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Adolescents identifying as lesbian, gay, or bisexual may face higher rates of emotional distress, including depression and anxiety, due to societal stigma and discrimination. Supportive environments are crucial for their mental health and well-being.

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Children raised in religious households often exhibit enhanced social and psychological skills. However, this environment may also be associated with challenges in academic performance, particularly in subjects like math and science.

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Religious Upbringing and Adolescence | Institute for Family Studies

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Socioeconomic status (SES) influences children’s development through the availability of resources, parental involvement, and exposure to stress.

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How Socioeconomic Status Impacts Early Childhood Development - Video | Study.com

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Low socioeconomic status (SES) correlates with an increased risk of developmental delay in children. Learn more about socioeconomic status and the…

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Cultural background provides children with a sense of identity and influences their emotional, social, physical, and linguistic development.

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Cultural influences on child development
Culture has a profound influence on child development, shaping how children learn, think, and behave. When educators are able to include they create a space that is welcoming and supportive of all children. By understanding the cultural backgrounds of the children in their care, educators can create a more Cultures in the Classroom #inclusive learning environment.

Help children develop a positive sense of identity. Children need to feel that their culture is valued and respected. When educators focus on #culture, they help children to feel proud of their cultural heritage and to develop a positive sense of self.

Promote understanding and respect for diversity. Children need to learn to appreciate and respect the differences between people. When educators focus on culture, they help children to understand that there are many different ways to be a family, to celebrate holidays, and to express oneself.

Create a more inclusive learning environment. When educators focus on culture, they create a learning environment where all children feel welcome and valued. This is important for all children, but it is especially important for children from minority groups.

Improve academic outcomes. Research has shown that children who are exposed to a variety of cultures tend to do better in school. This is because they have a better understanding of the world around them and they are better able to think critically and solve problems.

How does culture affect child development? Children from different cultures grow up differently because they experience different environments. What impact do these differences have on their development? Culture plays an important role in shaping children's behavior and attitudes. Culture plays an important role in how parents raise their children. It influences everything from how much time parents spend with their children to how they discipline them. There are cultural differences in how people think and behave. These differences affect children's learning and behavior.

People from some cultures tend to focus more on memorization and rote learning while others prefer problem-solving and critical thinking. In addition, there are different expectations for what children should do as they develop. For example, in some cultures, girls are expected to be more independent than boys.

Cultural influences can be seen in many aspects of child development, including:

Language and communication. The language children are exposed to in their home environment has a major impact on their language development. Children who are exposed to multiple languages from a young age are more likely to be bilingual or multilingual.

Conceptual development. Children's understanding of the world around them is shaped by their culture. For example, children who grow up in cultures that emphasize interdependence are more likely to develop a sense of collectivism. In contrast, children who grow up in cultures that emphasize independence are more likely to develop a sense of individualism.

Socialization. Children learn how to interact with others in their culture through their interactions with their parents, siblings, peers, and other adults. For example, children who grow up in cultures that value cooperation are more likely to develop cooperative social skills, while children who grow up in cultures that value competition are more likely to develop competitive social skills.

Emotional development. Children's understanding and expression of emotions are also shaped by their culture. For example, some cultures value the expression of emotions, while others value the suppression of emotions.

Identity development. Their culture also influences children's sense of identity. Children learn about their cultural identity through their interactions with their family, community, and the media.

ChildCareEd understands the importance of supporting children and educators' culture. ChildCareEd offers course translation for all online courses and supports educators with experienced staff fluent in English, Spanish, Arabic, and Korean. We support educators in creating Culturally Sensitive Classrooms that allow every child to feel represented.

It is important to note that culture is not static. It is constantly evolving, and children are exposed to a variety of cultural influences throughout their lives. This means that children's cultural identities are also constantly evolving.

What are some cultural factors that influence child development? Here are some of the socio-cultural influences that may impact on a child:

Family: The family is the primary source of cultural influence for most children. The family's values, beliefs, and practices will shape the child's understanding of the world.

Religion: Religion can be a powerful source of cultural influence. Children who grow up in religious families will be exposed to a set of beliefs and practices that will shape their worldview.

School: The school is another important source of cultural influence. The school's curriculum, teachers, and peers will all shape the child's understanding of the world. Because of this, it is essential that educators fully understand how to create #culturally_sensitive learning environments and expose themselves to professional development opportunities that provide strategies to enhance these environments. ChildCareEd's One World, Many Cultures! Is just one course offering that supports educators in developing culturally inclusive environments.

Peers: Peers can also be a source of cultural influence. Children learn from their peers about what is considered "normal" or "acceptable" in their culture.

There are many ways that early childhood educators can focus on culture. Here are a few ideas:

Learn about the cultural backgrounds of the children in your care. Talk to parents, families, and community members to learn about the cultural values, beliefs, and practices of the children in your care.

Incorporate cultural elements into your curriculum. This could include reading books about different cultures, celebrating holidays from different cultures, or incorporating music, art, and food from different cultures into your activities.

Create a welcoming and inclusive environment. Make sure that your classroom is a place where all children feel welcome and valued, regardless of their cultural background.

Be a role model for respect and understanding. Model respect and understanding for different cultures in your interactions with children, families, and colleagues.

By focusing on culture, early childhood educators can create a more inclusive and supportive learning environment for all children. This is essential for helping children to develop a positive sense of identity, promote understanding and respect for diversity, and to improve academic outcomes.

Interested in learning more about culture in relation to early childhood development? ChildCareEd has several courses available to support providers in their work with a diverse population of children.

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How Can Culture Affect A Child's Development? - post

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Learn about obtaining a Child Development Permit in California and the licensing process for child care centers. Find guidance and resources to navigate the process successfully. Make a positive impact on the lives of young learners.

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Stable family structures are associated with better physical, emotional, and academic well-being in children.

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Cultural Influences On Child Development

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implicit bias is subconscious feelings, attitudes, prejudices, and stereotypes an individual has developed due to prior influences and imprints throughout their lives.

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Cultural competence is the ability to communicate and work effectively with people from different cultures.

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What is Cultural Competency and Why it Matters for Your Business

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How many places have you visited? Mexico or Canada? Central America? South America? Africa? Europe? The Middle East? Asia? Australia? Antarctica?

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Implicit Bias in the classroom refers to unconscious stereotypes and attitudes held by teachers that can influence how they interact with and perceive students.

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The Kirwan Institute for the Study of Race and Ethnicity

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Cultural competence in the classroom refers to a teacher's ability to understand, appreciate, and effectively interact with diverse students.

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Implicit biases can affect how teachers perceive student abilities, leading to different expectations and opportunities for students from different backgrounds, impacting their academic performance and self-esteem.

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Importance of Cultural Awareness for Educators

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Cultural awareness is fundamental to providing an equitable learning environment for all students…

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Valuing diversity is recognizing and appreciating the rich tapestry of cultural backgrounds within the classroom fosters an inclusive environment. This appreciation enhances students’ sense of belonging and respect for diverse perspectives.

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What Is Cultural Competence In Education? Why It’s Important

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Explore the importance of cultural competence in education, its benefits, and practical strategies to create inclusive classes.

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Scenario 3 : Disciplinary Actions of diverse students. 

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Scenario 3 : Disciplinary Actions of diverse students. 

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A teacher may unconsciously perceive a Black student as more disruptive than a White student exhibiting similar behavior. This bias could lead to harsher disciplinary measures for the Black student, affecting their academic progress and self-esteem.

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Summary+

Racial bias and limited teacher training all influence how teachers and administrators react to Black student misbehavior. In addition, recently implemented institutional practices like zero-tolerance policies and increased emphasis on school security have also contributed to increases in the rate of disciplinary measures, especially suspension, for Black students. Experience with school discipline can significantly harm student academic achievement and increase the likelihood of Black students dropping out of school. More involvement with school discipline on the student's part is also associated with more serious consequences including decreased likelihood of enrollment in higher education and increased likelihood of involvement with the criminal justice system. Improved teacher training programs can help teachers more effectively respond to misbehavior and thereby decrease the disparity between how Black and White students are disciplined. Alternatives to discipline like restorative justice can also aid in decreasing this disparity.

Key Takeaways+

Black students tend to experience harsher disciplinary measures at higher rates than their peers in public schools in the United States; Black students are 4 times more likely to experience suspension than their White peers.

Because strong disciplinary measures can negatively impact individual student outcomes, racial inequality in school discipline perpetuates larger racial inequities in economic and educational achievement.

Recent increases in zero-tolerance policies and school security are associated with increased rates of discipline for Black students.

If implemented consistently, alternative disciplinary measures for students and training programs for teachers could help to decrease the disproportionate rate of Black students experiencing school discipline.

Key Terms+

Implicit bias-A bias or prejudice that is present but not consciously held or recognized. ¹

In-school suspension (ISS)-An instance in which a student is temporarily removed from his or her regular classroom(s) for at least half a day but is kept under the direct supervision of school personnel. ²

Out-of-school suspension (OSS)-An instance in which a student is temporarily removed from his or her regular school, generally for disciplinary purposes, for at least half a day (but less than the remainder of the school year) and sent to another setting (e.g., home or behavior center). ³

Restorative justice-A set of informal and formal strategies intended to build relationships and a sense of community to prevent conflict and wrongdoing and respond to wrongdoings, with the intention to repair any harm that was a result of the wrongdoing. Preventative strategies include community or relationship building circles, and the use of restorative language. Some responsive strategies include the use of restorative questions within a circle or conferencing format, again with the intention of repairing the wrong that happened as a result of the behavior. ⁴

School resource officer (SRO)-A law enforcement officer with arrest authority, who has specialized training and is assigned to work in collaboration with school organizations. ⁵

Zero-tolerance policies-School or district policies that mandate predetermined consequences or punishments for specific offenses. ⁶

Education is often portrayed as a doorway to opportunity and a way of teaching youth the appropriate social behavior to make them productive citizens. In school, students are expected to exhibit certain behaviors that preserve specific societal values and customs, thus accomplishing the goals of education. ⁷ School disciplinary measures-such as in-school (ISS) and out-of-school suspension (OSS), expulsion, referral to law enforcement, and school-related arrests-attempt to discourage serious misbehavior and create a positive, safe learning environment for all students. ⁸ While these measures have the potential to do good, it is common to see disciplinary measures taken to the extreme in both force or frequency. In these instances, discipline can also negatively impact the academic performance and future employment opportunities of the students who receive discipline. Reports suggest suspension can lead to future instances of misbehavior and suspension among impacted students. ⁹ In most instances, when speaking of suspension, studies are referring to out-of-school suspension (OSS) except when noted.

Though research demonstrates that Black children are not more likely to misbehave than White children, 14, 15, 16 Black students, especially male Black students, are much more likely to encounter stronger disciplinary measures for the same offenses as their White peers. ¹⁷ Multiple studies suggest that Black students sometimes commit different misbehaviors but not necessarily more misbehaviors or more severe misbehaviors than White students and varying misbehaviors cannot fully explain the disparity in suspension rates. 18, 19 Yet in 2013-2014, Black students were 4 times more likely to experience an out-of-school suspension (OSS) than their White peers and 3 times more likely than their Latin peers. ²⁰ Black students were also over 2 times more likely to be referred to the principal's office. ²¹

White students actually had higher levels of early controlled substance use (i.e., alcohol, smoking, marijuana) compared with Black students in terms of both actual behaviors and endorsed attitudes. Studies have suggested that White students are suspended more for observable behaviors such as smoking and cutting class and that Black students are suspended more for subjective actions such as disrespect, suggesting racial bias. ²²

Although some other countries also suspend Black students at higher rates, ²³ the discrepancy in suspension rates for Black and White students is most significant in the United States. ²⁴ In Great Britain, for example, 5% of White students were temporarily suspended compared to 5.56% of Black students in 2017. ²⁵ In the United States, 15 different states all suspended over 15% of their K-12 Black student population in the 2013 to 2014 school year compared to approximately 3.4% of their White students. 26, 27

The disciplinary measures used in US public schools today have greatly evolved over the last century, steering away from corporal punishment like spanking and towards insitutional consequences like suspension. ³² Beginning in the 1960s, suspension became one of the most popular forms of school discipline. ³³ In the 1980s and 90s, public support for more aggressive discipline and stronger security measures in schools increased as the war on crime and war on drugs, as well as various school shootings carried out by student perpetrators, spurred anxiety in citizens across America. ³⁴ This support for intensified discipline is manifest in the federal Gun-Free School Zones Act of 1990 that mandated a one-year suspension for any student who brought a weapon to school and the federal Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994, which enacted harsher imprisonment time or fines for drug distribution near schools. ³⁵ This shift in public opinion to favor stronger discipline for youth ³⁶ resulted in public schools implementing stricter punishments.

Though public support for stronger punishment for juveniles theoretically affects all students, the implementation of such policies influences racial minorities to a higher extent. As sanctions for stronger punishment measures have taken hold, Black students have disproportionately experienced the consequences of these policies; in 1972, 11.8% of Black students were suspended from school whereas in 2013, 15% of all Black students were suspended. 37, 38 Additionally, 20% of all Black male students experienced an OSS. ³⁹ In comparison, 6% of White students were suspended in 1972 whereas in 2013 3.4% of White students were suspended. 40, 41 Black students only make up 15% of the primary and secondary school body but represent the largest percentage of students who experience out-of-school suspension. 42, 43 As a result, although originally intended to target all students equally, school discipline has significantly impacted Black students at higher rates than their peers.

Teachers who misunderstand a Black student's behavior are more likely to prescribe harsh disciplinary measures. In general, relating to students from a different socioeconomic, racial, or family situation can be challenging for any teacher, regardless of ethnicity. ⁴⁸ Considering that most teachers are White, teachers may be more likely to misunderstand or misinterpret a Black student's behavior because of their held implicit and explicit racial biases. Studies have suggested that Black students are less likely to be suspended by a Black teacher than a White teacher. 49, 50, 51 However, as of 2019 only 7% of public school teachers are Black and 80% are White. ⁵² Active factors point to the fact that teachers are more likely to engage with and orient themselves towards members of their own ethnic background. Some studies have suggested there are differences in the actions taken by Black and White teachers in their allocation of time, interactions with students, use of examples, use of instructional methods, and in the design of classroom materials. ⁵³ White teachers in particular may not consider the impact their own race and the race of their students has on the classroom experience and how their students' experiences may be different than their own experience when they were a student. ⁵⁴ For example, one study found that less experienced White teachers suggested interactions with African American male students were aggressive while African American male students perceived their conversations simply as expressive communication. ⁵⁵

Bias held by teachers and administrators can lead these individuals to often unconsciously administer harsher and more frequent disciplinary measures to Black students. Historically, Black youth have often been labeled as more prone to being "aggressive," being "troublemakers," or having an "attitude," and are often believed to have more inherent behavioral problems than White individuals. 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62 These harmful generalizations influence how educators view and treat Black students in schools and how they prescribe discipline. 63, 64, 65, 66 One study found that when a Black student misbehaves, teachers and administrators are more likely to believe the student is prone to violent behavior or "acting out" more in class. Meanwhile, a White student's misbehavior tends to be attributed to external and individual circumstances, and as a result, a White student receives less harsh disciplinary measures. 67, 68, 69 Another study suggested that teachers are more likely to believe that male Black students who misbehave are more likely to have recurring misbehavior than their White peers. ⁷⁰ When teachers and administrators view the actions of Black students through this generalized lens, they are more likely to prescribe stronger disciplinary measures for students. 71, 72, 73 Another study showed that preschool teachers watched Black students more closely compared to their White counterparts. In the study, teachers monitored Black male students about 44% of the time compared to 32% for White boys and 13% for White girls. ⁷⁴ Thus, biases influence teachers to be more observant and aware of a Black student's misbehavior than a White student's misbehavior and as a result, Black students are more likely to be prescribed disciplinary measures for misbehavior.

Racial bias can also affect how administrators prescribe disciplinary measures for student misbehavior. Administrators have a large role in determining the consequences and the severity of the punishments students receive. ⁷⁵ Multiple studies have shown differences in the severity of discipline prescribed by administrators upon students of different races. 76, 77 One study suggested that 19% of these differences were due to an administrator's implicit biases. ⁷⁸ School principals, for example, who are already inclined to use punishment over preventative measures for misbehaving students (which data show is 57.1% of principals) tend to disproportionately prescribe more severe disciplinary outcomes for Black students than White students. ⁷⁹ A principal's perceptions of Black students combined with his or her preference for more punitive disciplinary measures significantly contribute to suspension rates and the educational disparity between Black and White students. ⁸⁰

Recent increases in spending on security in many schools appears to contribute to increased use of disciplinary measures for Black students. 84, 85 Although it is difficult to analyze school spending on a national level due to variance in state budget codes and fiscal reporting, there is enough data to conclude that most schools have increased their security spending. 86, 87 One way school security has escalated is in the growing use of school resource officers (SROs), law enforcement agents placed in schools to resolve security and discipline issues in schools. When officers are placed in schools, teachers may call upon SROs to administer discipline and solve conflict rather than handle the situations themselves. ⁸⁸ In 2015-2016, 41% of public schools used law enforcement officers designated to maintain order in schools compared to only 22% of schools in 1997. 89, 90 These officers use practices like patrolling school grounds, hall sweeps, locker checks, or dog sniffs to "crack down" on student misbehavior. ⁹¹ The increase of police forces in schools is significant because school police are not accountable to the school board and lack extensive training on adolescent behavior and mental health; consequently they may respond more dramatically to issues regarding student behavior and thereby administer harsher punishments. ⁹²

Prioritizing school security significantly increases suspension rates for Black students. Schools with higher percentages of minority students tend to spend a larger portion of their budget on school security. ⁹³ These schools also prescribe more frequent and severe disciplinary measures for students and have a larger presence of SROs. 94, 95 Like administrators and teachers, SROs are also likely to hold their own racial biases, leading them to respond more aggressively toward a Black student's misbehavior. 96, 97 This tendency is supported by the fact that most SROs reported that student "attitude" was the factor that most influenced their decision whether or not to arrest a student, which contributes to the racial disparity in discipline because Black students are often perceived as having more "attitude" than other students. 98, 99 Because Black students are 11% more likely to attend a school with a law enforcement officer, SROs are more likely to engage in administering discipline to Black students. 100, 101 Spending on security measures creates a climate of distrust and hostility, and can lead to the criminalization of Black youth with serious punitive consequences. 102, 103 These measures, in turn, can result in more extreme consequences, like school arrest, especially for Black students. ¹⁰⁴ For example, one report suggested Black students are 2.3 times more likely to be referred to law enforcement or be subject to a school-related arrest than their White peers. ¹⁰⁵ Another report suggested that while Black students represent 16% of enrolled students, they represent 31% of students arrested, compared to White students who represent 51% of enrolled students but are only 39% of those arrested. ¹⁰⁶ The correlation between increased security measures, including increased use of SROs, can result in higher rates of suspension and arrest for Black students.

Focusing resources on increasing security measures has costs for school districts and schools. Some argue this spending could instead be invested into rehabilitative measures or used for social workers and counselors rather than law enforcement officials. Urban schools spend 2.6 times more of their expenditures on school security than social work. ¹⁰⁷ However, research shows that increased spending on school counselors can decrease the occurrence of student disciplinary problems, particularly for minority and low-income students. One study found that improving the counselor to student ratio resulted in a 9.4% decrease in the probability of a disciplinary recurrence for all Black students and up to a 25.6% decrease in the probability of a disciplinary recurrence for Black male students. ¹⁰⁸ Despite this, schools with predominantly minority students are less likely to have a full or part-time counselor. ¹⁰⁹ A government report based on data from the Department of Education suggests that minority students are 20-40% more likely to attend a school with a law enforcement officer but no guidance counselor. ¹¹⁰ As a natural consequence, prioritizing security measures over other less invasive alternatives increases the likelihood of Black students being subject to stern discipline.

The implementation of zero-tolerance policies tends to increase the severity of punishment and discipline for students, especially for Black students. Zero-tolerance policies mandate specific, severe consequences in schools like expulsion or out-of-school suspension for specific behaviors or offenses regardless of individual student circumstance. ¹¹¹

These policies were originally meant to target violent or criminal activities like weapon possession, but many school administrators have interpreted, implemented, and enforced such policies to punish more subjective behaviors, including disrespect and disruption in the classroom. 112, 113, 114, 115 Such policies have been defended with arguments claiming that strong punishment will deter other students from similarly disruptive behavior, while critics argue these policies fail to address underlying factors impacting student behavior and hurt chances for future student success. 116, 117 As a result of zero-tolerance policies, school administrators have increasingly turned to prescribing harsher disciplinary measures to handle both major and minor offenses, even punishing students for possession of items like a butter knife or toy gun. ¹¹⁸

Implementation of zero-tolerance policies tend to increase the frequency and severity of disciplinary actions Black students receive. Data implies these policies impact Black students at a higher rate than White students experiencing school discipline. One study of an urban school suggested that following implementation of zero tolerance policies, the percentage of Black students recommended for expulsion more than doubled, going from 2.1% to 4.61%. ¹¹⁹ In comparison, the percentage of White students recommended for expulsion increased from only 0.3% to 0.5%. ¹²⁰ Additionally, in another school with zero-tolerance policies, the average number of days a Black student was suspended was approximately 8 days longer than the number of days a White student attending the same school was suspended. ¹²¹ Another study reflected that schools with zero-tolerance policies in Virginia administered long term suspension, a suspension of at least 9 days, to approximately 11% of Black male students compared to about 5.1% of White male students. ¹²² In comparison, schools without zero-tolerance policies administered long-term suspension to about 8% of Black male students compared to approximately 4% of White male students. ¹²³ Due to lack of data and the varying interpretations and applications of zero-tolerance policies, it is difficult to gage whether schools with higher Black student populations, higher student populations in general or schools located in urban areas are more likely to implement zero-tolerance policies. Where they are implemented, zero tolerance policies have not been found to effectively deter misbehavior and can even further negatively impact student educational experiences. ¹²⁴ Zero-tolerance policies, which punish students and disregard student circumstances, correlate with stronger disciplinary measures for Black students at disproportionate rates. ¹²⁵

Disciplinary measures, especially both in-school suspension (ISS) and out-of-school suspension, have been proven to significantly harm academic performance, ¹²⁶ especially among Black students. Students who experience suspension may struggle to keep up academically because of missed days of classroom instruction ¹²⁷ and feel less connected with their peers and teachers. ¹²⁸ Suspension in general can also have an intense psychological effect on students and has been associated with higher levels of depressive symptoms, ¹²⁹ which can often decrease a student's confidence in the classroom and negatively impact the student's academic outcomes. ¹³⁰ Research suggests this effect is magnified for students of color because it reinforces negative stereotypes regarding their academic potential. ¹³¹ Additionally, since Black students get suspended more often than White students, they are more likely to experience the negative effects of suspension on their academic performance. 132, 133, 134 One study suggests that suspension accounted for one-fifth of the difference in Black and White student academic performance. 135, 136 Another suggested that all Black students at schools that suspend more than 10% of the Black student population perform at lower academic rates than those in schools with lower suspension rates. ¹³⁷ Thereby, suspension rates for Black students can be an important predictor for a Black student's achievement.

Because they experience stronger disciplinary measures in schools, Black students are more likely to drop out of high school. Missing class time due to out-of-school suspension can cause students to feel frustrated, isolated, and disengaged and can harm a student's academic achievement. ¹³⁸ In general, students who experience an out-of-school suspension at least once are 2 times more likely to drop out of high school than their peers. ¹³⁹ Referring to the way suspension exacerbates preexistent racial disparities, one study found that Black males who experienced at least one suspension had a 54% high school graduation rate compared to White males who also experienced suspension and had a 64% graduation rate. Furthermore, White males without suspension had an 87% graduation rate and Black males without suspension had an 82% graduation rate. ¹⁴⁰ In contrast, Black females who had experienced any out-of-school suspension had a 65% graduation rate and White females who experienced any OSS had a 61% graduation rate. Black females who had never been suspended had an 87% graduation rate compared to White females who had never been suspended had an 86% graduation rate. ¹⁴¹

Increased likelihood of student dropout due to suspension has significant economic implications for Black students, including higher unemployment, fewer job opportunities, and lower income. ¹⁴² If students are suspended, they are more likely to drop out and thereby more likely to be unemployed. For example, the unemployment rate for those without a high school diploma was 1.66 times the rate for those with a high school diploma. ¹⁴³ This issue particularly impacts Black students, considering Black workers without a diploma had the lowest median annual earnings compared to other minority groups in 2019. ¹⁴⁴ White workers without a high school diploma had a median average annual income $19,711 more (35% more) than their Black peers without a diploma. ¹⁴⁵ In addition, one study suggested that involvement in school discipline resulted in $9,033,294 in lost wages over a lifetime for Black male students and $5,875,759 in lost lifetime wages for Black female students. ¹⁴⁶ It also suggested that having Black male suspended students redo years of school can cost a state more than $7,000,000 per year. Thus, the impact of increased dropout rates due to school discipline on economic attainment can play a serious role in contributing to the racial wealth gap in the United States. ¹⁴⁷

Suspension and other disciplinary measures can result in students being less likely to apply and enroll in higher education for Black students. ¹⁴⁸ Suspension may result in Black students developing a negative perspective regarding their own academic potential and the educational system as a whole and choose not to pursue higher education. 149, 150 In addition, school administrators and teachers, believing Black students who have been suspended have less potential than their peers, may not invest the same resources into supporting these students and encouraging them to pursue higher education. ¹⁵¹ One study in Florida discussed the effects of suspension on students and suggested that a single suspension decreases the chances that a student of any race enrolls in post-secondary school by 19% and makes them over 2 times less likely to complete their post-secondary education. ¹⁵² Referring to the Black student demographic specifically, Black females who were suspended were 1.64 times less likely to complete any college compared to their Black and White peers who had no suspensions. ¹⁵³ Another study suggested that police presence and other additional disciplinary measures could further stigmatize students of color in their schools and reduce student confidence in their academic abilities. ¹⁵⁴ The study suggested that increased funding for security measures correlated with a 4% decrease in enrollment in higher education possibly due to the negative impact of stricter security policies on school atmosphere and student experiences. ¹⁵⁵ These security measures can lead to students forming an association between harsh punishment and hostility with school rather than seeing it as a positive place for growth. Considering student engagement has been found to be a strong predictor of how likely a student is to enroll and continue in higher education, ¹⁵⁶ decreased engagement due to suspension can significantly impact a student's achievement not only in high school but in his or her academic future after high school.

When applying to higher education institutions, students with a history of suspension on their record are less likely to be accepted into college. ¹⁵⁷ Many colleges may still include questions regarding suspension in their application, which could harm a student's chances of acceptance, although it was recently removed from the Common App. One study found that after controlling for other variables, students who experienced out-of-school suspension had a 10% lower college acceptance rate than their peers. ¹⁵⁸ Even when students who experienced suspension do attend college, one study suggests that only 7% of Black males (compared to 9% of White males) who experienced at least one suspension end up attaining a bachelor's degree. ¹⁵⁹

Black students who experience stronger disciplinary measures are subsequently more likely to experience contact with the juvenile justice system, including written referrals, arrests, and detentions. The disciplinary measure that most correlates with involvement in the criminal justice system is suspension. Students attending schools with higher in-school and out-of-school suspension rates are already 15 to 20% more likely to be arrested or incarcerated as adults. ¹⁶⁰ In addition, students who experience suspension are 2 times more likely to be arrested, and suspension increases the probability of Black students exhibiting criminal behavior by 28%. 161, 162 Data also suggest that only Black students have a 40% increased risk of engaging in criminal offenses after dropping out due to school suspension, even when controlling for socioeconomic status. ¹⁶³ Black students are also disproportionately involved with law enforcement at schools, which can increase their likelihood of involvement with the criminal justice system. Black students make up only 15% of student populations but are 27% of students referred to law enforcement. ¹⁶⁴ They also are 31% of students subjected to a school related arrest. ¹⁶⁵ This suggests that the criminalization of Black youth through more punitive school discipline enforced by law enforcement can result in increased involvement in the criminal justice systems even after controlling for poverty and urbanization. 166, 167 It is important to note that these disparities cannot be explained solely by differences in delinquent behavior. ¹⁶⁸

Black teachers, in contrast, can prove to be valuable role models and compassionate mentors for students considering they may have a better understanding of the collective experience of Black students. ¹⁷⁷ Black teachers may make additional efforts to set high and clear expectations for students and may help Black students feel less alienated. ¹⁷⁸ Any teacher, regardless of race, can be intentional in considering a Black student's experiences and include Black students in their teaching style. For example, one study suggested that Black students better connected with teachers when they asked direct questions and established a strong sense of an inclusive, diverse community in their classroom. ¹⁷⁹ In contrast, misunderstanding of a Black student's behavior can create negative teacher-student relationships, which could increase the likelihood of student misbehavior and of teachers administering punishment to those students. 180, 181

In order to combat teacher bias and difficulty with classroom management, training can help teachers better engage with Black students and decrease the frequency of referrals for suspension and other disciplinary measures. Traditionally, training for teachers has been implemented in single-session workshops, but they have been limited in effectiveness often because they are irregular and often involve little follow-up. ¹⁸² However, more sustained programs like the My Teaching Partner-Secondary have been shown to be effective in reducing teachers' reliance on disciplinary measures and reducing the rate of student suspension, particularly for Black students. ¹⁸³ This is supported by other research that suggests that positive school climates and student-teacher relationships often result in lower likelihood of suspension. 184, 185, 186 My Teaching Partner-Secondary is an intensive training and evaluation program that focuses on providing teachers with coaching and support through up to 36 hours of coaching in two years. ¹⁸⁷ The training itself can be purchased by individual teachers or districts for $5,000 per teacher, although price varies depending on factors like the number of students and coaches available. ¹⁸⁸ As part of the program, teachers are video recorded and receive feedback regarding emotional support, classroom organization, and instructional support from their coach. ¹⁸⁹ Teachers reflect on the recording with the facilitator and create action plans to implement strategies to improve their teaching and are recorded again. ¹⁹⁰ Teachers are also provided videos of "best practices" to reference and model in their own teaching. ¹⁹¹ These trainings can improve both the teacher's ability to connect and build relationships with students as well as improving student engagement and achievement. ¹⁹²

Data suggests that these trainings can reduce the racial discipline gap, but the extent of its impact on all school districts cannot yet be assumed. One study suggested that only 6% of Black students were suspended and 5.8% of non-Black students were suspended by teachers receiving My Teaching Partner-Secondary training. ¹⁹³ Meanwhile, teachers not receiving the training suspended over double the percentage of Black students at 13.7% compared to 5.1% of non-Black students. ¹⁹⁴ In summary, training resulted in less than 1% gap between the rate of Black and White students suspended. ¹⁹⁵ However, the gap, even though it was minimal, still existed and the study did not collect information regarding suspension rates before the program was implemented; thus, some teachers in the test group may have already referred students for suspension at lower rates. ¹⁹⁶ In addition, the study consisted of a small sample group of schools of students in low- to middle-class neighborhoods, and no other studies have focused solely on the impact on racial disparity in discipline, so it is unknown whether these policies would have the same impact in other states or in districts in a more upper middle class student body. ¹⁹⁷ It is also important to recognize that these trainings are not equity-explicit and do not train teachers specifically on racial bias. For this reason, the reduction in suspension referral of Black students could be tied to alternative factors rather than solely the training. The training is also very intensive and expensive, which could prove to be difficult to implement for schools with large student populations that are already struggling to adequately provide enough teachers and dealing with other stresses and financial demands. ¹⁹⁸

Restorative justice is an alternative to exclusionary policies like suspension as a way to decrease likelihood of continued misbehavior in general and lessen the negative impact of disciplinary measures on students. ¹⁹⁹ Restorative justice involves emotional training and community building counseling practices to prevent and resolve student conflict and misbehavior. Rather than being excluded from schools, students who participate in these measures create a shared sense of authority and ownership regarding the classroom climate with their teachers. ²⁰⁰ As a preventive measure, some schools implement social and emotional learning into their curriculum in order to provide students with methods to cope with behaviors, emotions, and challenges that can result in misbehavior. ²⁰¹ Measures are also taken after students have committed misbehaviors. Students participate in peer-to-peer mediations or attend conferences with the victim, their victim's family, their own parents, and other key supporters who are all led by a trained facilitator. ²⁰² Similarly, circles involve the offender, the victim, family members, and other community members like social service staff or neighbors, and each individual is allowed to address the occurrence and possibilities for reparations. ²⁰³ These practices have begun to be implemented and as of 2017, 50% of schools with over 50% minority students of the student body reported using restorative circles as a disciplinary measure. ²⁰⁴ In these conversations, students are expected to discuss the conflict, possible means of reparations, and plans to avoid further future conflict. These restorative measures can help to mitigate the consequences that Black students experience when they are disproportionately impacted by harsh disciplinary measures and can help them to feel valued. ²⁰⁵

This practice has been shown to have mixed results in regards to impacting the racial discipline gap. Restorative justice has been suggested to result in an improved school climate and decreased instances of misbehavior and the number of days lost to suspension, particularly for Black students. 206, 207, 208 As a result, students spend more time in school and are able to engage with teachers and fellow students. Multiple studies have suggested that restorative justice measures can significantly decrease the size of the discipline gap between Black and White students by as much as 54%. 209, 210 For example, in one Denver school district, the gap nearly decreased by 2 times from 9 to 5% due to the introduction of restorative justice. 211, 212 On the other hand, one study suggested that although practices did decrease the overall rate of suspension, the rate of Black student suspension remained largely stagnant while the White student suspension significantly decreased. ²¹³ The variety in the impact of these policies could be due to additional factors including remaining implicit racial bias, under-resourcing, and poor implementation. 214, 215, 216, 217

The program has also been criticized for lacking extensive practices to prevent misbehavior and neglecting some of the deeper issues involved with school discipline like teacher bias or systematic racism in disciplinary policies. ²¹⁸ The term " restorative justice" itself is fairly broad and largely ill-defined, which may make it difficult to effectively implement on a large scale. Just like the My Teaching Partner-Secondary training, the restorative justice practice does not include specific training focused on racism, which may account for why a discipline gap often still exists even after the training is implemented. ²¹⁹ On the other hand, some administrations may not be as willing to implement restorative justice because they consider it to be too demanding for teachers and "too soft" on students. 220, 221 Even when it is implemented, studies have suggested that it may take up to five years to significantly shift a school's climate and practices. ²²² However, overall restorative justice appears to be a promising practice that could help at least lessen the disparity between the discipline of Black and White students.

Preferred Citation: Emily Peterson. "Racial Inequality in Public School Discipline for Black Students in the United States." Ballard Brief. September 2021. www.ballardbrief.org.
Viewpoints published by Ballard Brief are not necessarily endorsed by BYU or The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

Emily Peterson

Emily Peterson is a history major with minors in social impact and media arts. She grew up in New Jersey where she engaged with peers from diverse racial and socioeconomic backgrounds. She was always interested in social issues and became even more passionate after working with refugee students and their families in high school. She is passionate about racial justice, educational opportunity, and immigration reform. She hopes to work in the nonprofit or political sector in educational advocacy in the United States for students of color.

Summary+

Racial bias and limited teacher training all influence how teachers and administrators react to Black student misbehavior. In addition, recently implemented institutional practices like zero-tolerance policies and increased emphasis on school security have also contributed to increases in the rate of disciplinary measures, especially suspension, for Black students. Experience with school discipline can significantly harm student academic achievement and increase the likelihood of Black students dropping out of school. More involvement with school discipline on the student's part is also associated with more serious consequences including decreased likelihood of enrollment in higher education and increased likelihood of involvement with the criminal justice system. Improved teacher training programs can help teachers more effectively respond to misbehavior and thereby decrease the disparity between how Black and White students are disciplined. Alternatives to discipline like restorative justice can also aid in decreasing this disparity.

Key Takeaways+

Black students tend to experience harsher disciplinary measures at higher rates than their peers in public schools in the United States; Black students are 4 times more likely to experience suspension than their White peers.

Because strong disciplinary measures can negatively impact individual student outcomes, racial inequality in school discipline perpetuates larger racial inequities in economic and educational achievement.

Recent increases in zero-tolerance policies and school security are associated with increased rates of discipline for Black students.

If implemented consistently, alternative disciplinary measures for students and training programs for teachers could help to decrease the disproportionate rate of Black students experiencing school discipline.

Key Terms+

Implicit bias-A bias or prejudice that is present but not consciously held or recognized. ¹

In-school suspension (ISS)-An instance in which a student is temporarily removed from his or her regular classroom(s) for at least half a day but is kept under the direct supervision of school personnel. ²

Out-of-school suspension (OSS)-An instance in which a student is temporarily removed from his or her regular school, generally for disciplinary purposes, for at least half a day (but less than the remainder of the school year) and sent to another setting (e.g., home or behavior center). ³

Restorative justice-A set of informal and formal strategies intended to build relationships and a sense of community to prevent conflict and wrongdoing and respond to wrongdoings, with the intention to repair any harm that was a result of the wrongdoing. Preventative strategies include community or relationship building circles, and the use of restorative language. Some responsive strategies include the use of restorative questions within a circle or conferencing format, again with the intention of repairing the wrong that happened as a result of the behavior. ⁴

School resource officer (SRO)-A law enforcement officer with arrest authority, who has specialized training and is assigned to work in collaboration with school organizations. ⁵

Zero-tolerance policies-School or district policies that mandate predetermined consequences or punishments for specific offenses. ⁶

Education is often portrayed as a doorway to opportunity and a way of teaching youth the appropriate social behavior to make them productive citizens. In school, students are expected to exhibit certain behaviors that preserve specific societal values and customs, thus accomplishing the goals of education. ⁷ School disciplinary measures-such as in-school (ISS) and out-of-school suspension (OSS), expulsion, referral to law enforcement, and school-related arrests-attempt to discourage serious misbehavior and create a positive, safe learning environment for all students. ⁸ While these measures have the potential to do good, it is common to see disciplinary measures taken to the extreme in both force or frequency. In these instances, discipline can also negatively impact the academic performance and future employment opportunities of the students who receive discipline. Reports suggest suspension can lead to future instances of misbehavior and suspension among impacted students. ⁹ In most instances, when speaking of suspension, studies are referring to out-of-school suspension (OSS) except when noted.

Though research demonstrates that Black children are not more likely to misbehave than White children, 14, 15, 16 Black students, especially male Black students, are much more likely to encounter stronger disciplinary measures for the same offenses as their White peers. ¹⁷ Multiple studies suggest that Black students sometimes commit different misbehaviors but not necessarily more misbehaviors or more severe misbehaviors than White students and varying misbehaviors cannot fully explain the disparity in suspension rates. 18, 19 Yet in 2013-2014, Black students were 4 times more likely to experience an out-of-school suspension (OSS) than their White peers and 3 times more likely than their Latin peers. ²⁰ Black students were also over 2 times more likely to be referred to the principal's office. ²¹

White students actually had higher levels of early controlled substance use (i.e., alcohol, smoking, marijuana) compared with Black students in terms of both actual behaviors and endorsed attitudes. Studies have suggested that White students are suspended more for observable behaviors such as smoking and cutting class and that Black students are suspended more for subjective actions such as disrespect, suggesting racial bias. ²²

Although some other countries also suspend Black students at higher rates, ²³ the discrepancy in suspension rates for Black and White students is most significant in the United States. ²⁴ In Great Britain, for example, 5% of White students were temporarily suspended compared to 5.56% of Black students in 2017. ²⁵ In the United States, 15 different states all suspended over 15% of their K-12 Black student population in the 2013 to 2014 school year compared to approximately 3.4% of their White students. 26, 27

The disciplinary measures used in US public schools today have greatly evolved over the last century, steering away from corporal punishment like spanking and towards insitutional consequences like suspension. ³² Beginning in the 1960s, suspension became one of the most popular forms of school discipline. ³³ In the 1980s and 90s, public support for more aggressive discipline and stronger security measures in schools increased as the war on crime and war on drugs, as well as various school shootings carried out by student perpetrators, spurred anxiety in citizens across America. ³⁴ This support for intensified discipline is manifest in the federal Gun-Free School Zones Act of 1990 that mandated a one-year suspension for any student who brought a weapon to school and the federal Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994, which enacted harsher imprisonment time or fines for drug distribution near schools. ³⁵ This shift in public opinion to favor stronger discipline for youth ³⁶ resulted in public schools implementing stricter punishments.

Though public support for stronger punishment for juveniles theoretically affects all students, the implementation of such policies influences racial minorities to a higher extent. As sanctions for stronger punishment measures have taken hold, Black students have disproportionately experienced the consequences of these policies; in 1972, 11.8% of Black students were suspended from school whereas in 2013, 15% of all Black students were suspended. 37, 38 Additionally, 20% of all Black male students experienced an OSS. ³⁹ In comparison, 6% of White students were suspended in 1972 whereas in 2013 3.4% of White students were suspended. 40, 41 Black students only make up 15% of the primary and secondary school body but represent the largest percentage of students who experience out-of-school suspension. 42, 43 As a result, although originally intended to target all students equally, school discipline has significantly impacted Black students at higher rates than their peers.

Teachers who misunderstand a Black student's behavior are more likely to prescribe harsh disciplinary measures. In general, relating to students from a different socioeconomic, racial, or family situation can be challenging for any teacher, regardless of ethnicity. ⁴⁸ Considering that most teachers are White, teachers may be more likely to misunderstand or misinterpret a Black student's behavior because of their held implicit and explicit racial biases. Studies have suggested that Black students are less likely to be suspended by a Black teacher than a White teacher. 49, 50, 51 However, as of 2019 only 7% of public school teachers are Black and 80% are White. ⁵² Active factors point to the fact that teachers are more likely to engage with and orient themselves towards members of their own ethnic background. Some studies have suggested there are differences in the actions taken by Black and White teachers in their allocation of time, interactions with students, use of examples, use of instructional methods, and in the design of classroom materials. ⁵³ White teachers in particular may not consider the impact their own race and the race of their students has on the classroom experience and how their students' experiences may be different than their own experience when they were a student. ⁵⁴ For example, one study found that less experienced White teachers suggested interactions with African American male students were aggressive while African American male students perceived their conversations simply as expressive communication. ⁵⁵

Bias held by teachers and administrators can lead these individuals to often unconsciously administer harsher and more frequent disciplinary measures to Black students. Historically, Black youth have often been labeled as more prone to being "aggressive," being "troublemakers," or having an "attitude," and are often believed to have more inherent behavioral problems than White individuals. 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62 These harmful generalizations influence how educators view and treat Black students in schools and how they prescribe discipline. 63, 64, 65, 66 One study found that when a Black student misbehaves, teachers and administrators are more likely to believe the student is prone to violent behavior or "acting out" more in class. Meanwhile, a White student's misbehavior tends to be attributed to external and individual circumstances, and as a result, a White student receives less harsh disciplinary measures. 67, 68, 69 Another study suggested that teachers are more likely to believe that male Black students who misbehave are more likely to have recurring misbehavior than their White peers. ⁷⁰ When teachers and administrators view the actions of Black students through this generalized lens, they are more likely to prescribe stronger disciplinary measures for students. 71, 72, 73 Another study showed that preschool teachers watched Black students more closely compared to their White counterparts. In the study, teachers monitored Black male students about 44% of the time compared to 32% for White boys and 13% for White girls. ⁷⁴ Thus, biases influence teachers to be more observant and aware of a Black student's misbehavior than a White student's misbehavior and as a result, Black students are more likely to be prescribed disciplinary measures for misbehavior.

Racial bias can also affect how administrators prescribe disciplinary measures for student misbehavior. Administrators have a large role in determining the consequences and the severity of the punishments students receive. ⁷⁵ Multiple studies have shown differences in the severity of discipline prescribed by administrators upon students of different races. 76, 77 One study suggested that 19% of these differences were due to an administrator's implicit biases. ⁷⁸ School principals, for example, who are already inclined to use punishment over preventative measures for misbehaving students (which data show is 57.1% of principals) tend to disproportionately prescribe more severe disciplinary outcomes for Black students than White students. ⁷⁹ A principal's perceptions of Black students combined with his or her preference for more punitive disciplinary measures significantly contribute to suspension rates and the educational disparity between Black and White students. ⁸⁰

Recent increases in spending on security in many schools appears to contribute to increased use of disciplinary measures for Black students. 84, 85 Although it is difficult to analyze school spending on a national level due to variance in state budget codes and fiscal reporting, there is enough data to conclude that most schools have increased their security spending. 86, 87 One way school security has escalated is in the growing use of school resource officers (SROs), law enforcement agents placed in schools to resolve security and discipline issues in schools. When officers are placed in schools, teachers may call upon SROs to administer discipline and solve conflict rather than handle the situations themselves. ⁸⁸ In 2015-2016, 41% of public schools used law enforcement officers designated to maintain order in schools compared to only 22% of schools in 1997. 89, 90 These officers use practices like patrolling school grounds, hall sweeps, locker checks, or dog sniffs to "crack down" on student misbehavior. ⁹¹ The increase of police forces in schools is significant because school police are not accountable to the school board and lack extensive training on adolescent behavior and mental health; consequently they may respond more dramatically to issues regarding student behavior and thereby administer harsher punishments. ⁹²

Prioritizing school security significantly increases suspension rates for Black students. Schools with higher percentages of minority students tend to spend a larger portion of their budget on school security. ⁹³ These schools also prescribe more frequent and severe disciplinary measures for students and have a larger presence of SROs. 94, 95 Like administrators and teachers, SROs are also likely to hold their own racial biases, leading them to respond more aggressively toward a Black student's misbehavior. 96, 97 This tendency is supported by the fact that most SROs reported that student "attitude" was the factor that most influenced their decision whether or not to arrest a student, which contributes to the racial disparity in discipline because Black students are often perceived as having more "attitude" than other students. 98, 99 Because Black students are 11% more likely to attend a school with a law enforcement officer, SROs are more likely to engage in administering discipline to Black students. 100, 101 Spending on security measures creates a climate of distrust and hostility, and can lead to the criminalization of Black youth with serious punitive consequences. 102, 103 These measures, in turn, can result in more extreme consequences, like school arrest, especially for Black students. ¹⁰⁴ For example, one report suggested Black students are 2.3 times more likely to be referred to law enforcement or be subject to a school-related arrest than their White peers. ¹⁰⁵ Another report suggested that while Black students represent 16% of enrolled students, they represent 31% of students arrested, compared to White students who represent 51% of enrolled students but are only 39% of those arrested. ¹⁰⁶ The correlation between increased security measures, including increased use of SROs, can result in higher rates of suspension and arrest for Black students.

Focusing resources on increasing security measures has costs for school districts and schools. Some argue this spending could instead be invested into rehabilitative measures or used for social workers and counselors rather than law enforcement officials. Urban schools spend 2.6 times more of their expenditures on school security than social work. ¹⁰⁷ However, research shows that increased spending on school counselors can decrease the occurrence of student disciplinary problems, particularly for minority and low-income students. One study found that improving the counselor to student ratio resulted in a 9.4% decrease in the probability of a disciplinary recurrence for all Black students and up to a 25.6% decrease in the probability of a disciplinary recurrence for Black male students. ¹⁰⁸ Despite this, schools with predominantly minority students are less likely to have a full or part-time counselor. ¹⁰⁹ A government report based on data from the Department of Education suggests that minority students are 20-40% more likely to attend a school with a law enforcement officer but no guidance counselor. ¹¹⁰ As a natural consequence, prioritizing security measures over other less invasive alternatives increases the likelihood of Black students being subject to stern discipline.

The implementation of zero-tolerance policies tends to increase the severity of punishment and discipline for students, especially for Black students. Zero-tolerance policies mandate specific, severe consequences in schools like expulsion or out-of-school suspension for specific behaviors or offenses regardless of individual student circumstance. ¹¹¹

These policies were originally meant to target violent or criminal activities like weapon possession, but many school administrators have interpreted, implemented, and enforced such policies to punish more subjective behaviors, including disrespect and disruption in the classroom. 112, 113, 114, 115 Such policies have been defended with arguments claiming that strong punishment will deter other students from similarly disruptive behavior, while critics argue these policies fail to address underlying factors impacting student behavior and hurt chances for future student success. 116, 117 As a result of zero-tolerance policies, school administrators have increasingly turned to prescribing harsher disciplinary measures to handle both major and minor offenses, even punishing students for possession of items like a butter knife or toy gun. ¹¹⁸

Implementation of zero-tolerance policies tend to increase the frequency and severity of disciplinary actions Black students receive. Data implies these policies impact Black students at a higher rate than White students experiencing school discipline. One study of an urban school suggested that following implementation of zero tolerance policies, the percentage of Black students recommended for expulsion more than doubled, going from 2.1% to 4.61%. ¹¹⁹ In comparison, the percentage of White students recommended for expulsion increased from only 0.3% to 0.5%. ¹²⁰ Additionally, in another school with zero-tolerance policies, the average number of days a Black student was suspended was approximately 8 days longer than the number of days a White student attending the same school was suspended. ¹²¹ Another study reflected that schools with zero-tolerance policies in Virginia administered long term suspension, a suspension of at least 9 days, to approximately 11% of Black male students compared to about 5.1% of White male students. ¹²² In comparison, schools without zero-tolerance policies administered long-term suspension to about 8% of Black male students compared to approximately 4% of White male students. ¹²³ Due to lack of data and the varying interpretations and applications of zero-tolerance policies, it is difficult to gage whether schools with higher Black student populations, higher student populations in general or schools located in urban areas are more likely to implement zero-tolerance policies. Where they are implemented, zero tolerance policies have not been found to effectively deter misbehavior and can even further negatively impact student educational experiences. ¹²⁴ Zero-tolerance policies, which punish students and disregard student circumstances, correlate with stronger disciplinary measures for Black students at disproportionate rates. ¹²⁵

Disciplinary measures, especially both in-school suspension (ISS) and out-of-school suspension, have been proven to significantly harm academic performance, ¹²⁶ especially among Black students. Students who experience suspension may struggle to keep up academically because of missed days of classroom instruction ¹²⁷ and feel less connected with their peers and teachers. ¹²⁸ Suspension in general can also have an intense psychological effect on students and has been associated with higher levels of depressive symptoms, ¹²⁹ which can often decrease a student's confidence in the classroom and negatively impact the student's academic outcomes. ¹³⁰ Research suggests this effect is magnified for students of color because it reinforces negative stereotypes regarding their academic potential. ¹³¹ Additionally, since Black students get suspended more often than White students, they are more likely to experience the negative effects of suspension on their academic performance. 132, 133, 134 One study suggests that suspension accounted for one-fifth of the difference in Black and White student academic performance. 135, 136 Another suggested that all Black students at schools that suspend more than 10% of the Black student population perform at lower academic rates than those in schools with lower suspension rates. ¹³⁷ Thereby, suspension rates for Black students can be an important predictor for a Black student's achievement.

Because they experience stronger disciplinary measures in schools, Black students are more likely to drop out of high school. Missing class time due to out-of-school suspension can cause students to feel frustrated, isolated, and disengaged and can harm a student's academic achievement. ¹³⁸ In general, students who experience an out-of-school suspension at least once are 2 times more likely to drop out of high school than their peers. ¹³⁹ Referring to the way suspension exacerbates preexistent racial disparities, one study found that Black males who experienced at least one suspension had a 54% high school graduation rate compared to White males who also experienced suspension and had a 64% graduation rate. Furthermore, White males without suspension had an 87% graduation rate and Black males without suspension had an 82% graduation rate. ¹⁴⁰ In contrast, Black females who had experienced any out-of-school suspension had a 65% graduation rate and White females who experienced any OSS had a 61% graduation rate. Black females who had never been suspended had an 87% graduation rate compared to White females who had never been suspended had an 86% graduation rate. ¹⁴¹

Increased likelihood of student dropout due to suspension has significant economic implications for Black students, including higher unemployment, fewer job opportunities, and lower income. ¹⁴² If students are suspended, they are more likely to drop out and thereby more likely to be unemployed. For example, the unemployment rate for those without a high school diploma was 1.66 times the rate for those with a high school diploma. ¹⁴³ This issue particularly impacts Black students, considering Black workers without a diploma had the lowest median annual earnings compared to other minority groups in 2019. ¹⁴⁴ White workers without a high school diploma had a median average annual income $19,711 more (35% more) than their Black peers without a diploma. ¹⁴⁵ In addition, one study suggested that involvement in school discipline resulted in $9,033,294 in lost wages over a lifetime for Black male students and $5,875,759 in lost lifetime wages for Black female students. ¹⁴⁶ It also suggested that having Black male suspended students redo years of school can cost a state more than $7,000,000 per year. Thus, the impact of increased dropout rates due to school discipline on economic attainment can play a serious role in contributing to the racial wealth gap in the United States. ¹⁴⁷

Suspension and other disciplinary measures can result in students being less likely to apply and enroll in higher education for Black students. ¹⁴⁸ Suspension may result in Black students developing a negative perspective regarding their own academic potential and the educational system as a whole and choose not to pursue higher education. 149, 150 In addition, school administrators and teachers, believing Black students who have been suspended have less potential than their peers, may not invest the same resources into supporting these students and encouraging them to pursue higher education. ¹⁵¹ One study in Florida discussed the effects of suspension on students and suggested that a single suspension decreases the chances that a student of any race enrolls in post-secondary school by 19% and makes them over 2 times less likely to complete their post-secondary education. ¹⁵² Referring to the Black student demographic specifically, Black females who were suspended were 1.64 times less likely to complete any college compared to their Black and White peers who had no suspensions. ¹⁵³ Another study suggested that police presence and other additional disciplinary measures could further stigmatize students of color in their schools and reduce student confidence in their academic abilities. ¹⁵⁴ The study suggested that increased funding for security measures correlated with a 4% decrease in enrollment in higher education possibly due to the negative impact of stricter security policies on school atmosphere and student experiences. ¹⁵⁵ These security measures can lead to students forming an association between harsh punishment and hostility with school rather than seeing it as a positive place for growth. Considering student engagement has been found to be a strong predictor of how likely a student is to enroll and continue in higher education, ¹⁵⁶ decreased engagement due to suspension can significantly impact a student's achievement not only in high school but in his or her academic future after high school.

When applying to higher education institutions, students with a history of suspension on their record are less likely to be accepted into college. ¹⁵⁷ Many colleges may still include questions regarding suspension in their application, which could harm a student's chances of acceptance, although it was recently removed from the Common App. One study found that after controlling for other variables, students who experienced out-of-school suspension had a 10% lower college acceptance rate than their peers. ¹⁵⁸ Even when students who experienced suspension do attend college, one study suggests that only 7% of Black males (compared to 9% of White males) who experienced at least one suspension end up attaining a bachelor's degree. ¹⁵⁹

Black students who experience stronger disciplinary measures are subsequently more likely to experience contact with the juvenile justice system, including written referrals, arrests, and detentions. The disciplinary measure that most correlates with involvement in the criminal justice system is suspension. Students attending schools with higher in-school and out-of-school suspension rates are already 15 to 20% more likely to be arrested or incarcerated as adults. ¹⁶⁰ In addition, students who experience suspension are 2 times more likely to be arrested, and suspension increases the probability of Black students exhibiting criminal behavior by 28%. 161, 162 Data also suggest that only Black students have a 40% increased risk of engaging in criminal offenses after dropping out due to school suspension, even when controlling for socioeconomic status. ¹⁶³ Black students are also disproportionately involved with law enforcement at schools, which can increase their likelihood of involvement with the criminal justice system. Black students make up only 15% of student populations but are 27% of students referred to law enforcement. ¹⁶⁴ They also are 31% of students subjected to a school related arrest. ¹⁶⁵ This suggests that the criminalization of Black youth through more punitive school discipline enforced by law enforcement can result in increased involvement in the criminal justice systems even after controlling for poverty and urbanization. 166, 167 It is important to note that these disparities cannot be explained solely by differences in delinquent behavior. ¹⁶⁸

Black teachers, in contrast, can prove to be valuable role models and compassionate mentors for students considering they may have a better understanding of the collective experience of Black students. ¹⁷⁷ Black teachers may make additional efforts to set high and clear expectations for students and may help Black students feel less alienated. ¹⁷⁸ Any teacher, regardless of race, can be intentional in considering a Black student's experiences and include Black students in their teaching style. For example, one study suggested that Black students better connected with teachers when they asked direct questions and established a strong sense of an inclusive, diverse community in their classroom. ¹⁷⁹ In contrast, misunderstanding of a Black student's behavior can create negative teacher-student relationships, which could increase the likelihood of student misbehavior and of teachers administering punishment to those students. 180, 181

In order to combat teacher bias and difficulty with classroom management, training can help teachers better engage with Black students and decrease the frequency of referrals for suspension and other disciplinary measures. Traditionally, training for teachers has been implemented in single-session workshops, but they have been limited in effectiveness often because they are irregular and often involve little follow-up. ¹⁸² However, more sustained programs like the My Teaching Partner-Secondary have been shown to be effective in reducing teachers' reliance on disciplinary measures and reducing the rate of student suspension, particularly for Black students. ¹⁸³ This is supported by other research that suggests that positive school climates and student-teacher relationships often result in lower likelihood of suspension. 184, 185, 186 My Teaching Partner-Secondary is an intensive training and evaluation program that focuses on providing teachers with coaching and support through up to 36 hours of coaching in two years. ¹⁸⁷ The training itself can be purchased by individual teachers or districts for $5,000 per teacher, although price varies depending on factors like the number of students and coaches available. ¹⁸⁸ As part of the program, teachers are video recorded and receive feedback regarding emotional support, classroom organization, and instructional support from their coach. ¹⁸⁹ Teachers reflect on the recording with the facilitator and create action plans to implement strategies to improve their teaching and are recorded again. ¹⁹⁰ Teachers are also provided videos of "best practices" to reference and model in their own teaching. ¹⁹¹ These trainings can improve both the teacher's ability to connect and build relationships with students as well as improving student engagement and achievement. ¹⁹²

Data suggests that these trainings can reduce the racial discipline gap, but the extent of its impact on all school districts cannot yet be assumed. One study suggested that only 6% of Black students were suspended and 5.8% of non-Black students were suspended by teachers receiving My Teaching Partner-Secondary training. ¹⁹³ Meanwhile, teachers not receiving the training suspended over double the percentage of Black students at 13.7% compared to 5.1% of non-Black students. ¹⁹⁴ In summary, training resulted in less than 1% gap between the rate of Black and White students suspended. ¹⁹⁵ However, the gap, even though it was minimal, still existed and the study did not collect information regarding suspension rates before the program was implemented; thus, some teachers in the test group may have already referred students for suspension at lower rates. ¹⁹⁶ In addition, the study consisted of a small sample group of schools of students in low- to middle-class neighborhoods, and no other studies have focused solely on the impact on racial disparity in discipline, so it is unknown whether these policies would have the same impact in other states or in districts in a more upper middle class student body. ¹⁹⁷ It is also important to recognize that these trainings are not equity-explicit and do not train teachers specifically on racial bias. For this reason, the reduction in suspension referral of Black students could be tied to alternative factors rather than solely the training. The training is also very intensive and expensive, which could prove to be difficult to implement for schools with large student populations that are already struggling to adequately provide enough teachers and dealing with other stresses and financial demands. ¹⁹⁸

Restorative justice is an alternative to exclusionary policies like suspension as a way to decrease likelihood of continued misbehavior in general and lessen the negative impact of disciplinary measures on students. ¹⁹⁹ Restorative justice involves emotional training and community building counseling practices to prevent and resolve student conflict and misbehavior. Rather than being excluded from schools, students who participate in these measures create a shared sense of authority and ownership regarding the classroom climate with their teachers. ²⁰⁰ As a preventive measure, some schools implement social and emotional learning into their curriculum in order to provide students with methods to cope with behaviors, emotions, and challenges that can result in misbehavior. ²⁰¹ Measures are also taken after students have committed misbehaviors. Students participate in peer-to-peer mediations or attend conferences with the victim, their victim's family, their own parents, and other key supporters who are all led by a trained facilitator. ²⁰² Similarly, circles involve the offender, the victim, family members, and other community members like social service staff or neighbors, and each individual is allowed to address the occurrence and possibilities for reparations. ²⁰³ These practices have begun to be implemented and as of 2017, 50% of schools with over 50% minority students of the student body reported using restorative circles as a disciplinary measure. ²⁰⁴ In these conversations, students are expected to discuss the conflict, possible means of reparations, and plans to avoid further future conflict. These restorative measures can help to mitigate the consequences that Black students experience when they are disproportionately impacted by harsh disciplinary measures and can help them to feel valued. ²⁰⁵

This practice has been shown to have mixed results in regards to impacting the racial discipline gap. Restorative justice has been suggested to result in an improved school climate and decreased instances of misbehavior and the number of days lost to suspension, particularly for Black students. 206, 207, 208 As a result, students spend more time in school and are able to engage with teachers and fellow students. Multiple studies have suggested that restorative justice measures can significantly decrease the size of the discipline gap between Black and White students by as much as 54%. 209, 210 For example, in one Denver school district, the gap nearly decreased by 2 times from 9 to 5% due to the introduction of restorative justice. 211, 212 On the other hand, one study suggested that although practices did decrease the overall rate of suspension, the rate of Black student suspension remained largely stagnant while the White student suspension significantly decreased. ²¹³ The variety in the impact of these policies could be due to additional factors including remaining implicit racial bias, under-resourcing, and poor implementation. 214, 215, 216, 217

The program has also been criticized for lacking extensive practices to prevent misbehavior and neglecting some of the deeper issues involved with school discipline like teacher bias or systematic racism in disciplinary policies. ²¹⁸ The term " restorative justice" itself is fairly broad and largely ill-defined, which may make it difficult to effectively implement on a large scale. Just like the My Teaching Partner-Secondary training, the restorative justice practice does not include specific training focused on racism, which may account for why a discipline gap often still exists even after the training is implemented. ²¹⁹ On the other hand, some administrations may not be as willing to implement restorative justice because they consider it to be too demanding for teachers and "too soft" on students. 220, 221 Even when it is implemented, studies have suggested that it may take up to five years to significantly shift a school's climate and practices. ²²² However, overall restorative justice appears to be a promising practice that could help at least lessen the disparity between the discipline of Black and White students.

Preferred Citation: Emily Peterson. "Racial Inequality in Public School Discipline for Black Students in the United States." Ballard Brief. September 2021. www.ballardbrief.org.
Viewpoints published by Ballard Brief are not necessarily endorsed by BYU or The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

Emily Peterson

Emily Peterson is a history major with minors in social impact and media arts. She grew up in New Jersey where she engaged with peers from diverse racial and socioeconomic backgrounds. She was always interested in social issues and became even more passionate after working with refugee students and their families in high school. She is passionate about racial justice, educational opportunity, and immigration reform. She hopes to work in the nonprofit or political sector in educational advocacy in the United States for students of color.

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Racial Inequality in Public School Discipline for Black Students in the United States - Ballard Brief

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Black students tend to experience harsher disciplinary measures at higher rates than their peers in public schools in the United States.

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A teacher may unconsciously view a single mother as less involved or capable of supporting her child’s education compared to a two-parent household. This bias can affect the teacher’s communication and engagement with the family, potentially leading to misunderstandings and missed opportunities for collaboration.

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Understanding Family Engagement: Unraveling the Difference between Teachers and Parents

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Discover the intriguing perception gap between teachers and parents when it comes to family involvement in education and how invisible family engagement visible and valued, and learn how effective initiatives can build the capacity of both teachers and families.

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Implicit Bias and how it Shapes Teacher Expectations

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Implicit Bias and how it Shapes Teacher Expectations

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This can shape their expectations of students, potentially leading to unequal educational experiences.

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What Is Implicit Bias In Education? - CountyOffice.org

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Scenario 1 : Academic Expectations for diverse students 

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Scenario 1 : Academic Expectations for diverse students 

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A teacher might have lower academic expectations for students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds, believing they are less capable. This bias can result in providing fewer academic challenges and support, limiting the student’s potential.

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The Importance of Diversity & Multicultural Awareness in Education

Drexel University School of Education

Cultural diversity in the classroom is on the rise. In 2014, U.S. public schools hit a minority majority milestone with Latino, African-American, and Asian students having surpassed the number of white students. In 2044, the U.S. Census predicts that over half of the nation's population will be people of color, so this trend will likely continue.

In our increasingly diverse and multicultural society, it's more important than ever for teachers to incorporate culturally responsive instruction in the classroom -- whether teaching elementary school, middle school or high school students. And the increase of diversity doesn't only relate to race and ethnicity; it can include students of different religion, economic status, sexual orientation, gender identity, and language background.

Interested in becoming a teacher? Learn more about Drexel's Teacher Certification program.

Why is it Important to Encourage Diversity in Schools and Workplaces?

Fostering inclusion and awareness around multicultural education and taking a culturally responsive approach to teaching benefits all students. Not only does creating greater multicultural awareness and inclusion help students with different backgrounds and needs succeed, but it encourages acceptance and helps prepare students to thrive in an exponentially diverse world. Our Social, Emotional, and Behavioral Wellness Certificate Program is a great opportunity for teachers to learn how to create positive classroom environments and can serve as a foundation for understanding how to promote diversity in your classroom.

Diversity in and out of the classroom will continue to grow, so it's essential we prepare students to adapt to an evolving world and embrace those different from themselves. Learn more how the programs at the Drexel School of Education are helping to prepare more culturally-responsive educators today.

Types of Cultural Diversity in the Classroom

Every student is unique. In order to properly understand and promote cultural awareness, teachers need to understand all the different types of diversity they may encounter in their classrooms including:

Race

A person's skin color can have a great impact on their experience in society. It can also impact how they view themselves and others when engaging in classroom activities.

Ethnicity

Ethnicity relates to a person's culture and nationality. Ethnicity is sometimes confused with race, but it is important to recognize that while some people may have the same skin color, they may come from different places and have vastly different cultural beliefs and views of the world.

Religion

It is important to understand that people have different religious belief or no religious beliefs, and it may impact their participation in the classroom. Students may react differently to lessons based on their religion or may not be able to be present on certain religious holidays.

Language

While English is commonly used in American classrooms, for some students, it is not the language they speak at home. Accommodations should be made to help students for whom English is a second language.

Socioeconomic Status

A student's socioeconomic status can affect their ability to participate in the classroom without some type of accommodation. For instance, access to a computer at home or reliable internet access is not a given for some children. Teachers should be aware of this and the stress it may cause students who may struggle due to a lack of resources.

Sexual Orientation

A student's sexual orientation can have a great impact on how they are experiencing the world. Teachers should understand the struggles that exist and ensure that the lessons taught in their classroom are inclusive.

Gender Identity

Similar to sexual orientation, it is important to understand each student's gender identity and how they would prefer to be recognized. Teachers should respect their student's identity and use preferred pronouns when interacting with their students.

How can you Promote Diversity and Multiculturalism in the Classroom?

There are several ways teachers and administrators, such as principals and coaches, can ensure that both the classroom environment and curriculum are responsive to the increasing cultural diversity of our society. These strategies will encourage all students' cultural awareness, enhancing each student's sense of identity, and foster inclusion in the classroom community.

1. Get to Know Your Students Ensuring that cultural awareness is promoted in the classroom starts with the teacher understanding each individual student. Take the time to learn about each student's cultural background, hobbies, learning styles, and what makes them unique. Demonstrating a genuine interest in learning about each student and their culture will help establish trust and allow you to form a bond with them so they feel valued. If students feel appreciated by and comfortable with the teacher, there's a better chance they'll feel comfortable talking with and respect their peers in the class - and communication is the core to a culturally aware and inclusive classroom.

2. Maintain Consistent Communication Aside from getting to know your students, teachers should also continue to maintain ongoing communication throughout the semester or school year. Scheduling 1-on-1 meetings with students to "check in" every so often will allow you to consistently improve how accessible the classroom is to everyone. Students can talk about whether they felt included in the classroom culture. This can help identify issues or ways to improve the overall experience. It's also an opportunity to discuss their progress in the class and offer guidance on how they can improve, based on their individual needs as a student.

3. Acknowledge and Respect Every Student It's also important for students to celebrate and respect their own diverse backgrounds, as well as each other's. When appropriate, teachers should encourage students to research and learn about their own ethnic and cultural backgrounds. This allows them to better understand their own culture as well as the differences and nuances with their peers. As a bonus, this can be a great ice breaker assignment, allowing students to give presentations about their family traditions and culture to help expose the class to concepts outside of their own familiar comfort zone. Acknowledging these differences and creating a safe space for discussion helps promote understanding in the classroom and beyond. Also, as you encourage students to learn about their diverse backgrounds, remember to take the time to highlight what's offensive and the distinction between cultural celebration and appropriation. Learning how to talk about other cultures in a respectful, mature way is essential for success in life outside the classroom.

4. Practice Cultural Sensitivity While it's important to keep an open dialogue amongst students, it's equally as important to make sure you're being sensitive to everyone's culture, beliefs, and language concerns. Take the time to understand each student's cultural nuances - from learning styles to the language they use - and use these insights to design your lesson plans. For example, provide English language learners with appropriate and relevant resources that help them improve their English comprehension skills. Rather than teach with a traditional lecture style, create learning experiences that are more interactive and require collaboration. These considerations will help ensure that every student feels included, is given the space to learn in their own way and is given a chance to succeed.

5. Incorporate Diversity in the Lesson Plan The classroom environment is important for fostering cultural awareness, but you also should ensure diversity is represented in your actual lesson plan. For example, broaden history lessons so that they encompass the world beyond United States history and culture. Or, use references and analogies to other cultures in your lessons and assignments to help students with diverse backgrounds personally connect. Another great strategy is bringing in diverse speakers to add varying points of view and real-life context to different subjects.There are several ways you can ingrain cultural awareness and diversity into your lesson plan, and it will vary depending on the cultures represented in your classroom and the course you're teaching. Regardless of the subject, always try to present and connect lessons to real-world issues. It's easier to promote cultural awareness within your lessons when there's a real example for students to relate to.

6. Give Students Freedom and Flexibility Teachers often feel like they need to take on a strict, authoritative approach when it comes to managing their classroom. The most valuable lessons are often learned through a student's own experiences, so giving them some freedom in the course encourages more connection to the curriculum. Allow students to read and present their own materials that relate to the fundamental lesson so they can approach the topic from their own perspective. As a teacher, you can act as a facilitator and encourage conversation and healthy debate between diverse opinions. Group assignments are also a great way to expose students to diverse perspectives, allowing them to work together to explore and solve a problem. This will also help prepare them for a diverse workforce where they'll have to partner with a range of people to accomplish their professional goals.

Why is it Multicultural Education Important to Students?

It is important to remind ourselves why diversity and cultural awareness is so crucial in the classroom and the benefits it can have on students now and in the long-term. Teaching diversity exposes students to various cultural and social groups, preparing students to become better citizens in their communities. These culturally responsive teaching strategies will help you to promote diversity in the classroom.

With these culturally responsive teaching strategies in mind, it's important to remind ourselves why diversity and cultural awareness is so crucial in the classroom and the benefits it can have on students now and in the long-term.

Students Become More Empathetic

Promoting awareness and creating a personal connection with diverse cultures in the classroom can prevent students from developing prejudices later in life. It allows them to empathize with people different from themselves since they're more aware of the experiences someone of a different race or cultural group may face.

Students Gain a Better Understanding of Lessons and People

When working and learning with people from a variety of backgrounds and cultures present in the classroom, students gain a more comprehensive understanding of the subject matter. It also teaches students how to use their own strengths and points of view to contribute in a diverse working environment.

Students Become More Open-Minded

Naturally, by exposing students to a diverse range of opinions, thoughts, and cultural backgrounds, you're encouraging them to be more open-minded later in life. This will make them open to new ideas and be able to attain a greater comprehension on a topic by taking in different points of view.

Students Feel More Confident and Safe

Students who learn about different cultures during their education feel more comfortable and safe with these differences later in life. This allows them to interact in a wider range of social groups and feel more confident in themselves as well as in their interactions with others.

Students Are Better Prepared for a Diverse Workplace

With the rise of globalization, it's more important to be able to work with people from different cultures and social groups. If students are exposed to diversity and learn cultural awareness in the classroom, it sets them up to flourish in the workforce.

Learn More About Cultural Diversity in Education

There are additional resources available to help educators grow their knowledge of cultural diversity and apply it to their classrooms. Here are a few sites where you can find more information:

Additionally, Drexel offers programs that can help broaden a teacher's expertise in multicultural education including our online Teaching English as a Second Language and Social Emotional and Behavioral Wellness certification programs. You can also contact us to request more information.

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The Importance of Multicultural Education - School of Education

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As classrooms become more diverse, it's crucial for students to learn about other cultures. Discover how students benefit from classroom diversity with Drexel.

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Understanding Implicit Bias For teachers 

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Understanding Implicit Bias For teachers 

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Its vital educator understand the importance of understanding implicit bias to change school environments and interactions between educators, families, and children.

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Willingness to Develop Cultural Knowledge

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Willingness to Develop Cultural Knowledge

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Engaging in continuous learning about various cultures, traditions, and worldviews enriches an educator’s ability to connect with students from different backgrounds.

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Willingness to Develop Cultural Knowledge

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Regularly and effectively reflecting on one’s own cultural beliefs, biases, and teaching practices is crucial. Also aids in self awareness for educators.

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How to self-assess your teacher performance and practice

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How to self-assess your teacher performance and practice

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Effectively navigating cultural differences involves understanding and addressing conflicts . This skill ensures that all students feel valued and understood.

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3 Strategies for Managing Today's Students

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Ability to Adapt to the Cultural Needs of the Community:

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Ability to Adapt to the Cultural Needs of the Community:

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Adapting teaching methods and materials to align with the cultural contexts of students enhances relevance and effectiveness.

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Fairfax Network - Fairfax County Public Schools

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Cultural Competence: Segment 4--The Four Stages of Cultural Competence