingual enhances mental agility, allowing individuals to switch between tasks and ideas more fluidly. This agility is beneficial in adapting to new environments and learning new skills​​ which is highly valued in the workforce, where the ability to adapt and multitask can lead to greater career opportunities. Check out our blog to learn more about the career benefits of being bilingual .

Unlock Your Potential

The benefits of being bilingual are profound and make a compelling case for learning and maintaining proficiency in multiple languages. It is never too late to learn, if you're interested in improving your ability to speak English, check out our free ESL classes at St. Augustine College . Those who complete the ESL program at St.Augustine can enroll in a free college-level course offered in an ESL format to start their path toward numerous different career fields. to learn how you can start your journey today.

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The Cognitive Benefits of Being Bilingual | St. Augustine

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Discover the top cognitive benefits of being bilingual. Learn how bilingual people have enhanced problem-solving skills, memory, mental agility, and more.

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At BVIS, a bilingual education is an essential part of our curriculum, setting your child up for long term educational benefits and a lifetime of learning. Being bilingual, it turns out, has a profound effect on the brain and can even make you smarter.

What is a Bilingual Education?

The term 'bilingual education' refers to the use of two languages throughout the course of a students' education. A bilingual education course syllabus helps students master a second language throughout their academic studies, enabling comprehensive abilities in listening, speaking, reading, and writing, while ensuring complete fluency in their first language.

Bilingual education has been proven as a secret weapon in supercharging children's learning and even changing the structure of the human brain. We explore some of the advantages that a bilingual language curriculum can provide your child.

The main benefits of a bilingual education are:
1. Increased cognitive development
Bilingual education has many cognitive benefits. Children that know a second language perform better in tasks that call for creative thinking, pattern recognition and problem solving. Young learners develop greater linguistic awareness and a more complex understanding of their native language.
2. Better academic achievement
Bilingual students' brain function is improved as the mind is challenged to recognize, find meaning and communicate in multiple languages. A thirty-two year study by Thomas and Collier from George Mason University indicated that students who had a bilingual education and that spoke multiple languages had greater achievements than their monolingual peers, especially in maths, reading and vocabulary.
3. Improved memory
Children who learn a second and third language have better memories and are more cognitively creative than single language speaking counterparts. Research has indicated that bilingual people are usually better at remembering names, directions and items than those who speak one language.
4. Resistance to dementia
A recent study has shown that people who speak more than one language develop dementia symptoms an average of five years later and are able to cope with a greater level of brain dysfunction than their monolingual counterparts.
5. Increased economic opportunities
In an interconnected and rapidly changing world there is an increased need for a multilingual workforce and the ability to conduct business in more than one language is becoming more critical. Bilingual people often hold higher positions and earn better incomes than their monolingual counterparts in the same industry.
7.Cross cultural appreciation
The exposure to two languages assists students in developing an appreciation for the differences in cultures. Students are able to engage with languages through folk tales, songs, idioms and other primary sources of information without requiring translation leading to more meaningful cultural exchanges.
8. Improvements in the executive function of the brain
The executive function is a command system that directs the attention processes that we use for planning, solving problems and performing other mentally demanding tasks. Bilingual people are better able to sort out relevant information from irrelevant information, meaning they can focus better and be more effective thinkers and decision-makers.

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The Benefits of Bilingual Education | BVIS HCMC

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Find out about what bilingual education is and the benefits of bilingual education with the British Vietnamese International School Ho Chi Minh City.

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In today's fast-paced and interconnected world, the benefits of bilingual education in early childhood development are becoming more apparent. As society grows more diverse and globalized, fostering bilingualism in young children is not just a trend-it's a crucial skill that offers numerous cognitive, social, and cultural advantages. This article will explore how bilingual education impacts the growth and development of young minds, why it's beneficial, and how parents and educators can implement it effectively.

The Impact of Bilingual Education in Early Childhood Development

Bilingual education is more than just teaching kids a second language; it's about unlocking their cognitive potential, enhancing their social skills, and fostering cultural awareness. From improved problem-solving abilities to better social interactions, the benefits of bilingualism extend far beyond the classroom.

What is Bilingual Education?

Bilingual education involves teaching children two languages simultaneously or introducing a second language alongside their native one. While some schools may offer bilingual programs, many parents opt to introduce a second language at home through everyday interactions, storytelling, or play.

Types of Bilingual Education Programs

1. Dual-Language Immersion: Students are taught in two languages with the aim of achieving proficiency in both.

2. Transitional Bilingual Education: Initially taught in the child's native language, gradually transitioning to the second language.

3. Two-Way Bilingual Education : Integrates native English speakers and non-native speakers in the same classroom, teaching in both languages.

Why Is Early Childhood the Best Time for Bilingual Education?

Early childhood, typically from birth to age 5, is a critical window for language acquisition. During this period, a child's brain is highly receptive to new information, making it easier to learn multiple languages simultaneously. But why is this window so special?

The Brain's Plasticity in Early Years

Children's brains are highly plastic during their early years, which means they can adapt and change rapidly. Learning two languages at a young age helps the brain create more complex neural pathways, leading to stronger cognitive abilities later in life. It's like building a flexible, multi-lane highway in their brains, compared to a single, slower road.

Natural Language Absorption

Children are natural language sponges during their early years. They pick up sounds, words, and grammar rules effortlessly, often without explicit instruction. Bilingual kids may start mixing languages initially, but this is part of the learning process and eventually leads to fluency in both.

Cognitive Benefits of Bilingual Education

One of the most well-documented advantages of bilingualism is its positive effect on cognitive development. Bilingual children tend to perform better on tasks that involve problem-solving, multitasking, and creativity.

Enhanced Executive Functioning

Bilingual children are constantly switching between two languages, which strengthens their executive functioning skills. These are the cognitive abilities that help with planning, focusing attention, and juggling multiple tasks. Bilingual kids are like mental gymnasts, capable of thinking flexibly and adapting to new situations with ease.

Improved Problem-Solving and Critical Thinking

The ability to think in two languages allows bilingual children to approach problems from different angles. They learn to think outside the box, which improves their critical thinking and problem-solving skills. It's like giving them two different lenses to view the world-each one offers unique perspectives.

Delay in Cognitive Decline

Studies have shown that bilingual individuals are less likely to suffer from cognitive decline and diseases like Alzheimer's later in life. This is because the mental workout that comes with managing two languages keeps the brain healthier and more resilient over time.

Social and Emotional Advantages of Bilingualism

Bilingual education doesn't just impact a child's cognitive development; it also plays a crucial role in their social and emotional growth. The ability to communicate in two languages opens doors to diverse social circles and cultures.

Greater Cultural Awareness

Being bilingual often means being bicultural. Children exposed to different languages learn to appreciate different cultures, customs, and perspectives. This cultural awareness fosters empathy and understanding, skills that are increasingly important in today's global society.

Improved Social Skills

Bilingual children have a natural ability to navigate social situations where more than one language is spoken. This gives them a unique advantage in making friends from different backgrounds, improving their communication skills, and increasing their emotional intelligence. They learn early on that language is a bridge that connects people from all walks of life.

Boosted Self-Confidence

Learning a second language can be challenging, but succeeding in this task gives children a sense of accomplishment. It boosts their confidence, knowing they have a skill that sets them apart. This self-esteem carries over into other areas of their lives, encouraging them to take on new challenges.

Overcoming Challenges in Bilingual Education

Despite its many benefits, bilingual education can present challenges for both parents and educators. However, with the right strategies, these hurdles can be easily overcome.

Avoiding Language Confusion

A common concern is that children will get confused when learning two languages. While some language mixing is normal in the beginning, children quickly learn to differentiate between the two languages. The key is consistency. Parents should designate times or contexts for each language to help children keep them separate.

Finding Resources for Bilingual Education

Parents may worry about finding quality resources to support bilingual education. Thankfully, there are numerous apps, books, and educational programs designed to promote bilingualism in young children. Additionally, communities of bilingual families can offer support and share ideas.

Tips for Parents to Encourage Bilingualism at Home

If you're a parent looking to raise a bilingual child, you're probably wondering how to get started. Here are some practical tips for making bilingual education a natural part of your child's life.

Start Early and Be Consistent

The earlier you introduce a second language, the easier it will be for your child to pick it up. Aim for consistent exposure to both languages, whether that's through daily conversations, songs, or storytelling.

Make Language Learning Fun

Children learn best when they're having fun. Incorporate language learning into games, songs, and playtime. The more engaging the process, the more likely your child will stick with it.

Encourage Language Immersion

If possible, provide opportunities for language immersion. This could mean spending time with family members who speak the second language, joining language playgroups, or even traveling to places where the language is spoken.

Be Patient and Supportive

Learning two languages can be overwhelming at times, so it's important to be patient and supportive. Celebrate your child's progress, no matter how small, and avoid pressuring them to be perfect. Remember, every child learns at their own pace.

The Role of Schools in Bilingual Education

While parents play a vital role in bilingual education, schools also have a responsibility to support language learning. Bilingual programs can make a significant difference in a child's linguistic and academic development.

Dual-Language Programs

Many schools offer dual-language programs where students receive instruction in both their native language and a second language. These programs have been shown to improve academic performance, language skills, and cultural understanding.

Professional Development for Teachers

Teachers need adequate training to support bilingual students effectively. Schools should invest in professional development programs that equip educators with the skills and knowledge they need to create inclusive, supportive bilingual environments.

Long-Term Benefits of Bilingual Education

The impact of bilingual education goes beyond childhood. As bilingual children grow up, they continue to reap the rewards of their early language learning.

Academic and Career Success

Bilingualism has been linked to higher academic achievement and better job prospects. Employers increasingly seek individuals who can speak multiple languages, especially in industries that require communication across borders.

Lifelong Cognitive Benefits

The cognitive advantages of bilingualism don't stop in childhood. Bilingual individuals often enjoy better memory, enhanced multitasking abilities, and greater cognitive flexibility throughout their lives.

Implementing Bilingual Education

Strategies for Parents

1. Create a Bilingual Home Environment: Speak both languages at home to provide constant exposure.

2. Use Bilingual Resources: Utilize books, games, and media in both languages.

3. Encourage Language Use: Encourage children to use both languages in different contexts.

Tips for Educators

1. Incorporate Both Languages in the Classroom: Design lessons that integrate both languages seamlessly.

2. Provide Cultural Context: Teach about the cultures associated with the languages to enhance understanding and interest.

3. Foster a Supportive Environment: Create an inclusive classroom where all languages are valued.

Conclusion

Bilingual education in early childhood is a powerful tool that benefits cognitive, social, and emotional development. By exposing children to two languages early on, we give them the opportunity to think more critically, connect more deeply with others, and succeed academically.

The impact of bilingual education on early childhood development is undeniable. From boosting cognitive function to enhancing social skills, the benefits of bilingualism are far-reaching. By fostering bilingual education in the home and schools, parents and educators can give children a head start in life that goes beyond language itself-it's a gift of expanded horizons, cultural appreciation, and a brighter future.

FAQs

1. At what age should bilingual education begin?

Bilingual education can begin as early as infancy. Research shows that children are most receptive to language learning from birth to age three, making this an ideal window to introduce a second language. However, it's never too late to start, as children continue to benefit from bilingual education throughout their early childhood years.

2. Can bilingual education delay language development in children?

No, bilingual education does not delay language development. While bilingual children may initially mix languages or have a slightly smaller vocabulary in each language compared to monolingual peers, this is a normal part of bilingual development. Over time, bilingual children catch up and often surpass their monolingual peers in various cognitive and linguistic areas.

3. How can parents support bilingual education at home if they are not bilingual?

Parents can support bilingual education at home by providing resources in the second language, such as books, music, and videos. Engaging with language learning apps and platforms, participating in cultural activities, and seeking out native speakers for playdates or conversation practice can also be beneficial. Encouragement and showing interest in the language learning process are key.

4. Does bilingual education interfere with academic performance in other subjects?

Bilingual education does not interfere with academic performance in other subjects. In fact, it can enhance cognitive skills such as problem-solving, critical thinking, and multitasking, which are beneficial across all areas of learning. Bilingual students often show improved focus, memory, and flexibility in thinking, which can contribute to better academic performance overall.

5. What are the long-term benefits of bilingual education in early childhood?

The long-term benefits of bilingual education include advanced cognitive flexibility, improved executive functioning, and greater cultural awareness and sensitivity. Bilingual individuals often have better communication skills, enhanced problem-solving abilities, and a deeper understanding of global perspectives. Additionally, being bilingual can provide significant advantages in the global job market and in personal and professional opportunities throughout life.

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The Impact of Bilingual Education in Early Childhood Development

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Explore the cognitive, social, and emotional benefits of bilingual education in early childhood and learn how to implement it for your child's development.

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Summary Notes On The Current Problems in Bilingual Education | PDF | Multilingualism | English As A Second Or Foreign Language

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The document summarizes 10 common problems in bilingual education programs: 1) lack of language development opportunities for students, 2) limited use of students’ native languages, 3) premature transitioning to English instruction before students are ready, 4) lack of appropriate instructional materials, 5) insufficient training for bilingual teachers, 6) lack of administrative support, 7) failure to use students’ vernacular languages, 8) xenophobia negatively impacting programs, 9) low expectations of students, and 10) restrictive rules and regulations that hinder program success.

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Teaching Strategies for Bilingual Education

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Teachers and curriculum designers should understand and plan for ELL’s unique educational needs to ensure that these students have the same opportunities for success as native speakers.

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Ten-year-old Olivia Chinchio learns in Mandarin and English at College Park Elementary School in San Mateo, CA.

Photo courtesy of Connie Chang

When most Americans think about bilingual education, what first comes to mind isn't its long history in this country. But Manka Varghese, a professor at the University of Washington's College of Education, reminds her students that the United States has always had multiple languages, starting with Indigenous ones. Before compulsory education laws were on the books, public schools offered instruction in languages like German to attract immigrant families, Varghese says, and the Supreme Court has affirmed both a school's right to do so, in 1923, and, in 1974, the responsibility. In the latter case, Lau v. Nichols, the court found that English-only instruction unlawfully deprives non-English speaking students of the opportunity to learn.

Today, effective bilingual programs strengthen students' literacy in their home language while they build their academic English skills. But these programs require a lot of invisible labor-these educators dedicate extra time developing curricular materials that may not always be apparent. Melanie Ortega taught in multiple bilingual settings prior to becoming a New York City Department of Education administrator. "I had to make my own flashcards. I made posters myself. I used my mom's color printer at work," she says. "I remember asking my mom, when she went to [visit] the Dominican Republic, to get me one of the alphabet books that she used when she was little."

A 2019 paper in the Bilingual Research Journal described these tasks-as well as translating district-provided materials and creating infographics-as the result of failures in teacher education, professional development, and resource allocation. Conscientious librarians who serve students in bilingual programs take on similar invisible work, like these eight best practices.

1. Understand the structure and goal of a class's bilingual education
According to Wayne E. Wright, chair of literacy and language at Purdue University, all effective bilingual programs have three elements: ESL instruction, meaning teaching English as a foreign language rather than English Language Arts; primary laguage support; and content-area instruction with "sheltering," which means making what you're saying more accessible via, for example, simplified vocabulary, less complex sentence structure, or slower-paced speech, without sacrificing rigor. Different programs offer different proportions of these elements and achieve varying levels of success at each.

Transitional bilingual education programs, also known as "early-exit," are the most common in the United States. The goal is to steadily reduce home-language and ESL instruction, transitioning to content-area instruction in English as quickly as possible. Patricia Sánchez chairs the bicultural-bilingual studies department at the University of Texas at San Antonio. She says this model conveys a certain message: "You're deficient. You don't know English, so we have to hurry up and give you some content in Spanish so that we can cram English."

It also often sets kids up to fail by asking them to learn in English as soon as they have basic interpersonal communication skills rather than allowing them to wait until they have cognitive academic language proficiency, she says.

Developmental bilingual education, a.k.a. "late-exit," treats a child's home language as a resource and sets biculturalism, bilingualism, and biliteracy as its goals, rather than assimilation. So, too, do dual language programs, bilingual immersion programs for English speakers, and robust heritage language programs.

Many dual language programs are composed of half native English speakers and half English learners, though some divide into thirds with students who are already bilingual making up 33 percent of the class, Sánchez says. Most focus on Spanish, but others teach in Vietnamese, Armenian, Russian, French, Mandarin, Korean, Navajo, and other languages. The most common model splits instructional time in each language at 50/50. In another model, the 90/10, students instead begin with the bulk of instruction in their home language, with the proportion shifting toward English over the elementary years.

Often, several of these program types coexist in a single school. Knowing the structure and goals of an individual class can help librarians best adjust their lessons and policies. "In some schools the model might not be all that well-defined, and there may even be disagreements," says Judy Viertel, school librarian at Marshall Elementary School in San Francisco. "Because it's about language, and our work is centered on language and information, we can actually be a voice in the discussion of what the program should look like."

2. Use welcoming signage and displays

The first step is making all students feel welcome. Part of that task is visual, according to a 2001 paper by Drexel University professor Denise E. Agosto: "The posters and other artwork in the library should depict people of multiple ethnic, racial, religious, and so forth backgrounds."

All signage should be bilingual with design choices not preferencing one language over the other.

3. Take a critical approach to collection development
"It's still a real problem that a lot of school libraries don't have books in other languages," Varghese says.

"In my dreams, I'd have equal proportions of relevant books in both languages, but so many more books get published each year in English than in Spanish that that really isn't possible. The most popular books in my library are graphic novels, and I can't find very many in Spanish," Viertel says.

Shortages can make it difficult to make sure the home language collection "is as fresh as our English collection; that it's not outdated, especially when it comes to our nonfiction," says Lissette Rossi-Felipe, media specialist at PS145K The School of Innovation in Brooklyn, NY. But the most important thing to Rossi-Felipe "is having authentic literature in the language."

The reason is twofold: Students more readily engage with and understand individual texts that are culturally relevant, and the overall composition of a collection sends messages about who is valued that can either support or disrupt a child's learning. Gilberto Lara is an assistant professor in Sánchez's department. He remembers discovering a novel about Latinx characters who code-switched in ninth grade. "Something sparked in me when I saw myself reflected in the book," he says. And when children don't see themselves, research shows, they can feel like something about them, about their culture, isn't worthy of inclusion. Members of the dominant culture also benefit when exposed to diverse materials, becoming increasingly positive about difference.

Eliza G. Braden, assistant professor of elementary education at the University of South Carolina, and Sanjuana C. Rodriguez, assistant professor of literacy and reading education at Kennesaw State University, examined 3,200 picture books published in 2013 and 2014. They discovered that only 57 had significant Latinx content and only 48 were authored by Latinx individuals. Braden and Rodriguez also found that even culturally authentic books contained stereotypical elements like poverty; traditional foods; and cliché gender roles, including the unemployed homemaker. Also unhelpful to kids are utopian tales with "near perfect pictures of family life."

Pulling together their own questions as well as those posed by other researchers, Braden and Rodriguez suggest asking the following questions when curating a classroom collection or library:

* What cultural narratives are implicitly and explicitly suggested?

* Are characters outside the mainstream culture depicted as individuals or as caricatures?

* Does their representation include significant specific cultural information, or does it follow stereotypes?

* Who has the wisdom?

Not all translations are created equal, either. Rossi-Felipe stays away from translated books entirely to ensure "that the author knows the culture." One tip-off that that's not true? When all the characters in a book have identical skin tone and features. Another thing to watch for: English being privileged in bilingual texts, including typographically (with size, space, weight, and color inconsistently applied across the two languages), in layout (when English is presented at the top of the page or on the left side of facing pages rather than the bottom or right), and with superficiality (when Spanish words are added just to give the text "flavor," rather than build vocabulary).

"It seems like the books my students relate to best are the ones written by immigrants and by the children of immigrants," Viertel says. "In other words, by people with experiences like their own."

What about books like the ones Braden and Rodriguez identify that are diverse but still problematic? They suggest questions to foster dialogue about representation, even with young kids: "What other Spanish words could the author add to this picture book?" and "Why is it important that we place Spanish first on the page rather than English?" Others suggest questions such as "Are the characters in the story like you and your family?... Do the characters talk like you and your family do?" Monolingual librarians can display humility: "Does this seem accurate to you all? I'm not qualified to judge."

A study in Central Texas describes how a bilingual teacher of second graders gathered picture books addressing immigration themes, including documentation challenges and missing those left behind. During pauses in classroom read-alouds, he shared his personal experiences and invited students to do the same. When asked to think critically in these ways, students see their own background and contributions as not just valid but also valuable.

The same process applies to digital materials and digital collection management, especially for post-secondary students. "There's an imbalance between the digital materials that are available in Spanish and in English," including ebooks and news aggregators, Viertel says. "We can't just assume that the information is there," adds Rossi-Felipe. "We have to make sure that we make it accessible to the children, especially when it comes to research and digital literacy."

A lesson in progress at Marshall Elementary School in San Francisco, CA

4. Reject common myths
For a time, educators were afraid of using bilingual texts, says Rossi-Felipe. "We were like, 'Oh no, we don't like those bilingual books.'" But research shows that kids learn literacy skills most easily in the language they understand best and that those skills, including everything from phonological awareness to text-processing, transfer to a second language.

Rossi-Felipe says, "I found that those books do help our kids, because they see both languages, and at home the parents are able to read to them in the native language and then they get to see the English language as well."

Experts also recommend questioning the assumption that kids have access to second-language materials in their homes and at public libraries. They must also keep in mind that Spanish isn't just Spanish; there are many dialects, and a book published in Madrid might not be an easy read for a newcomer from Peru. One way to hedge against the problem with a book showing, say, the version of Día de los Muertos celebrated in Mexico when it looks different in Guatemala, is to use multiple texts on the same topic, recommends María G. Leija, a colleague of Lara and Sánchez at U.T. San Antonio.

5. Scaffold lessons and book selection
Supporting language learners, Viertel says, can often require scaffolding lessons. "We have to be excellent communicators in general, using hand gestures, predictable routines, exaggerated facial expressions, and tone of voice to make our meaning clear."

With younger kids, singalongs can work wonders, but older kids also need opportunities for oral production, both structured (assigning a discussion between partners) and unstructured (requiring chitchat to occur in the language of instruction). Viertel also recommends getting students to act things out and using visual aids.

For Rossi-Felipe's multi-level classes, that means having vocabulary words and pictures alongside definitions. She has used graphic organizers to provide sentence starters for those who can't yet handle open-ended questions, and she always tries to include a language objective, such as writing in complete sentences during a lesson on note taking.

Monolingual librarians should learn the basic vocabulary of the library, perhaps spending a day figuring out which English phrases you use most often and then asking someone to help you learn to pronounce their translation in the second language. For read-alouds, YouTube videos are available that display authors reading their own work.

Scaffolding is also important for book selection in a bilingual setting. Access to books has been tied to increased reading proficiency, and it is also linked to quicker second-language development. Still, there's a difference between having books on shelves and engaging with them. "We have children who might be at a higher reading level in one language and lower reading level in the other language," Rossi-Felipe says. She recommends conversations about what a just-right book looks like. Picture a student holding a book that's aspirational. "They might say, 'Yeah, I'm interested in this book, and I understand that it may be a higher level but I have my parents, I have my brother that's gonna help me read the book at home.'"

Library shelves at Marshall Elementary School

6. Be intentional about cataloging and shelving
Multiple experts highlight the importance of interfiling second language materials within the English collection rather than creating a stand-alone shelf or display. Color-coding spines will allow children to easily grab content in the language of their choice. Ideally, all books would be cataloged in both languages.

7. Make the most of community resources
There are many resources available to support this work. Visit other schools' libraries as well as bilingual public ones. Ask questions in the Bilingual teachers/Dual language Facebook group or on listservs like Rossi-Felipe's through the New York City Office of Library Services or through state library associations. Attend conferences and book fairs.

Some school districts offer translators and language tutors, and whoever oversees bilingual learning is worth tapping for additional resources. Invite a parent, local author, or community member to volunteer regularly to read aloud in another language or put on programming.

8. Facilitate collaboration with other educators
Viertel asks classroom educators what types of books they need in each language. An in-class project, like the one in Texas in which teacher, parents, and students explored Latinx immigrant experiences, can bridge into library lessons with, for example, research into proposed legislation and writing persuasive letters to policymakers.

Lastly, Agosto notes, one of the most important components is "the school librarian's personal attitude." Openly supportive librarians can even counteract systemic racism and the mistakes of other educators in the building-while providing students with exemplary service.
Gail Cornwall is a former teacher and recovering lawyer who now works as a mother and freelance writer in San Francisco.

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Eight Best Practices for Teaching in Dual Language and Other Bilingual Programs

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Effective bilingual programs strengthen students' literacy in students'home language while building their academic English skills.

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EBSCO Information Services, Inc. | www.ebsco.com

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Bilingual education refers to instructional programs that utilize two languages to teach academic content, aiming to develop students’ proficiency in both their native language and a target language, often English. These programs vary significantly, ranging from developmental models that promote full bilingualism to transitional programs that prioritize rapid English acquisition. The history of bilingual education in the U.S. is marked by fluctuating political support, with debates centered on its effectiveness compared to English-only instruction. Key historical moments, such as the Bilingual Education Act of 1968 and the Supreme Court ruling in Lau v. Nichols, have shaped the landscape of bilingual education, advocating for the rights of English language learners (ELLs) to receive specialized instruction. Proponents argue that bilingual education not only supports linguistic diversity but also enhances cognitive skills and provides better academic outcomes. However, critics often advocate for English-only approaches, claiming that they ensure national unity and quicker integration for non-English-speaking students. As the U.S. continues to become increasingly diverse, the discussion around the role of bilingual education remains highly relevant and contentious.

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Bilingual Education Act (BEA), U.S. legislation (January 2, 1968) that provided federal grants to school districts for the purpose of establishing educational programs for children with limited English-speaking ability. It was the first time that the U.S. government officially acknowledged that these students need specialized instruction. The Bilingual Education Act (BEA) was an amendment to the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965.

Beginning in the late 19th century, millions of immigrants entered the United States, and many could not speak English. Some state governments pushed for assimilation, requiring non-English-speaking adults to take English-language classes. Children went to public schools, where they were totally immersed in the English language and often punished for speaking their native language. California and Texas established segregated public schools to accommodate the increase in Spanish-speaking children from Mexico. These schools concentrated on teaching English, but they had less funding than the schools for white non-Latino children and thus had inferior resources and underqualified teachers. Under these conditions many immigrant children dropped out or received an education that limited job opportunities.

In the ensuing years there were sporadic efforts to end school segregation, and these intensified in 1946 after a federal court ruled in that the segregation of Mexican American students in California schools was unlawful. More lawsuits followed, culminating in the landmark 1954 Brown v. Board of Education case, in which the U.S. Supreme Court found that racial segregation in schools was unconstitutional. This decision helped guide future educational policies toward equal opportunity. The civil rights movement and passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964-intending to end discrimination based on race, colour, religion, or national origin-also furthered equality in education.

Despite these developments, language difficulties continued to hamper the education of many Spanish-speaking students. In 1967 U.S. Sen. Ralph Yarborough of Texas introduced a bill to help school districts educate students with limited English-speaking ability. This was a particularly important issue in Texas and other southwestern states, which were experiencing an increase in Mexican immigration. The bill recommended bilingual education-including Spanish and other native languages-and funding was designated for developing programs, training staff, and obtaining educational resources. In 1968 U.S. Pres. Lyndon B. Johnson signed the BEA into law.

Over the years, the BEA underwent various revisions to meet the needs of students, parents, and teachers. For example, when first conceived, the act favoured school districts with high percentages of students from low-income families. Funding was later broadened to include students from a wider range of economic groups. The grants were also expanded to include more options for their use, such as for technical assistance and for the establishment of special training programs.

In January 2002 U.S. Pres. George W. Bush signed into law the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act. It sought to improve public primary and secondary schools and, thus, student performance via increased accountability for schools, school districts, and states. For example, states were required to administer yearly tests in reading and mathematics to public school students and to demonstrate adequate progress toward raising the scores of all students. (In 2015 U.S. Pres. Barack Obama signed into law the Every Student Succeeds Act, which modified NCLB.) Under NCLB the BEA became the English Language Acquisition, Language Enhancement, and Academic Achievement Act.

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Bilingual Education Act | Definition, 1968, Summary, & Facts

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Bilingual Education Act, U.S. legislation (1968) that offered federal grants to school districts for the purpose of creating educational programs for students with limited English-speaking ability. It was the first time that the U.S. government officially acknowledged that such students need specialized instruction.

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The Bilingual Research Journal is NABE’s premier scholarly, peer-reviewed research publication. Bilingual Research Journal delivers in-depth coverage of education theory and practice, dealing with bilingual/multilingual education, bilingualism/multilingualism, and language policies in education. NABE’s Bilingual Research Journal is the only journal dedicated to serving the field of bilingual/multilingual education. The journal has a strong interest in matters related to the education of language minority children and youth in the United States, grades PreK-12, but articles focusing on other countries are often included if they have implications for bilingual education in the U.S.

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Bilingual education for young children: review of the effects and consequences

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Bilingual education has been an educational option in many countries for over 50 years but it remains controversial, especially in terms of its appropriateness for all children. The present review examines research evaluating the outcomes of…

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Bilingual Two-Way Immersion Programs Benefit Academic Achievement

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The effects of bilingual education on reading and math achievement were examined by comparing test scores across different elementary-school programs. Results revealed that bilingual Two-Way Immersion programs benefited both minority-language and…

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What the Research Says About Immersion - Tara Williams Fortune

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Positive Impacts of Dual Language Programs | Blog | Participate...

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What are the benefits of a dual language program for K-12 schools? Read this post to learn about the positive impacts on students.

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The landscape of second language education is not the same as the one many of us grew up with. Instead of a framework that has students study a world language to satisfy a high school graduation requirement but ultimately leaves them unable to speak a second language, dual language immersion programs are emerging. These programs offer authentic and immersive learning experiences for children.

A rising number of school districts nationwide are making serious efforts to develop programs that establish bilingualism at the core of academic curricula. Dual language immersion programs starting in kindergarten with vertical alignment through high school are the best way for students to become bilingually competent.

Dual language immersion programs provide students with numerous opportunities, including many you might not expect. By embracing these programs, educators are not just teaching a language, they're also opening doors to possibilities for global citizens who are ready to make a difference.

To help your students succeed in a dual language immersion program, consider establishing a detailed implementation plan. With equal parts dedication and passion, you can create transformative educational experiences that empower students to reach their full potential.

Why Are Dual Language Immersion Programs Important?

Through dual language programs, educators can shape students into well-rounded individuals and global citizens. These programs offer numerous benefits of dual language immersion, including:

Biliteracy: Students learn to read and write proficiently in both their primary and secondary languages, enhancing their academic and cognitive skills.

Bilingualism: Students develop strong listening and speaking skills in both languages.

Sociocultural competence: Students cultivate positive multicultural attitudes and behaviors, as well as a deeper appreciation and understanding of their own culture and the cultures of others.

Students not only develop skills and attitudes directly related to language learning but also gain additional benefits of dual language education, including:

Grade-Level Academic Achievement

Research shows that students in dual language immersion programs perform well on standardized tests in reading and math. These students often meet or exceed grade-level expectations, underscoring the academic benefits of dual language immersion.

Enhanced Cognitive Skills

Students in dual language immersion typically develop greater cognitive flexibility, including:

Increased memory

Superior problem-solving skills

Better attention control

Enhanced understanding of their primary language

Deeper grasp of mathematical concepts

Increased reading comprehension

The cognitive benefits of dual language education translate into stronger academic performance and more advanced learning skills across subjects.

Improved Self-Esteem

By communicating and performing well academically in two languages, students experience a greater sense of accomplishment and improved self-esteem. This is one of the social and emotional benefits of dual language immersion, as it helps build confidence and pride in their abilities.

Preparation for a Global Society

The job marketplace is increasingly global. With the skills developed in dual language immersion programs, students are better prepared to be not only workers but also leaders in their fields and communities. The benefits of dual language immersion equip students for success in a global society, enhancing their career prospects and leadership potential.

Preparing for Success When Implementing a Dual Language Education Program

Although not necessarily difficult, implementing a dual language immersion program takes time and effort. Before you do so, make sure you consider the following:

Choose the Right Dual Language Immersion Model

The right model for your school is determined by factors like language allocation, student demographics, and home language. Two of the most common models include:

Full immersion: In this model, 90 percent of instruction is delivered in the target language. This model is typically used for students from English-speaking homes who require an environment in which the target language is primarily used.

Partial immersion: In this 50/50 model, instruction is balanced between the target language and English. This model typically serves classes with both native English speakers and native speakers of the target language to help all students become bilingual and biliterate.

Select the Right Staff

Finding the right staff is crucial for the success of a dual language immersion program. In addition to being certified for grade-level instruction, teachers need to be native-level proficient in the target language. If possible, partner with certified cultural exchange programs to bring international teachers into the classroom. These teachers can:

Create an authentic language-learning environment.

Foster rich cultural exchange opportunities in the classroom.

Broaden students' worldviews by introducing global experiences and ideas.

Provide Professional Development

Both initial and ongoing training is critical for educators and school and district administrators who support and oversee the program. Professional development aligned with program goals should encompass a mix of guided, self-guided, and hands-on learning experiences. This ensures that all staff members understand how to maximize the benefits of dual language education for students.

Find Relevant Curricular Materials

One of the most challenging aspects of implementing a dual language immersion program is selecting a standards-aligned curriculum in the target language that can guide lesson planning.

With a wide range of resources available, partnering with an experienced dual language provider can help select culturally relevant, content-aligned materials that support the program's goals, ensuring a strong and effective curriculum that maximizes the benefits of dual language immersion.

Ensure Accountability

Every successful program is contingent upon evaluations to ensure pedagogical best practices, the right language allocation, and proper access. Assessments can also measure the success of the program by testing students' language proficiency, content knowledge, and language acquisition skills. Regular assessments ensure that the benefits of dual language immersion are fully realized and sustained over time.

Offer Parent Support and Education

Parental support is as crucial as student engagement in a dual language immersion program. When parents understand the long-term benefits of dual language immersion, they are more likely to fully embrace and support the program. Consistent communication, support, and education for parents are essential to building trust and ensuring their ongoing commitment.

Consider Long-Term Strategies

Developing a dual language immersion program requires thinking long-term. When implementing an immersion program, plan for a fully articulated K-12 language pathway that allows students to maintain and grow their language skills gained in elementary, middle, and high school.

Partner with Participate Learning for Your Dual Language Immersion Program

The success of a dual language immersion program involves navigating various planning challenges, which can be difficult for districts to manage alone.

Our ebook Building a Bilingual Education Program offers valuable information to guide districts through these challenges. Additionally, partnering with an experienced dual language education agency can further enhance the program's planning and implementation, providing tailored support and expertise to ensure success.

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Everything you Need to Know About Dual Language Immersion

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Explore the benefits of dual language immersion. Learn how Participate Learning can help your school implement a successful DL program!

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The Importance of Bilingual Education in Today’s Classroom

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There is a big demand for bilingual educators. Learn how you can make a difference in the next generation of bilingual students.

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The Growing Importance of Bilingual Education in Today’s Classroom

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In today's interconnected world, learning to connect and communicate with people of different cultural backgrounds effectively is immensely important. The ability to speak multiple languages is essential to thriving in the global economy, and a bilingual approach to education has proven tremendously beneficial to students.

From increased cognitive function to a diverse array of economic opportunities, the advantages of bilingual education are undeniable. Teachers with a strong understanding of multicultural learning environments are in high demand, which makes the Master of Science in Curriculum and Instruction with a Specialization in Bilingual Education online program at Texas A&M International University (TAMIU) an exciting opportunity for individuals who want to lead their schools' efforts in this area.

This fully online program allows working teachers to "explore strategies for providing developmentally appropriate emergent and holistic instruction in order to promote equity and academic excellence for all learners within the bilingual classroom."

As communities worldwide become more interconnected, the ability to speak multiple languages takes on increased importance. Bilingualism is increasingly essential to surviving and succeeding in an integrated global economy. Bilingual job applicants are more attractive to hiring managers, and employers are less inclined to lay off workers who speak multiple languages. The value of an individual who can effectively communicate and collaborate across cultures is at an all-time high. This means the need for skilled teachers who can implement bilingual education in the school is also steadily rising.

There is a wealth of advantages, both mental and professional, to implementing bilingual education in schools. Numerous studies suggest that "fostering bilingualism, starting at the youngest ages, can have long-lasting and profound benefits." Here are four of the most common and exciting advantages to implementing bilingual education.

The cognitive benefits associated with bilingual education are nothing short of astounding. From higher test scores to surprising health benefits, the cognitive effects alone are enough to cement bilingualism as a permanent staple of the public school system. The following are just a few of the cognitive advantages to bilingual education:

Increased ability to solve problems, think creatively and recognize patterns

Improved academic performance

Enhanced linguistic awareness and understanding of an individual's native language

Increased ability to apply concepts to novel situations

Delayed development, or increased resistance to, dementia

Improved focus and decision-making

Improved cultural and social skills

Exposure to two languages encourages students to develop an appreciation for the differences in cultures. Bilingualism is more than just the ability to speak more than one language - it's a multicultural approach to interpersonal interactions that can dramatically improve an individual's social skills.

Bilingual education helps students effectively connect with people of different cultures and backgrounds, increasing their ability to empathize with others and promoting emotional intelligence. The power of effectively speaking multiple languages allows individuals from different cultures to interact on various levels - from music to literature to folk stories. Essentially, it helps young people overcome the isolation associated with feeling like they can only exist within one geographic location or culture.

Economic advantages in the new global economy

No shortage of the economic and professional advantages accompany being able to conduct business in multiple languages efficiently. Bilingual college graduates are in high demand, and employees who can speak multiple languages frequently ascend to higher levels of the corporate structure than their monolingual colleagues. Between 2010 and 2015, demand for bilingual employees rose more than 150%. Some of the corporate benefits of hiring bilingual employees include:

Improved ability to conduct business in other countries

Enhanced ability to engage suppliers or contractors from specific language backgrounds

Increased expansion of existing business conducted in other countries.

Because the unique skill set associated with bilingualism is so advantageous to corporations, students exposed to bilingual education will have a wide array of professional opportunities available to them.

Improved memory and recall abilities

Studies suggest that bilingualism is associated with improved memory. One report notes that "the main reason suggested for bilinguals' advantage is their need to process and manage the two languages, which are simultaneously activated whenever one of the languages is used." Processing multiple languages simultaneously prompts the following memory-boosting physical changes to the human brain:

Improved overall brain function and health

Increased gray matter volume and density

Improved executive function

Strengthened connections between neurons

The Master of Science in Curriculum and Instruction with a Specialization in Bilingual Education online program at TAMIU is an exceptional program for teachers dedicated to preparing their students for success in the modern global community. This program is accredited by the Texas State Board for Educator Certification and can be completed in as few as 12 months.
Learn more about TAMIU's online Master of Science in Curriculum and Instruction with a Specialization in Bilingual Education program A Nord Anglia Education School: The Benefits of Bilingual Education Knowable Magazine: How Second Language Can Boost the Brain National Center for Biotechnology Information: Bilinguals' Working Memory (WM) Advantage and Their Dual Language Practices New American Economy: Demand for Bilingual Workers More than Doubled in 5 years, New Report Shows Think Bilingual Austin: Why Bilingual Education Is Becoming More Relevant Today
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Read Why Bilingual Education Is Important

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In today's interconnected world, learning to connect and communicate with people of different cultural backgrounds effectively is immensely important.

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Lack of Bilingual Teacher Training

In the late 1960s it was common practice to assign teachers to bilingual education programs with little preparation in the use of bilingual materials and methodologies. It was not unusual for the bilingual teachers to be the only staff in the school that could communicate with students and parents in the native language.

The evaluation of bilingual education conducted by the American Institute of Research (AIR), indicated that almost one-half of the teachers studied had received less than 3 days of bilingual education training over a five-year span.

Although there has been such improvement in the pre-service and in-service training of bilingual education personnel, needs assessment in bilingual education still points to teacher training as a critical need.

Lack of Administrative Support

As a new superintendent in
the Edgewood school district in San Antonio in 1969, I implemented one of the earliest bilingual education programs in Texas, recruiting two teachers to initiate a bilingual program in one of the elementary schools. After the first day of school, both teachers were back in my office.
"The principal said that if the superintendent wanted to implement a bilingual education program in the district, he would go along with you and do it. But he also said, 'If I catch either of you teachers speaking to class in a language other than English, I will see to it that both of you are fired!'"

This lack of administrative support continues today and can be measured by the resources allocated in support of bilingual programs. For years, the Texas system of school finance provided additional funding in the Foundation School Program in support of bilingual education. School districts received an additional 10% of the basic program allotment for each student in a bilingual or English-as-a-Second-Language (ESL) program. However, state law did not require that these funds be expended in support of bilingual or ESL programs. When advocates of bilingual education succeeded in getting the Texas Legislature to amend the law and require that these "bilingual funds" be expended in support of bilingual programs, there was an outcry from school administrators. Superintendents stood in line to testify in Austin as to the hardship imposed by requiring that bilingual education funds be spent on educational programs for limited-English-proficient and language minority students.

Failure to Use the Vernacular

The rationale for bilingual education is based on the use of native language for continuous growth while English is being acquired as a second language. Initial efforts were constrained, and are still constrained, by the lack of a large pool of trained teachers competent in the student?s native language and a virtual void of instructional materials in languages other than English. In Texas, instead of addressing the massive pool of native language speakers and facilitating their entry into the teaching profession, the educational leadership opted for two approaches that proved counterproductive. One was to develop other language facility among English speaking teachers and the other involved the massive importation of Spanish speaking teachers from other countries.

The state education agency was assured by a professor of Romance languages, that native-like proficiency could be developed in English speaking teachers in one hundred hours of Spanish language instruction. Unfortunately, supporters of this plan grossly underestimated the amount of time necessary for the acquisition of native-like proficiency. The teachers enrolled, subsequently labeled "One Hundred Hour Wonders," did not develop the extensive proficiency necessary to be able to present academic work in Spanish.

It is interesting that teachers who expect students to acquire in a few weeks sufficient proficiency in the English language in order to handle academic work in that language, failed to acquire similar proficiency in one hundred hours of instruction - nor even in two hundred hours of instruction when signed up for a second round in the program.

This approach was eventually dropped, but the state education agency continued to impede the preparation of bilingual teachers by the use of a culturally-biased test used as the sole criterion for entry into teacher preparation programs. As a result of poor performance on the test, large numbers of Hispanics were precluded from enrolling in teacher training programs. The agency defended this barrier in the courts until the test was replaced by another measure. It is ironic that following years of such exclusionary tactics, the state education agency subsequently identified a lack of minority teachers as one of the schools' foremost problems.

The second approach, still in use, is to import teachers from the various parts of the Spanish-speaking world and place them as teachers in bilingual education programs. This approach presents many problems. First, many imported teachers do not have the necessary English language skills to present the English acquisition portion of the bilingual curriculum. Second, the teachers' pronunciation and vocabulary vary from the children's vernacular, so the students find themselves in trilingual situations, where the English language is taught, instruction is in a version of their native language that they can't understand, and the student?' vernacular is ignored.

This trilingual fiasco still manifests itself, not only with the continued recruitment of teachers from other parts of the world, but with the use of local teachers who insist on "purity of language" and believe that Castillian Spanish is the only correct language for use in the classroom. Since the rationale for bilingual education is continuity of cognitive growth while English is being acquired, the use of a dialect unfamiliar to the students defeats the purpose of native language use. With all due respect to the Royal Academy of Spain, the "correct" form of a language is the form that best facilitates communication.

The maintenance and improvement of the native language is a desirable, but separate, aspect of bilingual education. Such instruction can be readily justified in that the acquisition of second or "foreign" languages has been an educational objective in America since colonial days. It seems odd that we would seek to eradicate student native-like proficiency in a language, only to introduce it as a foreign language after the student has lost such proficiency.

Xenophobia

Language incompatibilities have not been readily perceived as a problem by the schools which tend to present instruction in the English language with little regard for the consequences for non-English speaking children. After all, it took nine justices of the United States Supreme Court in the unanimous decision in Lau v. Nichols to inform the education authorities of the San Francisco Unified School District that if 1,800 children spoke Chinese and no English, and the teachers spoke English and no Chinese, the schools had an educational problem. Typically, the San Francisco district readily responded that the problem was not theirs, the problem was with the children who did not speak English. If the students wanted to benefit from school, it was their responsibility to learn the English language. It was necessary for the Supreme Court to point out that a desire to learn the English language was one basic reason for the children being sent to school.

Progress in the implementation of bilingual programs suffered an abrupt reversal due to the political and public manifestation of the xenophobic characteristic of a large number of Americans, whose distrust and fear of foreigners led to a strong, organized counter-offensive against the use of any language but English in American schools. The original attack was organized by Senator Hayakawa from California and flourished as a new form of McCarthyism with tendrils reaching all the way to the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights and the Secretary of Education.

In spite of the successes of bilingual education and the extensive assimilation of students previously in bilingual programs, xenophobic attacks continue with extensive dissemination of negative propaganda based on distortions, misconceptions and misinformation. These attacks, waged in the name of "cohesiveness of culture" and "protection of the American way of life," are unfounded and, in essence, denigrate the important contributions immigrant groups have made to this country.

Low Expectations

One of the most serious failures of American schools has been their inability to distinguish between the unique characteristics of atypical populations and a lack of mental capability. Much of the poor performance by minority, disadvantaged, migrant and immigrant school populations comes about by their placement in remediation programs which are low-level, slow-paced, repetitious, boring and self-fulfilling.

Lack of English language competency is commonly seen as lack of mental competency, especially so when the determinants of mental capability are developed, normed, administered, scored and interpreted solely in the English language. Though civil rights legislation requires the determination of lack of English language skills prior to placement in bilingual programs, there is a marked danger that the bilingual program is seen by the school as just another remedial or special education program for low mental capability students. Unfortunately, teachers, parents and the students themselves internalize these low levels of expectancy and convert them into continuous low levels of performance.

Rules and Regulations

The implementation of bilingual education programs has been accompanied by a host of rules and regulations governing the programs which have served to impede greater success.

Such rules and regulations become a handicap for the successful implementation of the program. Such restrictions may affect teacher characteristics, language to be used, the relationship between sources of funding and the role of the teacher and paraprofessional staff, limitations on the use of the native language, and many others.

If schools are to succeed, we must address these problems in the implementation of bilingual programs and expand the educational opportunities for a large segment of the school population, our limited-English-proficient and language minority students.

A nationally-recognized education expert, Dr. José A. Cárdenas is founder and Director Emeritus of IDRA. Dr. Cárdenas is currently working on a multi-volume compilation of his forty years of writings about public education in the United States. Comments and questions may be directed to him via e-mail at feedback@idra.org.

Editor's Note: This is the final installment of Dr. Cárdenas' article which began in the September 1993 IDRA Newsletter. In the introduction in Part I, Dr. Cárdenas asserted that "the success of bilingual programs in this country would soar if attention were paid to problems in implementation." Part II continues his discussion of ten current challenges to the implementation of quality bilingual education programs in public schools.

[©1993, IDRA. This article originally appeared in the September 1993 IDRA Newsletter by the Intercultural Development Research Association. Permission to reproduce this article is granted provided the article is reprinted in its entirety and proper credit is given to IDRA and the author.]

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Current Problems in Bilingual Education: Part II - IDRA

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In the late 1960s it was common practice to assign teachers to bilingual education programs with little preparation in the use of bilingual materials and methodologies. It was not unusual for the bilingual teachers to be the only staff in the school that could communicate with students and parents in the native language.

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Benefits of bilingualism

Many research studies cite the cognitive-linguistic benefits of being a fluent bilingual speaker. Experts have found that children who are fluent bilinguals actually outperform monolingual speakers on tests of metalinguistic skill.

In addition, as our world shrinks and business becomes increasingly international, children who are fluent bilingual speakers are potentially a tremendously valuable resource for the U.S. economy. Most Americans are currently monolingual speakers of English, and are finding more and more that it would be highly advantageous to their professional lives if they spoke a second language.

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Many children who are ELLs are put into English-speaking classrooms where they understand nothing of what they are hearing. In this "sink or swim" situation, many flounder. Imagine traveling to Beijing and taking a social studies course taught only in Mandarin. Learning would be most difficult; yet we expect our ELLs to automatically decode English and succeed academically in an analogous situation.

This idea of "the more English the better" is fallacious and can actually slow down children's learning considerably. Thomas and Collier (1998) state that the average native English speaker gains about ten months of academic growth in one ten-month academic year. ELL students must outgain the native speaker by making 1.5 year's progress in English for six successive school years. Thus, in order to have skills that are commensurate with those of native English speakers, ELLs must make nine years progress in six years. It is no wonder that many ELLs flounder not because they have language-learning disabilities, but because they are put into such difficult learning situations in our schools.

Under ideal conditions, ELLs would be taught in their first language 90 percent of the time and in English 10 percent of the time in kindergarten and first grade. Gradually, as they learned more English, they would be taught in the primary language 50 percent of the time and in English 50 percent of the time by sixth grade. Studies have shown that children who are taught in this manner outperform ELLs who are taught mostly in English from very early in their schooling. Children in this ideal bilingual learning situation do so well because they understand what they are hearing and are thus able to build their underlying conceptual-linguistic foundation.

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There are different timelines for learning social and academic language. Under ideal conditions, it takes the average second-language learner two years to acquire Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS). BICS involves the context embedded, everyday language that occurs between conversational partners. On the other hand, Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP), or the context-reduced language of academics, takes five to seven years under ideal conditions to develop to a level commensurate with that of native speakers.

Many ELL students are thus in a catch-22 situation. They may develop conversational English that appears fluent and adequate for everyday communication. However, they still struggle with CALP and have difficulty in areas such as reading, writing, spelling, science, social studies, and other subject areas where there is little context to support the language being heard or read. This "BICS-CALP gap" leads professionals to falsely assume that the children have language-learning disabilities.

School language proficiency tests are often used to assess children's level of proficiency in English. After children have been tested, they are given a label such as "Limited English Speaker" or "Fully Proficient English Speaker." The problem of which many SLPs are unaware is that these tests only assess English BICS; CALP is not assessed. The child may be labeled as fully English proficient on the basis of his or her ability to answer a question such as "what are your favorite foods?" or respond to a request to "tell me about your family."

SLPs and others who work with these children in the schools see the label of "fully English proficient" and assume that it is acceptable to give English standardized tests to these children after all, they are fully proficient in English! In reality, however, the children are still striving to develop CALP and thus the use of standardized tests in English is biased against them. When these standardized tests are administered, the ELLs often score very low and are labeled as having language-learning disabilities. They are then inappropriately placed into special education.

SLPs will make fewer errors in labeling ELLs if we are aware of the normal phenomena and processes that accompany learning a second language. Ideally, we will support children's first languages and cultures, and encourage them to become fully proficient bilingual speakers. Not only will they perform better in school, but they will have a much greater chance of growing up to become successful citizens who are invaluable assets to our society and our economy.

Celeste Roseberry-McKibbin is an associate professor in the department of speech pathology and audiology at California State University, Sacramento. She also works as an itinerant SLP in the public schools. Alejandro Brice is an assistant professor in the department of communication disorders at the University of Central Florida. Brice is the editor of Communication Disorders Quarterly.

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Pluralist discourses slowly found their way back into educational policy after World War II. The shift from assimilationist policies to recognition of different languages and cultures in school was due in part to a steady decline in immigration that had begun with the implementation of legal restrictions and continued during World War II. By 1950, only 8% of the total population was foreign-born, down from 15% in the early 1900s dropping even further to 4.7% in the 1970 census. This trend greatly lessened the pre-World War I anxieties about immigrants and their ability to assimilate.

Later, the civil rights movement set the stage for the recognition of minority group rights and antidiscrimination legislation. The landmark Supreme Court case Brown v. Board of Education (1954) that declared separate educational facilities inherently unequal began an era of integration and desegregation. The case played a major role in making equal educational opportunity a central focus of educational policies. Further, World War II had increased awareness of the need for knowing foreign languages and, under the influence of the cold war and competition with Russia, major initiatives were undertaken by the federal government to ensure a competitive act. One of these was the National Defense Education Act of 1958, which promoted extensive foreign language programs for language majority speakers.

In the 1960s, a pluralistic experiment in bilingual education was initiated in Miami, Florida. In a unique move, Coral Way Elementary School made the bilingual option available to native English speakers as well as Cuban refugees (Chapter 5). For both groups, bilingualism was considered an asset and enrichment. The school's demonstrated success with both groups in both languages encouraged several other schools in Miami and other states (Arizona, California, Illinois, Texas, Washington, DC) to take a similar approach (Andersson, 1971; Mackey & Beebe, 1977).

However, this pluralist educational approach was the exception. Most language policies initiated during this period were based on an assimilationist approach, though these policies promoted assimilation in a more gentle way than those advocated during the Americanization movement in the 1920s. Bilingual approaches were endorsed and implemented but mostly with an assimilationist intent (Spener, 1988). The assimilationist bilingual discourse, or reluctant bilingual discourse (Zhou, 1997), sees the student's native language as a temporary bridge to learning the societal language, English. Though room for more pluralist interpretation existed (at the local implementation level), this "reluctant bilingual discourse" dominated federal legislation as well as court decisions and their enforcement.

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The Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) of 1965 was a major effort by the Johnson administration to address the effects of poverty on educational and economic achievement. Programs such as Head Start (preschool) and Title I (supplemental support services for at-risk students) were initiated under this law. Combined with the Equal Educational Opportunity Act of 1974, Title VII of the ESEA, the Bilingual Education Act (BEA) of 1968, was to shape much of the schooling of minority students, in particular ELLs.

The BEA was the first comprehensive federal intervention in the schooling of language minority students. Its uncontroversial passage in 1968 reflected agreement over the underachievement of a steadily increasing number of language minority students in schools. The BEA was introduced by Senator Ralph Yarborough of Texas, who noted that Spanish-speaking students in his state completed, on average, 4 years of schooling less than their Anglo peers. The lack of resources and trained personnel and the absence of special programs to meet the needs of these students contributed to this educational failure. Yarborough proposed bilingual education as a solution to what he perceived was a problem of English proficiency.

The problem is that many of our school-age children come from homes where the mother tongue is not English. As a result, these children enter school not speaking English and not able to understand the instructions that is [sic] all conducted in English. [There is] an urgent need for this legislation to provide equal educational opportunity for those children who do not come to school with English-speaking ability. We received almost unanimous enthusiasm and support for this legislation as being an effective remedial program. (US Congress 1967:37037; cited in Bangura & Muo, 2001, p. 58; italics added)

Note that Yarborough presents bilingual education as a remedial program, not an enrichment program like the bilingual education program at Coral Way. Only with the 1974 re-authorization of the BEA was bilingual education formally defined as a program where "there is instruction given in, and the study of English, and, to the extent necessary to allow a child to progress effectively through the educational system, the native language of the children of limited English-speaking ability" (Lyons, 1990, p. 68).

The BEA was not a mandate for bilingual education. Since education is the responsibility of the states, the federal government can only create financial incentives through grant programs. The federal government's influence is in setting the criteria for the allocation of funds: if states or districts want the money, they have to meet the federal requirements. Under the BEA, districts had to implement bilingual education programs for the specified target groups in order to receive federal funding. It thus provided an incentive for districts to consider bilingual instruction options.

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General Principles of oral and written language development in children ages birth to five who are dual language learners

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General Principles of oral and written language development in children ages birth to five who are dual language learners

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Intentionally planning for reading, writing, speaking, and listening

Oregon’s early learning and kindergarten guidelines

Current research findings pointing to the similarities, differences, and diversity of language development in children who are DLLs.

Importance of continuing home language development while children learn English

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Developing oral language and vocabulary in young children who are DLLs through conversations

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Developing oral language and vocabulary in young children who are DLLs through conversations

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Conversation strategies with DLLs

Teacher talk

CAR

Code switching

Adult/child conversation inventory

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The Big 5 early language and literacy skills needed by young children for school readiness

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The Big 5 early language and literacy skills needed by young children for school readiness

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Background knowledge

Oral language and vocabulary

Book knowledge and print concepts

Alphabet knowledge and early writing

Phonological awareness